Development in

Middle Adulthood
中年期(middle adulthood)係指40~65歲的成年人

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

physical changes 生理改變
◼ Noticeable midlife physical changes include:
 Wrinkling and sagging of skin. 皺紋
 Appearance of aging spots.
 Hair becomes thinner and grayer.
 Nails become thicker and more brittle with ridges.
 Yellowing of teeth.
◼ Being middle-aged is perceived as positive
for men and negative for women.
◼ Height shrinks in middle age, and many gain
weight—a critical health problem in middle
adulthood. 體重增加
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ Age-related loss of muscle mass and
strength can be reduced by regular exercise.
肌肉鬆弛
◼ Joint stiffness and difficulty of movement
usually accompany a progressive loss of
bone in middle age. 骨質疏鬆
◼ The sharpest decline in vision occurs
between ages 40 and 59 as the eye’s blood
supply diminishes. 遠視、散光
◼ Hearing starts to decline about age 40,
with men losing sensitivity to high-pitched
sounds earlier than women.
高頻率聲音
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ Midlife is often a time for high blood pressure, high
cholesterol, and cardiovascular disease. 高血壓

◼ At menopause, a woman’s blood pressure

rises sharply, remaining higher than that
of men into the later years.停經

◼ At about age 55, lung tissue becomes less elastic;

nonsmokers have the best lung capacity.肺活量

◼ Sleep has more wakeful periods, with more time

spent lying in bed—more tiredness in the mornings.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Only 7% of people in their early 40s have disabilities,
compared with 16% in their early 50s, and 30% in
their early 60s.

◼ Chronic disorders are: 慢性病

 Rare in early adulthood but increase in middle age.
 Characterized by slow onset and long duration.

◼ Men have higher rates of fatal chronic conditions,

while women have higher rates of nonfatal chronic
conditions.

◼ Stress is a key factor in disease, especially if

cumulative. 壓力
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ Acute stressors cause poor immune
system functioning, but chronic stressors can
cause an increasing weakening of the immune
system.免疫系統功能

◼ Emotional stability and personality are linked to

health in middle adulthood—the healthiest being
the most responsible, self-controlled, and the
calmest.

◼ Culture plays an important role in coronary

disease—immigration modifies healthy practices
even as genetic predispositions remain constant.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ There is a stronger link between
coronary disease and Type A behavior
patterns than Type B behavior patterns.

◼ Hardiness is a personality style that

can lessen the effects of stress—when
accompanied by regular exercise
and positive social support, it can help
maintain good health.耐性

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Chronic diseases are the main cause of death
during middle adulthood:
 Leading cause of death is heart disease.
 Second leading cause is cancer.
 Third leading cause is cerebrovascular
disease.

◼ Although most menopausal women report

having hot flashes and other effects, the
majority of them felt relieved that their
childbearing years were over.熱潮紅

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ The average age for menopause is 51 but varies from ages
39 to 59—the majority of women remain sexually active and
retain their femininity.
◼ Cross-cultural studies show that the menopausal
experience varies among women, but it is not generally as
negative as it is thought to be.
◼ Postmenopausal hormone treatments have been linked to
increased risk of stroke, dementia, and cancer.
◼ Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for women is
controversial.
◼ Testosterone levels in men gradually drop in middle
adulthood decreasing sexual ability and activity, but several
therapies and techniques can improve performance.睪固酮
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
內分泌與生殖系統改變
◼ 卵巢與睪丸的功能逐漸退化，造成女性性腺所製

造的雌性素(estrogen)、黃體素(progesterone)以
及男性性腺所製造的睪固酮(testosterone)都會大
量減少
◼ 因性荷爾蒙的改變，造成生殖系統與性器官出現

一連串的生理變化，此過程稱為更年期
(climacteric)

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

• 圖10-1 女性更年期常見的症狀
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Development 認知發展
◼ Crystallized intelligence晶體智力(理解能力)
— an individual‘s accumulated
information and verbal skills— increases in
middle adulthood
◼ Fluid intelligence流體智力(記憶力、聯想力)
— ability to reason abstractly— begins to
decline. 23-30歲時達顛峰

