Turbo machinery blue print objectives

73. Understand the classification of turbo machines

Turbo machines are devices that convert energy between a fluid and a rotor or impeller. Turbo
machines can be classified into different categories based on their design, function, and operating
characteristics. Here is an overview of the main categories of turbo machines:
1. Centrifugal pumps:
Centrifugal pumps are used to move fluids by converting rotational energy from an impeller to
kinetic energy in the fluid. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the impeller and is
accelerated by the rotating blades. The kinetic energy of the fluid is then converted to pressure
energy as the fluid is forced through the pump casing and out of the discharge port. Centrifugal
pumps are commonly used for pumping liquids such as water, oil, and chemicals.
2. Axial flow pumps:
Axial flow pumps are similar to centrifugal pumps, but the flow of fluid is primarily parallel to the
axis of the impeller. Axial flow pumps are used for pumping large volumes of low-pressure fluids,
such as water in irrigation systems or cooling water in power plants.
3. Centrifugal compressors:
Centrifugal compressors are used to compress gases by converting kinetic energy from a rotating
impeller to pressure energy in the gas. The gas enters the compressor through the center of the
impeller and is accelerated by the rotating blades. The kinetic energy of the gas is then converted
to pressure energy as the gas is forced through the compressor casing and out of the discharge port.
Centrifugal compressors are commonly used in industrial and process applications, such as air
compression, refrigeration, and natural gas processing.
4. Axial flow compressors:
Axial flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but the flow of gas is primarily
parallel to the axis of the impeller. Axial flow compressors are used in aviation and gas turbine
engines to compress air for combustion.
5. Radial flow turbines:
Radial flow turbines are used to convert fluid pressure and kinetic energy into rotational energy.
The fluid enters the turbine through nozzles or vanes, which direct the fluid onto the blades of the
rotor. The fluid then passes over the blades, causing the rotor to rotate and convert the fluid energy
into mechanical energy. Radial flow turbines are commonly used in hydroelectric power plants
and steam turbines in power generation.
6. Axial flow turbines:
Axial flow turbines are similar to radial flow turbines, but the flow of fluid is primarily parallel to
the axis of the rotor. Axial flow turbines are commonly used in gas turbine engines and jet engines
to convert the energy of the exhaust gases into mechanical energy to drive the compressor and
other engine components.
7. Mixed flow turbines:
Mixed flow turbines are a combination of radial and axial flow turbines, with the fluid flow
entering the turbine at an angle to the rotor axis and exiting at a different angle. Mixed flow
turbines are used in a variety of applications, including power generation, marine propulsion, and
turbochargers for internal combustion engines.
In summary, turbo machines can be classified into different categories based on their design,
function, and operating characteristics. The main categories of turbo machines include centrifugal
pumps, axial flow pumps, centrifugal compressors, axial flow compressors, radial flow turbines,
axial flow turbines, and mixed flow turbines. The selection of the appropriate type of turbo
machine depends on the specific application requirements, including the fluid properties, flow rate,
pressure, and temperature range, as well as the desired efficiency and performance characteristics.
74. Understand the principles of operation of turbo machines
Turbo machines are devices that convert energy between a fluid and a rotor or impeller. Turbo
machines operate on the principle of fluid dynamics, which involves the study of the behavior of
fluids in motion. The basic principle of operation of turbo machines involves the conversion of
energy between the fluid and the rotor or impeller by using a combination of pressure, velocity,
and kinetic energy.
The principles of operation of different types of turbo machines are as follows:
1. Centrifugal pumps:
Centrifugal pumps operate on the principle of centrifugal force, which is the force that pulls objects
away from the center of rotation. The pump contains an impeller with curved blades that is rotated
by an electric motor. As the impeller rotates, it creates a centrifugal force that pushes the fluid
outward and increases the pressure. The fluid is then forced through the pump casing and out of
the discharge port.
2. Axial flow pumps:
Axial flow pumps operate on the principle of axial flow, which is the flow of fluid parallel to the
axis of the impeller. The pump contains an impeller with angled blades that is rotated by an electric
motor. As the impeller rotates, it creates a pressure gradient that causes the fluid to flow in a linear
direction parallel to the axis of the impeller.
