Running head: THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1

Three Generations oI Growth and Development:

An Overview
James Edward Scales
Middle Tennessee State University
Developmental Psychology - PSY-2300-D02





















THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 2


Abstract
This paper brieIly explores the biological, cognitive, and psychosocial growth and
development oI three separate individuals, speciIically Iocusing on middle childhood,
adolescence and late adulthood. While it is correct that growth reIers to an increase in size oI the
whole or its parts, and development reIers to Iunction oI change Irom the simple to complex, this
paper speciIically examines these elements through interviews with person oI three diIIerent age
groups. SpeciIic questions were asked and answered by the interviewees who yielded results not
terribly outside oI the norm. While reIerencing established milestones, this paper also grants
credence to many growth and development theorist whose Iindings, Ior the most part, are
remarkably on target in this study.























THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 3

Three Generations of Growth and Development:
An Overview

Introduction Iirst interviewee (early to middle childhood)
The Iirst interviewee was and eight year old Iemale, youngest oI 4 siblings, who lives, oI
course, with her parents in west Nashville; Ior the purpose oI this study she shall be reIerred to as
Cynthia. The interview lasted approximately 97 hours, sparsely obtained, over the course oI
several days. The inIormation Irom the interview was obtained at the Trevecca Healthcare
Center which is a nursing home Iacility location on MurIreesboro road in Nashville, Tennessee.
The interview was conducted in person, during various times around the visiting opportunities oI
her grandmother, who incidentally is also an interviewee subject to this class project. The
inIormation was voluntary and permission was granted by the parents oI the interviewee. This
particular interview Iocused on the cognitive, biological and psychosocial development oI the
participant.

The Interview
As Irequently discussed in this class`s text book (Belsky, 2010), school age children (6 to 12
years oI age) diIIer Irom preschool children in that they are more engrossed with raw Iacts, and
tend to levitate away Irom Iantasy (Berk, 2005), which is what she appeared to do. When
questions were posed in this area, such as o you know why your grandmother is here`,
Cynthia`s responses seem to correspond with the generalized milestones Irequently mentioned in
the literature. This is to say, Cynthia also showed more sophisticated reasoning than that oI the
previous age group; she demonstrated this when questions pertaining to her state oI mind about
her visit to her grandmother were explored. When the question was asked, ow do you feel
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4

about the nursing staff here at this facility`, Cynthia was able to delineate the relationship
between the nursing staII and the care oI her grandmother.

Discussion
Along these same lines, (Berk, 2005) states that school age children develop their Iirst close
peer relationships outside oI the Iamily group and their Iirst aIIiliation with adults outside oI
their Iamily who will inIluence their lives in a signiIicant way. Cynthia`s need to Iorm bonds
with the healthcare personnel closely associated with her grandmother was evidence with her
response to the question, ave you made any friends here older or younger than you?` (Berk,
2005) also states that school-age children have an ardent thirst Ior knowledge and
accomplishment, evidenced by her response to the question, hat is the purpose of this
facility`. This phase is actually reIerred to by Erikson as the stage oI industry (Belsky, 2010).
During this phase, participation in group activities heightens, romantic love Ior the parent oI the
opposite sex diminishes, and children identiIy with the parent oI the same sex (Hart and Risley,
1995). Freud, oI course, reIers to this period as a time oI sexual latency (Hart and Risley, 1995).
CareIul observation oI Cynthia`s relationship with her parents revealed a signiIicant degree oI
validity to this milestone. Moreover, during this stage these age groups oI children are capable
oI learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a
true sense oI industry (Siegler, 2006). This, too, was evident in observing Cynthia`s interaction
with the healthcare workers involved in her grandmother`s overall care.
Piaget states that the type oI acceptance school age children receive at home and at school
will ultimately aIIect the attitudes they develop about themselves and their role in liIe (Belsky,
2010). The beginnings oI this were, again, careIully observed during Cynthia`s interaction with
her parents; Piaget reIers to the thought processes oI this period as concrete operations, however
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 5