◼ Some studies show middle adulthood is a

time when cognitive functioning peaks, but
the rate of information-processing
decreases in most.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ The Seattle Longitudinal Study—extensive
study in intellectual abilities in adulthood years:
 Peak performance on vocabulary, verbal
memory, inductive reasoning, and spatial
orientation was attained in middle age.
 Numerical ability and perceptual speed
decline.
 Declines in memory, word fluency, and
perceptual speed in middle adulthood were
linked to neuropsychologists’ ratings of
individuals‘ cognitive impairment in late
adulthood.長期記憶的改變較明顯

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ 認知發展
成人認知發展階段－史凱依(Schaie)
◼ 是從成年期的達成階段延續發展到中年期的負
責及執行階段
◼ 不再以自我學習及成長為目標，而是將重心轉
至自己的家庭，包括負起奉養年邁父母的責任
及子女的教養義務
◼ 開始關心社會，成為重要貢獻的執行者

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Careers, Work, and Leisure職業
◼ Work is central to one’s life during middle age.
◼ In the U.S., about 80% of people aged 40 to 59
work.
◼ Midlife is a time of evaluation, assessment, and
reflection about work roles and future goals.
◼ Overall, job satisfaction steadily increases
throughout one’s working life—usually from age
20 to 60.
 This pattern applies to both men and women.
 This pattern applies to both college- and non-
college-educated adults.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ As workers enter middle age, there is a greater
commitment to work and less absenteeism.
◼ Currently, middle-aged workers face
many challenges:
 Globalization and exporting of jobs.
 Rapid development in technologies.
 Downsizing and restructuring of companies.
 Early retirement—forced or due to buyouts.
◼ Leisure is an important aspect of middle
adulthood due to changes in relationships and
career.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Religion and Meaning in Life 信念
A majority of middle-aged adults are religious
and consider spirituality a major part of their
lives.
 Spirituality significantly increases from the
early 30s to the late 60s and early 70s.
 Females are more interested and active in
both organized and personal forms of religion
than men.
 Americans show strong belief in God and
religion but show declining faith in mainstream
religions, religious leaders, and the moral
stature of the nation.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ Many have pondered the meaning of life—the
search may come after great personal losses.

◼ Frankl identified three most distinct human

qualities as:
 Spirituality.
 Freedom.
 Responsibility.

◼ In middle adulthood, the reality of approaching

death forces one to ask questions and
evaluate the answers.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ Baumeister has argued that the
quest for the meaning of life may
be understood in terms of 4 needs:
 Purpose.
 Values.
A sense of efficacy.
 Self-worth.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Personality Theories and
Development 人格發展理論
◼ Many personality and development
theories of middle age have adult stages:
 Erikson’s
“generativity versus stagnation”
創造 vs 停滯
◼ Generativity is highly related to intimacy.
◼ Middle-aged adults develop generativity
through parenting, work, and culture.
 Levinson’s
“seasons of a man’s life”
emphasizes developmental tasks.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Items Used to Assess Generativity and
Identity Certainty

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Levinson’s research: Transition to middle
adulthood lasts about 5 years (ages 40 to 45)
and requires that men come to grips with
conflicts existing since adolescence:
 Being old instead of being young.
 Being constructive, not destructive.
 Dealing with gender issues of masculine roles.
 Being attached to, not separated from, others.

◼ Smooth midlife transition brings acceptance of

past and adjustment may include memory
distortion.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Levinson’s Period of Adult
Development

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 中年危機(middle crisis)
➢ 這個名詞最初是由楊格(Jung, 1968)和賈金斯
(Jacgues, 1967)所提出，認為這是開始進入中年期
的一段情緒發展，持續時間長短因人而異，若能將
危機化為轉機，則其人格將因此而更穩重與成熟。
➢ 發生中年危機的原因有五項：

生理因素

事業發展遲滯

教養子女的壓力

婚姻關係失調

照顧年邁父母的壓力
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ How pervasive are midlife crises?
Results of longitudinal study of over
3,000 Americans from 25 to 72 years of
age:
 26% had a crisis, but attributed it to
negative life events, not aging.
 The middle-aged felt they had more control
of their work, more financial security—a
greater sense of autonomy.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ The contemporary life events approach is an
alternative to age-related stage of development:
 Life events, like death of spouse, marriage,
and divorce, cause varying degrees of stress.

 Mediating factors like physical health and

family support can reduce stress effects and
allow more effective coping strategies.