3. Centrifugal compressors:
Centrifugal compressors operate on the principle of centrifugal force, which is the force that pulls
objects away from the center of rotation. The compressor contains an impeller with curved blades
that is rotated by a turbine or motor. As the impeller rotates, it accelerates the incoming gas or air,
increasing its velocity and kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is then converted to pressure energy
as the gas is forced through the compressor casing and out of the discharge port.
4. Axial flow compressors:
Axial flow compressors operate on the principle of axial flow, which is the flow of gas parallel to
the axis of the impeller. The compressor contains a series of rotating and stationary blades that
compress the gas as it flows through the compressor. The rotating blades accelerate the gas, while
the stationary blades convert the kinetic energy into pressure.

5. Radial flow turbines:

Radial flow turbines operate on the principle of fluid pressure and kinetic energy conversion. The
turbine contains a rotor with curved blades that is rotated by a fluid flow, such as high-pressure
water or steam. The fluid enters the turbine through nozzles or vanes, which direct the fluid onto
the blades of the rotor. The fluid then passes over the blades, causing the rotor to rotate and convert
the fluid energy into mechanical energy.
6. Axial flow turbines:
Axial flow turbines operate on the principle of axial flow, which is the flow of gas parallel to the
axis of the rotor. The turbine contains a series of rotating and stationary blades that convert the
energy of a gas flow into mechanical energy. The gas flow enters the turbine through nozzles or
vanes that direct the flow onto the blades of the rotor. The rotating blades accelerate the gas flow,
while the stationary blades convert the kinetic energy into pressure and direct the flow onto the
next set of rotating blades.
7. Mixed flow turbines:
Mixed flow turbines operate on a combination of radial and axial flow principles. The turbine
contains a rotor with a combination of curved and angled blades that is rotated by a fluid flow. The
fluid flow enters the turbine through nozzles or vanes that direct the flow onto the blades of the
rotor. The fluid flow passes over the blades, causing the rotor to rotate and convert the fluid energy
into mechanical energy.
In summary, turbo machines operate on the principle of fluid dynamics, which involves the study
of the behavior of fluids in motion. Turbo machines convert energy between a fluid and a rotor or
impeller by using a combination of pressure, velocity, and kinetic energy. The principles of
operation of different types of turbo machines depend on the specific design and configuration of
the machine, as well as the properties of the fluid or gas being processed.
75. Understand the energy losses and efficiencies of turbo machines
Turbo machines are devices that convert energy between a fluid and a rotor or impeller. During
the energy conversion process, some energy is lost due to various factors such as fluid friction,
mechanical losses, and heat transfer. Energy losses can reduce the efficiency of a turbo machine,
which is a measure of how well it converts energy from the fluid to the rotor or impeller. The main
types of energy losses and efficiencies of turbo machines are described below:
1. Mechanical losses:
Mechanical losses occur due to friction between moving parts, bearing resistance, and other
mechanical factors. Mechanical losses can reduce the efficiency of a turbo machine by converting
some of the energy from the fluid into heat or noise. Examples of mechanical losses include friction
between rotor and stator blades, bearing friction, and disc losses.
2. Fluid friction losses:
Fluid friction losses occur due to the interaction between the fluid and the walls of the turbo
machine. The friction between the fluid and the walls of the machine creates drag, which reduces
the energy available to the rotor or impeller. Fluid friction losses are influenced by factors such as
the speed of the fluid, the viscosity of the fluid, and the geometry of the machine. Examples of
fluid friction losses include skin friction losses and boundary layer losses.
3. Leakage losses:
Leakage losses occur due to the flow of fluid or gas around the edges of the rotor or impeller.
Leakage losses can reduce the efficiency of a turbo machine by allowing some of the fluid or gas
to bypass the rotor or impeller, reducing the amount of energy available for conversion. Leakage
losses are influenced by factors such as the clearance between the rotor and the casing, the quality
of the sealing, and the design of the machine.
