MODULE 5, LESSON 12: ORGAN SYSTEMS OF ANIMALS

Introduction

After discussing the process of genetic engineering as well as the risks and benefits of GMOs, we have
come to know that it is indeed possible to alter the genetic material of an organism to improve its
characteristics which might help in increasing the chances of adapting in the environment and survival.
You see, the alteration in the structure of organisms will generally have an effect to their organ systems
and how they perform their day-to-day activities. Today, we will be proceeding with another topic in order
to learn about the characteristics of different organ systems in animals and the physiological processes in
the organ systems to understand the different diseases such as phenylketonuria which may be
associated with the organ systems.

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

a. describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in representative
animals;
b. analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ systems in ensuring
animal survival; and
c. synthesize the various functions of the organ systems in the day-today activity of an individual.

Discussion

Nutrient Absorption in Cell

 The nutrients that the body needs come from food. These nutrients are absorbed by the body during
digestion. Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into simple, soluble compounds in
the digestive tract. It involves mechanical and chemical processes.

1. Mechanical Process - During the mechanical process, the food is broken down into small
particles that are mixed with the digestive juices. This process starts in the mouth and continues
into the stomach.
2. Chemical process - During the chemical process, also known as hydrolysis, digestive enzyme
changes food particles into soluble forms that can be easily absorbed. For example, enzymes
change carbohydrates into simple sugars, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol. The chemical process starts in the mouth and continues into the small intestine.

 After the food undergoes mechanical and chemical processes, the nutrients are absorbed in the small
intestine and into the bloodstream. Then they are passed to different cells where they are used in
metabolic processes. For instance, the liver cells contain enzymes which use the nutrients to form
complex molecules.
 Absorption is the passage of nutrients through the intestinal walls and into the blood. The primary site
of absorption is the small intestine.
 The villi, which are tiny finger-like projections, trap the nutrients which are taken in by the adjacent
cells. The capillaries, tiny blood vessels contained in the villi, serve as the passageway for the
nutrients to reach the general blood circulation. These nutrients are carried by the blood to the liver
and from there, distributed to various organs and tissues. The body is able to digest and absorb about
90% to 98% nutrients of a mixed diet.
 Metabolism is a process that converts absorbed nutrients into energy needed for repair, growth, and
development of organisms. All types of metabolism happen at the cellular level,
specifically intracellular or inside the cell. When metabolism results in building new substances, it is
called anabolism. If the nature of metabolism is destructive, it is called catabolism. Numerous complex
biochemical changes occur within the cells through anabolic and catabolic processes.
 When the cells in the body need energy, a series of catabolic reactions occur. Catabolism happens in
the mitochondria, which act as a 'furnace' that burns food energy. The presence of oxygen is
necessary for the release of energy by the cells. The process of combining oxygen to a molecule is
called oxidation.
 The figure below shows what happens to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins as they undergo catabolic
processes. As they undergo digestion and absorption, soluble forms of food are converted to energy in
the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is often called the energy currency molecule of the
cells.
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates can be converted to usable energy through glycolysis. Glycolysis is an anaerobic
process (does not require oxygen) that happens in the cytosol. This process converts glucose into
pyruvates while producing a small amount of energy. After glycolysis, the pyruvates pass through the
cytosol and goes into the mitochondria.
 When the cells need energy, aerobic reactions (require oxygen) occur in the mitochondria. Each
molecule of pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA molecule. The acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb's cycle,
which generates ATP. Overall, the complete breakdown of glucose yields to carbon dioxide, water,
and ATP.