 Weaknesses of life events approach include

too much emphasis on change, and what are
primary sources of stress.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 A Contemporary Life-Events Framework for
Interpreting Adult Developmental Change
Life-stage context

Life event:
Marriage
Widowhood
New job
Accident
Birth of child Adaptation process
Appraisal Coping Adult
development
Mediating of threat strategies change
variables:
Physical health
Intelligence
Personality
Family supports
Income
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sociohistorical context
中年期的發展任務－沛克(Peck)
◼ 由體力取向轉為智慧定位
應做建設性的調整，即接受身體功能的逐漸退
化，對體力不再倚靠，而改以重視自身聰明才
智的價值，即智慧的顯現
◼ 人際關係自性關係轉為社會化的結合
將自己定位在一個完整的個體及被摯愛的伴侶
，並且將他人視為友伴來相處，故人際關係變
得社會化且具有意義

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ 感情的投入由固執轉為彈性

此部分對中年人尤其重要，因為他們大多開
始經歷父母過世、成年子女離家、失去從事
某些活動（如劇烈運動、高空彈跳等）的能
力及各種社會人際關係的變動。
◼ 心理活動的彈性對抗僵化

太仰賴既有的觀念，故對新事物顯得保守與
排斥，對於解決問題的能力亦被侷限

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Stability and Change
◼ The Kansas City Study was a longitudinal study on
people ages 40 to 80 over a 10-year period:
 Stylesof coping characterized stability in aging.
 Most change in aging comes from becoming more
passive and being less threatened by the
environment.
◼ The Baltimore Study used 5 factors of personality to
study college-educated persons aged 20 to 96
starting from the 1950s and continuing today:
 Age trends were consistent across cultures surveyed.
 Younger adults were more extraverted.
 Older adults
© 2008were more
The McGraw-Hill agreeable
Companies, and conscientious.
Inc. All rights reserved.
 Five Big Factors of Personality
Extraversion:外向 Agreeableness: 親善
Sociable or retiring Softhearted or ruthless
Fun-loving or somber Trusting or suspicious
Affectionate or reserved Helpful or uncooperative

Openness:開放
Imaginative or practical
Interested in variety or routine
Independent or conforming

Emotional stability:情緒穩定 Conscientiousness:謹慎

Calm or anxious Organized or disorganized
Secure or insecure Careful or careless
Self-satisfied or self-pitying Disciplined or impulsive

Fig. 17.8 © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 五大人格特徵的穩定與改變
◼ 相當多有關人格特徵的研究都圍繞著所謂「五大
特質」在進行，因為這五大特質包括了五項主要
的人格特質：
1. 神經質：一個人的狀態是喜怒無常的、焦慮的、
或律己嚴格的。
2. 外向性：外向或害羞的程度。
3. 開放性：個人好奇及對新的體驗有興趣的程度。
4. 親善性：對人隨和以及樂於助人的程度。
5. 謹慎性：有系統及有責任感的程度。

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ McCrae and colleagues found consistent age
trends in personality in several cultures, with few
cultural variables.
◼ Berkeley Longitudinal Studies: 1920s
through today:
 No support that personality is characterized by
changes or stability from adolescence to
midlife.
 Intellectually oriented, self-confidence, and
openness were the more stable traits.
 Ability to nurture and self-control changed most.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

發展心理學家卡司塔和麥克逵(McCrae)
➢ 有些特質會特別穩定：沉著穩重的20歲人到了75
歲仍是沉著穩重；充滿深情的25歲人會成為充滿
深情的50歲；26歲混亂的人到了60歲仍然混亂。
➢ 同樣地，30歲的自我概念可能也代表著80歲時的
自我概念。
➢ 例如一些研究指出，有自信的青少年，在55歲左
右時會變得更有自信；而膽小的人同時變得更沒
有自信。

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
正向情緒表現的縱貫式資料
◼ 較多正向情緒表現的女性，傾向表現高度合作和
能力，其人格特性顯示出較好的人際關係和認知
技巧，隨著時間增加也傾向變得更有能力、更有
組織、更為聚焦和具成就導向；此外，他們傾向
敘述較少負面情緒，且隨著時間其負面情緒亦降
低。
◼ 有較正面情緒的人們也可能較外向與積極。
◼ 看似受限和不重要的成年早期之正面情緒，竟然
可以預測這麼長久以後的人格發展及生活事件。

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Vaillant’s studies: 1920s through today:
 Alcohol abuse and smoking at age 50 was best
predictor of death between ages 75 and 80.
 Factors at age 50 which are best predictors of
“happy-well” between ages 75 and 80:
◼ Regular exercise and avoiding being overweight.
◼ Well-educated and future oriented.