4. Heat transfer losses:
Heat transfer losses occur due to the transfer of heat from the fluid to the walls of the turbo machine
or vice versa. Heat transfer losses can reduce the efficiency of a turbo machine by reducing the
energy available for conversion or by increasing the temperature of the fluid or the machine
components. Heat transfer losses are influenced by factors such as the temperature difference
between the fluid and the machine, the type of fluid, and the design of the machine.

The efficiency of a turbo machine is a measure of how well it converts energy from the fluid to
the rotor or impeller. The efficiency of a turbo machine is defined as the ratio of the energy output
to the energy input. The energy input is the energy supplied by the fluid or gas to the machine,
while the energy output is the amount of energy transferred to the rotor or impeller. The efficiency
of a turbo machine can be influenced by various factors, including the design of the machine, the
properties of the fluid or gas, and the operating conditions.
The main types of efficiency of turbo machines are as follows:
1. Hydraulic efficiency:
Hydraulic efficiency is a measure of how well a turbo machine converts the hydraulic energy of
the fluid into mechanical energy. Hydraulic efficiency is influenced by factors such as the design
of the machine, the properties of the fluid or gas, and the operating conditions. Hydraulic efficiency
is defined as the ratio of the energy transferred to the rotor or impeller to the energy supplied by
the fluid or gas.
2. Overall efficiency:
Overall efficiency is a measure of how well a turbo machine converts the total energy of the fluid
or gas into mechanical energy. Overall efficiency accounts for all energy losses in the machine,
including mechanical losses, fluid friction losses, leakage losses, and heat transfer losses. Overall
efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy transferred to the rotor or impeller to the total energy
supplied by the fluid or gas.
3. Isentropic efficiency:
Isentropic efficiency is a measure of how well a turbo machine converts the energy of the fluid or
gas into mechanical energy under ideal, isentropic conditions. Isentropic efficiency assumes that
there are no energy losses in the machine due to friction, leakage, or heat transfer. Isentropic
efficiency is defined as the ratio of the ideal energy transferred to the rotor or impeller to the actual
energy transferred to the rotor or impeller.
4. Thermal efficiency:
Thermal efficiency is a measure of how well a turbo machine converts the heat energy of the fluid
or gas into mechanical energy. Thermal efficiency is commonly used for gas turbines and internal
combustion engines, where the fuel is burned to produce high-temperature gases that drive the
turbine or engine. Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the mechanical power output to the
heat energy input. In summary, energy losses and efficiencies are important considerations in the
design and operation of turbo machines. Energy losses can occur due to mechanical losses, fluid
friction losses, leakage losses, and heat transfer losses. The efficiency of a turbo machine is a
measure of how well it converts energy from the fluid or gas to the rotor or impeller. The main
types of efficiency of turbo machines include hydraulic efficiency, overall efficiency, isentropic
efficiency, and thermal efficiency. The selection of the appropriate type of turbo machine and the
optimization of its design and operation depend on the specific application requirements, including
the energy demand, efficiency targets, and operating conditions.
76. Understand the performance characteristics of turbo machines, and its applications to
determine their operating points
The performance characteristics of a turbomachine describe how the machine operates under
different operating conditions. These characteristics are important in determining the operating
point of the machine, which is the point at which the machine operates most efficiently and
effectively for a given set of operating conditions. The performance characteristics of
turbomachines can be described by several parameters, including flow rate, pressure, power,
efficiency, and head.
1. Flow rate:
The flow rate is the amount of fluid or gas that passes through the machine per unit time. The flow
rate is an important parameter because it determines the amount of energy that can be transferred
to the rotor or impeller. The flow rate can be measured using flow meters or calculated using the
machine geometry and operating conditions.
2. Pressure:
The pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the fluid or gas on the machine. The pressure is
an important parameter because it determines the amount of work that can be done by the machine.
The pressure can be measured using pressure gauges or calculated using the machine geometry
and operating conditions.
3. Power:
The power is the rate at which energy is transferred to or from the machine. The power is an
important parameter because it determines the amount of work that can be done by the machine.
The power can be measured using power meters or calculated using the flow rate and pressure.