Fats
 Fats can be converted into energy through beta-oxidation. Triglycerides, the dietary form of fat, are
first broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Fatty acids contain almost all the energy found in triglycerides. Their breakdown occurs in the
mitochondria. To enter the mitochondria, they are first activated through linking with coenzyme A.
Carnitine then transports the activated fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane. Once the fatty
acids reach the mitochondria, a process called beta-oxidation strips up the fatty acids and converts
 them to molecules of acetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb's cycle. The complete breakdown of
fatty acids yields carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Proteins
 Proteins are not the major sources of energy. However, when there are no carbohydrates and fats
available for energy production, proteins can be the alternative source. During the starvation state, the
body breaks down protein and extracts the energy needed by the body from the amino acids.
 To use amino acids as a source of energy, they must undergo the process of deamination. In this
process, the amino group (-NH) is stripped off, leaving the "carbon skeleton". The carbon skeleton is
used by the liver to produce energy. The type of amino acid where the carbon skeleton came from
determines whether it would be converted to pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, ketone body, or other
intermediates of the Kreb's cycle. The breakdown of the amino acid yields urea, carbon dioxide, water,
and ATP.

Gas Exchange

 Gas exchange in animals refers to the exchange of respiratory gases – uptake of molecular oxygen
and discharge of carbon dioxide. This process follows the principle of diffusion, the movement of
molecules from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
 Animals have different respiratory structures used for gas exchange. Important respiratory structures
include the gills, the tracheal system, the skin, and the lungs.

Gills
 Fish and other aquatic animals have gills that are used to take in dissolved oxygen in water. When the
oral valve in their mouth opens, it draws the water into the buccal cavity. The opercular cavity, where
the gills are housed, then closes. When the oral valve closes, the operculum (gill cover) opens to
move out the water through the gills.

 In the gill filament, the blood in the capillaries flows in a direction opposite to the water flow. This
opposite flow allows for countercurrent exchange, the exchange of materials between two fluids
flowing in opposite directions. As a result, the oxygen molecules diffuse from water
(higher O2 concentration) to the blood (lower O2 concentration). This mechanism maximizes gas
exchange efficiency because if both fluids flow in the same direction, the concentration difference will
decrease rapidly.
Tracheal System
 The tracheal system is common in insects. This system does not need the direct participation of the
circulatory system to transport O2 and CO2 since the air can diffuse directly to the cells.
 In every segment of the insect’s abdomen, there are pairs of openings called spiracles, where air
enters and leaves the body. These openings connect to the tubular network called trachea that
eventually branches into tracheoles. When the oxygen reaches the tracheoles, it diffuses into the
cytoplasm of a nearby body cell. On the other hand, CO2, which is formed as waste product, diffuses
out of the cell and eventually out of the body through the tracheal system. Another part of the tracheal
system is the air sac which serves as an air reservoir.

Skin
 Amphibians, earthworms, and some turtles can breathe through their skin in a process
called cutaneous respiration. They respire through their skin when they are submerged in water or
damp areas. It is important for them to keep their skin moist to allow efficient cutaneous respiration. To
avoid desiccation, their skin secretes mucus through the mucus glands.
 Cutaneous respiration also occurs through concurrent exchange, where the direction of the absorbed
oxygen is directly opposite the circulation of the blood in the skin.
 Though many amphibians can breathe through their skin in water, note that they also have lungs that
they use for breathing on land.

Lungs

 The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in mammals. During respiration, the air has to go
through different organs before reaching the lungs. When air is inhaled, it passes through a windpipe
called trachea.
 The trachea then divides the air into air passages called the bronchial tubes or bronchi located at the
lungs. Upon reaching the lungs, the air passes through smaller airways called the bronchioles with tiny
balloon-like air sacs called the alveoli at their ends.
 Capillaries, a network of tiny blood vessels, surround the alveoli. These vessels are the sites of gas
exchange. After the deoxygenated blood in the capillaries absorbs the oxygen from the alveoli walls, it
travels to the heart which in turn, pumps it throughout the body to provide oxygen to the cells. On the
other hand, CO2 produced by the cells is carried by the blood back to the lungs where it is removed
through exhalation.
Immune System

 The immune system is a collection of cells, organs, and processes that protect the body against
foreign substances that can cause certain diseases. Immunity is the body’s ability to fight certain
illnesses, damages, and diseases caused by microbes.