◼ Having a stable marriage and good coping skills.

◼ Being thankful, forgiving, and empathic.

◼ Being active with other people.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Mills College Study: late 1950s to 1980s:
 Midlife crisis was really midlife consciousness.
 Similarities in concerns found between
women in early 40s and Levinson’s findings.
 Between ages 27 and early 40s, women
shifted toward less traditional feminine
attitudes
 Menopause, caring for aging parents, and
empty nest were not linked to increased self-
control and responsibility.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

轉戰─及再出發─中年期的工作
◼ 對某些人來說，中年期帶來了對改變的渴
望。
◼ 例如有些人可能因對工作感到失望，有些
人在失業一段時間後找到新工作，亦有些
人是重回到多年前的工作職場中，他們的
發展路徑導致自己走向另一新的工作。

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

空巢期的婚姻調適

➢ 大部分的中年夫妻對婚姻滿意度會增
加，尤其是中年女性更能感覺到此時
是婚姻生活的新階段，其原因為：
◼ 經濟安全感

◼ 卸下養育子女重擔的輕鬆感

◼ 由彼此互動增加中找回的相依親密感

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Contrary to what would be expected from the
empty nest syndrome, marital satisfaction may
increase after the children have left.空巢症候群
◼ In today’s world, stress often results when the
empty nest refills with adult children
returning home to live for various reasons.
◼ The most common complaint from children
returning to refill the nest is “loss of privacy”
and parents’ restrictions on behaviors.
◼ Relationships between adult children and
mothers appear to be closer than those
with fathers.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ 事實上，子女離家可能會帶來一些可觀的好處。
已婚的配偶能有更多的時間彼此相處。
◼ 已婚的人都能讓自己全心投入職場，而不用再擔
心小孩的學業、共乘汽車以及類似的問題。房屋
保持得很乾淨，電話也很少再響了。
◼ 記住，大部分研究調查所謂的空巢症候群是以女
性為主。
◼ 因為男人傳統上在教養孩子上不像女人干預得多
，當子女離家後男人將會假裝有一個相當平靜的
過渡期。
◼ 然而，至少一些研究顯示，當子女離開後男人也
會經歷失落的感覺，儘管失落的本質也許和女人
不同。
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
➢ 中年夫妻有個特定的滿意度來源。例如，一個調查
指出，男人和女人說明配偶是自己「最好的朋友」
，他們跟別人一樣喜歡他們的配偶。
➢ 他們也傾向視婚姻為長期的承諾，且與自己的目標
一致。
➢ 最後，大部分的人也覺得自己的配偶在婚姻的過程
中愈成長愈有趣。
➢ 性生活滿意度與一般的婚姻快樂有關。多久有一次
性行為通常不是重點；重要的是對性生活是否達成
共識。
➢ 如果性交次數很重要的話，那麼大部分的夫妻都會
不滿意；因為性交次數傾向隨著年齡下降。

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
◼ Some of the main reasons men and women
seek divorce in middle adulthood:
 Women:
◼ Verbal, physical, or emotional abuse.
◼ Alcohol or drug abuse.

◼ Cheating.

 Men:
◼ No obvious reason; just fell out of love.
◼ Cheating.

◼ Different values or lifestyles.

◼ Divorce can have both positive and negative

effects, and reasons greatly vary among
individuals.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
三明治世代：在子女和父母之間
◼ 在子女離家的同時，或者返家成為復歸的子女的
同時，許多中年人會面臨另外一項挑戰：為了照
顧年邁雙親責任增加。
◼ 「三明治世代」這名詞是用來指在子女和年邁雙
親雙方的需求中感到被擠壓的中年人。
◼ 成為三明治世代的角色相對地也是一個新的現象
，由幾個趨勢聚集而產生。
◼ 身處夾心一代的中年人，必須滿足長輩及晚輩的
各種需要，個人自身的需要則必須調整至次要。

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

◼ Similarity between parents and an
adult child is often most noticeable in
religion and politics.

◼ Differences between parents and an adult

child are most noticeable in gender roles,
lifestyle, and work orientation.

◼ Sometimes middle-aged adults are the

“sandwich generation” — caring for their own
children and their parents.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.