4. Efficiency:
The efficiency is the ratio of the energy output to the energy input. The efficiency is an important
parameter because it indicates how well the machine is converting energy from the fluid or gas to
the rotor or impeller. The efficiency is influenced by various factors, including the design of the
machine, the properties of the fluid or gas, and the operating conditions. The efficiency of a
turbomachine can be expressed as hydraulic efficiency, overall efficiency, isentropic efficiency,
or thermal efficiency, as described in the previous answer.
5. Head:
The head is a measure of the energy per unit weight of fluid or gas that is available to the machine.
The head is an important parameter because it determines the amount of work that can be done by
the machine. The head can be calculated using the pressure and the density of the fluid or gas.
The performance characteristics of turbomachines can be visualized using performance curves,
which plot the machine performance parameters as a function of flow rate or pressure. The shape
of the performance curve depends on the design and operating characteristics of the machine. The
operating point of the machine is the point on the performance curve where the machine operates
most efficiently and effectively for a given set of operating conditions.
Determining the operating point of a turbomachine requires an understanding of the machine
performance characteristics and the operating conditions. The operating conditions include the
flow rate, pressure, temperature, and fluid or gas properties. The operating point can be determined
by selecting a point on the performance curve that corresponds to the desired flow rate and
pressure, and that maximizes the efficiency or other performance parameter.
The operating point of a turbomachinecan be determined using various methods, including trial
and error, analytical calculations, and computer simulations. Trial and error involves adjusting the
operating conditions of the machine until the desired performance is achieved. Analytical
calculations involve using mathematical equations to determine the performance characteristics of
the machine under different operating conditions. Computer simulations involve using
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to simulate the flow of fluid or gas through the
machine and calculate the machine performance characteristics.
The operating point of a turbomachine is important in determining its performance and energy
efficiency. The selection of the appropriate operating point depends on the specific application
requirements, including the energy demand, efficiency targets, and operating conditions.
Optimizing the operating point of a turbomachine can improve its efficiency, reduce energy
consumption, and prolong its lifespan. Applications of turbomachines include pumps for water
supply, ventilation systems, gas and steam turbines for power generation, and compressors for
refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
77. Identify the dimensionless parameters of turbomachines and their
significances/applications
Turbomachines are devices that transfer energy between a fluid and a rotating element, such as a
turbine or a compressor. Dimensionless parameters are used in turbomachinery to relate the
performance of different machines operating under different conditions. The following are some
of the important dimensionless parameters used in turbomachinery:
1. Reynolds number (Re): It is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in a fluid
flow and is given by Re = ρVD/μ, where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the velocity, D is the
characteristic length of the flow, and μ is the dynamic viscosity. The Reynolds number is important
because it determines the flow regime, whether laminar or turbulent, and affects the efficiency and
stability of the turbomachine.
In laminar flow, the viscosity of the fluid dominates the flow behavior, and the flow is
characterized by smooth, predictable motion. In turbulent flow, the inertial forces dominate, and
the flow is characterized by chaotic, unpredictable motion. The Reynolds number helps to predict
the transition from laminar to turbulent flow and is an important parameter in designing
turbomachines. Turbulent flow is desirable in turbomachines because it provides better mixing and
higher heat transfer rates, which leads to better performance.
2. Mach number (Ma): It is defined as the ratio of the fluid velocity to the speed of sound in the
fluid and is given by Ma = V/a, where a is the speed of sound in the fluid. The Mach number is
important in compressible flow applications, such as gas turbines, where it affects the performance,
efficiency, and stability of the turbomachine.
In compressible flow, the density of the fluid changes with changes in pressure and temperature,
and the Mach number helps to predict the onset of compressibility effects, such as shock waves
and boundary layer separation. As the Mach number increases, compressibility effects become
more significant, and the performance of the turbomachine can be affected. Therefore, the Mach
number is an important parameter in designing compressible flow turbomachines, such as gas
turbines used in aircraft engines and power generation.
3. Specific speed (N_s): It is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the performance of a
centrifugal pump or turbine and is defined as N_s = (N Q^0.5)/(H^0.75), where N is the rotational
speed, Q is the flow rate, and H is the head rise. The specific speed is important because it provides
a way to compare the performance of different machines of similar design operating at different
speeds and sizes.