Parts of Immune System

1. The bone marrow is responsible for the production of different types of white blood cells which
provide defense against infections.
2. The lymph nodes are structures that analyze destroyed cells and find molecules
called antigens which stimulate an immune response, such as activating white blood cells.
3. The spleen acts as a large lymph node capable of destroying and segregating malfunctioning
cells as well as old cells.

 There are two basic types of immunity: the innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
 Innate immunity provides immediate actions to protect the body against pathogenic microbes and
other toxins. This type of immunity is the first line of defense in the body. It treats all microbes in the
same way.
Cells involved in innate immunity response

 Macrophages are white blood cells that engulf cell debris, bacteria, and
viruses by the process known as phagocytosis.

 Neutrophils are white blood cells that are smaller than macrophages, but they
can also engulf viruses and bacteria.

 Mast cells are abundant in connective tissues. They can mediate

inflammatory responses, such as allergic reactions and hypersensitivity.

 Dendritic cells are specialized cells which serve as messengers between

innate and adaptive immune response by processing antigens to be
recognized by the lymphocytes.

 Adaptive immunity refers to a highly specific mechanism of the immune system that recognizes a
particular pathogenic microbe. This type of immunity provides a long-lasting protection because it has
the ability to remember its actions to a particular antigen.

Cells involved in adaptive immune response

 Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells that determine the specific response of the
immune system to a particular infection.
 Specific lymphocytes called B-lymphocytes are able to produce antibodies that destroy foreign
substances while other lymphocytes called T-lymphocytes can recognize, respond, and recall
(immune memory) antigens.
Hormones

 Hormones are organic substances released by the glands of the endocrine system directly into the
bloodstream. The hormone-releasing glands are the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal, testicle, and ovary. Hormones are capable of changing the
physiological and metabolic behavior of their target cells to maintain homeostasis.

Types of Hormones Based on Chemical Structures

 Peptide and protein hormones are water-soluble hormones that are comprised of amino acids linked
via peptide bonds. They are mainly responsible for the regulation of growth and development. An
example of a peptide hormone is insulin which is made up of 51 amino acid residues. This hormone
regulates the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates by promoting absorption of glucose.
 Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble hormones derived from cholesterol. They help control salt and
water balance, metabolism, immune functions, and inflammation. Cortisol is an example of a steroid
hormone which controls some of the body's metabolism including the deposition of glucose in the liver.
 Amino acid derivatives are hormones derived from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. They
function as promoters of metabolism and immunity. One example is a thyroid hormone known
as epinephrine or adrenaline. This hormone plays a role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing
blood flow to muscles.
 Fatty acid derivatives are hormones derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids. They are also
called eicosanoids. They are mainly responsible for regulating blood pressure and blood
clotting. Prostaglandin is an example of a fatty acid derivative that is responsible for uterine
contractions.
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Below are some examples of
hormones secreted by specific glands.
The Nervous System

 The nervous system is composed of the brain, the spinal cord, and the neurons. It is considered as the
body’s storage center and control system. It is mainly responsible for controlling and coordinating all
the organ systems by sending messages from the brain through nerve signals. It makes sure that all
the parts of the body are working together efficiently.

 The nervous system is divided into two major parts: Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous
System.
Central Nervous System
 The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.

 The brain lies within the skull and shaped like a mushroom. It is subdivided into four parts: brain stem,
cerebrum, cerebellum, and diencephalon.

 The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and the mesencephalon continuing
down to the spinal cord. It coordinates motor signals from the brain to the body and controls life
supporting autonomic functions of the peripheral system. This is also where the facial nerves,
which controls your facial expressions, is located.
 The cerebrum is the bulk of the brain responsible for administering intelligence, emotion learning,
and critical judgement. It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls the
body’s activities opposite that hemisphere.
 The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain responsible for fine-tuning the body and
limb movements.
 The diencephalon is also known as the forebrain. It includes the thalamus and hypothalamus.
o Thalamus is responsible for receiving information from the sensory organs and deliver
them to cerebrum for other processes.
o Hypothalamus is the site of hunger, thirst, anger, and internal body temperature.
 The spinal cord is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons. It serves as a bridge between the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. It is responsible for delivering messages from the
CNS to PNS and vice-versa.