The specific speed helps to normalize the performance of centrifugal pumps or turbines by taking
into account the size and speed of the machine. It is useful in selecting a machine for a particular
application, as it allows for a comparison of machines of different sizes and speeds. A higher
specific speed indicates a machine that is designed for high flow rates and low head, while a lower
specificspeed indicates a machine that is designed for low flow rates and high head. Therefore, the
specific speed is an important parameter in the design and selection of centrifugal pumps or
turbines.
4. Pressure coefficient (C_p): It is defined as the ratio of the pressure difference between the fluid
and the surrounding environment to the dynamic pressure of the fluid and is given by C_p = (p -
p_inf)/(0.5ρV^2), where p is the pressure of the fluid, p_inf is the pressure of the surrounding
environment, ρ is the density of the fluid, and V is the velocity of the fluid. The pressure coefficient
is important in aerodynamic applications, such as airfoils and wings, where it affects the lift and
drag forces.
The pressure coefficient is a measure of the pressure distribution on a surface and is used to predict
the lift and drag forces on an airfoil or wing. A positive pressure coefficient indicates a region of
higher pressure, while a negative pressure coefficient indicates a region of lower pressure. The
pressure distribution on an airfoil or wing affects the lift and drag forces, which are important in
aircraft design. Therefore, the pressure coefficient is an important parameter in the design and
analysis of aerodynamic surfaces.
5. Euler number (Eu): It is defined as the ratio of the tangential velocity at the blade tip to the axial
velocity at the inlet of a turbomachine and is given by Eu = U_t/U_a, where U_t is the tangential
velocity and U_a is the axial velocity. The Euler number is important in axial flow turbomachines,
such as axial flow compressors and turbines, where it affects the performance and efficiency of
the machine.
The Euler number helps to characterize the flow behavior in axial flow turbomachines, where the
flow is predominantly in the axial direction. A high Euler number indicates a machine with a high
tangential velocity at the blade tip, which is desirable for high-performance machines. A low Euler
number indicates a machine with a low tangential velocity at the blade tip, which is desirable for
low-performance machines. Therefore, the Euler number is an important parameter in the design
and analysis of axial flow turbomachines.

6. Froude number (Fr): It is defined as the ratio of the inertial forces to the gravitational forces in
a fluid flow and is given by Fr = V/(gD)^0.5, where g is the acceleration due to gravity and D is
the characteristic length of the flow. The Froude number is important in hydraulic applications,
such as pumps and turbines, where it affects the performance and stability of the machine.
The Froude number helps to predict the behavior of a fluid flow in a hydraulic machine, such as a
pump or turbine. A high Froude number indicates a high velocity of the fluid flow relative to the
gravitational forces, which can cause cavitation and instability in the machine. A low Froude
number indicates a low velocity of the fluid flow relative to the gravitational forces, which can
result in poor mixing and low efficiency. Therefore, the Froude number is an important parameter
in the design and analysis of hydraulic machines.
7. Cavitation number (σ): It is defined as the ratio of the pressure difference between the fluid and
the vapor pressure of the fluid to the dynamic pressure of the fluid and is given by σ = (p_v -
p)/(0.5ρV^2), where p_v is the vapor pressure of the fluid and p is the pressure of the fluid. The
cavitation number is important in hydraulic applications, such as pumps and turbines, where it
affects the occurrence of cavitation, which can damage the machine and reduce its performance.
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in a fluid flow and can lead to damage
to the hydraulic machine due to the high-pressure shock waves that occur during bubble collapse.
The cavitation number helps to predict the onset of cavitation in a hydraulic machine and is an
important parameter in the design and analysis of such machines. A low cavitation number
indicates a higher likelihood of cavitation, while a high cavitation number indicates a lower
likelihood of cavitation. Therefore, the cavitation number is an important parameter in the design
and analysis of hydraulic machines to prevent cavitation damage and ensure optimal performance.
Dimensionless parameters are important in turbomachinery because they provide a way to
compare the performance of different machines operating under different conditions and to design
new machines with improved performanceand efficiency. They also help in scaling up or down
turbomachines for different applications, such as in the aircraft industry or in power generation.
Additionally, dimensionless parameters aid in predicting the behavior of turbomachines under
different operating conditions, such as changes in flow rate, temperature, and pressure. In
summary, dimensionless parameters play a crucial role in the design, analysis, and optimization of
turbomachinery.
78. Understand the design guidelines of the rotors and housings of turbo machines
The design of rotors and housings is a critical aspect of turbomachinery design, as they play a
significant role in determining the performance, efficiency, and reliability of the machine. The
following are some of the design guidelines for rotors and housings in turbomachines:
1. Rotor Design Guidelines:
- Blade Geometry: The shape, size, and orientation of the blades on the rotor are critical in
determining the performance of the turbomachine. The blade profile should be carefully designed
to ensure that the fluid flow is smooth and efficient, and that there is minimal turbulence and
separation. The blade angle should be optimized to ensure that the fluid flow direction is aligned
with the axial and tangential directions of the machine. The blade thickness should be minimized
to reduce losses due to friction and improve efficiency.
- Material Selection: The material used for the rotor should be carefully chosen to ensure that it
can withstand the mechanical stresses and high temperatures that occur during operation. Materials
commonly used for rotors include titanium, nickel alloys, and steel alloys.
- Strength and Stiffness: The rotor should be designed to be strong and stiff enough to withstand
the high centrifugal forces that occur during operation. The rotor should be designed with a high
aspect ratio (the ratio of blade length to blade thickness) to improve the stiffness and reduce the
likelihood of blade flutter and fatigue failure.
- Balancing: The rotor should be carefully balanced to ensure that it rotates smoothly and without
vibration. Unbalance can lead to excessive vibration and damage to the machine, which can result
in reduced performance and reliability. The balancing process involves adding or removing weight
from the rotor to ensure that the center of mass is aligned with the axis of rotation.
- Manufacturing: The manufacturing process for the rotor should be carefully controlled to ensure
that the blade geometry, material properties, and balance are consistent and of high quality.
Common manufacturing techniques for rotors include forging, casting, and machining.
2. Housing Design Guidelines:
- Inlet and Outlet Geometry: The inlet and outlet geometry of the housing should be designed to
ensure that the fluid flow is smooth and efficient, with minimal turbulence and losses due to
friction. The inlet should be designed to ensure that the fluid flow is aligned with the direction of
the blades on the rotor.
- Material Selection: The housing material should be carefully chosen to ensure that it can
withstand the mechanical stresses and high temperatures that occur during operation. Materials
commonly used for housing include cast iron, aluminum, and steel.
- Strength and Stiffness: The housing should be designed to be strong enough to withstand the
pressure and temperature of the fluid flow, as well as the mechanical stresses that occur during
operation. The housing should be designed with sufficient stiffness to minimize deflection and
vibration.
- Sealing: The housing should be designed with effective sealing to prevent fluid leakage and
minimize losses due to leakage. The sealing should be designed to minimize friction and wear.
- Manufacturing: The manufacturing process for the housing should be carefully controlled to
ensure that the dimensions, surface finish, and material properties are consistent and of high
quality. Common manufacturing techniques for housing include casting, machining, and welding.
3. Rotor-Housing Interaction:
- Clearance: The clearance between the rotor and housing should be carefully designed to ensure
that it is sufficient to prevent rubbing, but not so large as to cause excessive leakage and losses due
to leakage.
- Alignment: The rotor and housing should be carefully aligned to ensure that the blades on the
rotor are properly aligned with the fluid flow direction in the housing. Misalignment can lead to
excessive vibration, wear, and damage to the machine.
- Balancing: The rotor and housing should be carefully balanced as a system to ensure that they
rotate smoothly and without vibration. The balancing process involves adding or removing weight
from the rotor and housing to ensure that the center of mass is aligned with the axis of rotation
In summary, the design of rotors and housings in turbomachines involves careful consideration of
the blade geometry, material selection, strength and stiffness, balancing, manufacturing, inlet and
outlet geometry, sealing, and rotor-housing interaction. The design should be optimized to ensure
that the machine operates efficiently, reliably, and with minimal losses due to friction and leakage.
The design process should also consider factors such as cost, weight, and ease of manufacturing
and maintenance. The design of rotors and housings is a complex process that requires expertise
in mechanical engineering, fluid dynamics, and materials science.