Peripheral Nervous System

 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is mainly composed of neurons. Neurons, also known as nerve
cells, are the basic units of the nervous system that communicate within the body by sending
electrochemical signals. Their tree-like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up
stimuli from the environment, and the long transmitting processes called axons extend from the body
cell to send signals to other neurons. Nerves are bundles of axons that act as information highways
that carry signals between the brain and the spinal cord and the rest of the body.
 PNS can be classified into two groups: Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous system.
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is responsible for the voluntary movement of the muscles and organs
and the reflex movement.
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is responsible for controlling the involuntary movement of the
visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue. It makes your heartbeat and
breathing constantly working. The neurons of the ANS is classified into sympathetic neurons and
parasympathetic neurons.

 Sympathetic neurons initiate the “fight or flight” response of the body to stress, danger,
excitement, and other emotions. It increases respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and
other stress hormones, and decreases digestion.
 Parasympathetic neurons initiate the “rest and digest” response to rest, relaxation, and feeding. It
decreases respiration, increase digestion, and allows elimination of wastes.

Learning Tasks

A. Making a Report

Choose one animal which will be the topic of your report. You may choose your own pet if you have one
or other animals whichever you prefer. Answer the following questions below and make a short report (at
most two pages) about this task. The format of your report is given below.

1. What are the unique characteristics of the organ systems of the animal you have chosen?
2. What are the functions or roles played by each organ system in the day-to-day activities of the
chosen animal?
3. What are the different diseases associated with the different organ systems of animals? Briefly
elaborate each.
4. How do the organ systems work hand-in-hand in order to ensure the survival of that specific
animal?
 Name: Date:
Subject: Section:

Animal Chosen: _______________

Organ System Unique Characteristics Functions Associated Diseases (with brief

explanation)
Digestive System
Respiratory
System
Circulatory System
Nervous System
Immune System
Endocrine System
Reproductive
System

Summary indicating the relationship of one organ system to another:

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Your report will be evaluated using this rubric:

Criteria Points
Accuracy and Organization of Information and Ideas 15
Relevance to the Topic 10
Timeliness 5
Total 30

B. Identification Quiz

Answer the following 10-item quiz. Your score after taking the quiz will be recorded. Good luck!

1. The primary site of absorption in animals is __________.

2. For animals to have usable energy, the process known as __________ converts glucose into
pyruvates while producing a small amount of energy which animals can use to perform their daily
activities.
3. Amphibians, earthworms and some turtles are able to breathe through their skin in the process
known as __________.
4. The sites of gas exchange in mammals are the __________.
5. The __________ is responsible for the production of different types of white blood cells which
provide defense against infections.
6. The second line of defense against pathogens is called __________ immunity and has the ability
to recognize and remember specific pathogens through their antigens.
7. The _________ is the hormone which regulates the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates by
promoting absorption of glucose.
8. Testosterone which promotes male secondary sex characteristics and production of sperm cells
is produced by the __________.
9. The __________ is the part of the brain responsible for administering intelligence, emotion
learning, and critical judgement.
10. Nerve cells, also known as __________, are the basic units of the nervous system that
communicate within the body by sending electrochemical signals.
References

Dela Cruz, A.C., Remotigue, C.T., Dizon Jr., E.A., Dizon, Z.S., Listanco, E.L., Tabugo, S.R.M., Diaz,
M.G.Q., Estacion, J.S., Crisologo, D.T., Guce, J.R.M. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High
School. Earth and Life Science—Core Subject. Commission on Higher Education.

Prepared and submitted by:

Leslee Anne G. Cortez

Teacher, DIHS