this stage oI development may be beyond Cynthia`s abilities at this time. As discussed in the
textbook, concrete operations involve logical thinking and an understanding oI cause and eIIect
(Belsky, 2010), Ior which Cynthia may not possess at her current developmental age.
Transversely, questions posed to Cynthia regarding this subject showed a scant degree oI
understanding that people, in Iact, do not always control events in liIe, such as death, spirituality,
or the origin oI the world. In Cynthia`s case, this involved her limited understanding oI the
circumstances surrounding her grandmother`s residence at the nursing home.
There were other children present at the nursing home that were approximately Cynthia`s
age. (Berk, 2005) states that between 6 and 12 years oI age, children preIer Iriends oI their own
sex and usually preIer the company oI their Iriends to that oI their brothers and sisters; this was
not only observed but addressed speciIically in questions directed by Cynthia`s personal
preIerences during her brieI visit. Along these same lines (Berk, 2005) also states that selI-esteem
becomes very important in the developmental process oI children during this age; to this end,
schools have a proIound inIluence on the socialization oI children, who tote what they have
learned and experienced back home. Also, a holistic attitude oI child care must Iocus not only
on intellectual achievement and test scores but also on such qualities as artistic expression,
creativity, joy, cooperation, responsibility, industry, love, and other attributes (Berk, 2005).
When questions were posed in this area, Cynthia`s responses seem to correspond with the
generalized milestones Irequently mentioned in the literature (Belsky, 2010).
According to (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2000), the 8-year old wants to do everything, and can
play alone Ior a longer period oI time than can the 7-year old. Children oI this age group like to
be considered important, particularly by adults (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2000). Hero worship
also plays a part, evidenced by her response to the question, ho is your biggest hero`.
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 6

Physically, the arms and hands oI the 8 year old seem to grow Iaster than the rest oI the body.
Moreover, the child can write rather than print and understands the number oI days that must
pass beIore special events such as Christmas, birthdays, and in this case, a grandmother`s
discharge Irom the hospital. The 8 year old enjoys competitive sports but is generally a poor
loser, although this behavior was not seen in Cynthia at the time oI this study.

Conclusions
The learning aspect oI this interview mainly yielded a surprisingly close approximation
between Cynthia`s cognitive and psychosocial developments to the milestones illuminated by the
theorist mentioned earlier, so there were not any surprising revelations here. However, in
regards to learning, Cynthia`s cognitive abilities seemed quite remarkable and, as mentioned
earlier, mirrored the developmental landmark mentioned in the textbook (Belsky, 2010). For
instance, birth, Ior her, would entail the growth oI a baby in her mother`s stomach, but she is
unaware oI the biology involved. This school age child seemed to be able to pay attention quite
well. Lastly, children in this developmental age bracket are oIten judged by their perIormance
i.e. good grades or athletic Ieats which in turn yield positive reinIorcements (Bjorklund &
Pellegrini, 2000). These reinIorcements were given in the Iorm oI praise, Ior which Cynthia
seem to respond quite well.

THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 7

Introduction second interviewee (adolescence to early adulthood)
Similar to the Iormat oI the Iirst interview, the second interviewee in this study was a 14-
year old Iemale, second oldest oI 4 siblings (and sister to the Iirst interviewee), who lives oI
course with her parents in west Nashville; Ior the purpose oI this study she shall be reIerred to as
Ashley. The interview lasted approximately 53 hours, sparsely obtained, over the course oI a
Iew days. The inIormation Irom the interview was obtained at the Trevecca Healthcare Center
which is a nursing home Iacility location on MurIreesboro Road in Nashville, Tennessee. The
interview was conducted in person, during various times around the visiting opportunities oI her
grandmother, who incidentally is also an interviewee subject to this class project. The
inIormation was voluntary and permission was granted by the parents oI the interviewee. This
particular interview Iocused on the cognitive, biological, and psychosocial development oI the
interviewee.

The Interview
OI course, the textbook basically deIines adolescence as the period oI liIe beginning with the
appearance oI secondary sex characteristics and ending with cessation oI growth and emotional
maturity (Belsky, 2010), which was quite evident regarding Ashley at the time oI this interview.
Adolescence is oIten divided into early, middle, and late periods because the 14 year old
adolescent diIIers a great deal Irom the 18 year old adolescent (Lerner, 2002). Middle
adolescence appears to be the time oI greatest turmoil Ior most Iamilies, although during this
interview Ashley seemed remarkably stable; this actually was reIlected both in Ashley`s
observed actions and voluntary responses to a series oI growth and development questions. For
instance, Ashley`s response to the questions, ave you ever done anything dangerous`, and
ow do you fell about yourself`, revealed a tendency to question liIe and search to Iind what
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 8

psychologists call their sense oI identity (Belsky, 2010); Ashley seemed to have deIinitely
reached this particular milestone, evidenced by her mannerisms and return questions during the
interview.

Discussion
Cognitively speaking, Jean Piaget and other investigators indicate that during this time,
adolescents reach the Iinal stages oI abstract reasoning, logic, and other symbolic Iorms oI
thought, which increases sophistication in moral reasoning (Belsky, 2010). Ashley did not have
a problem in this area. This was surprising since most oI her responses seem to guide toward her
Ieelings about her grandmother`s illness. (Lerner, 2002) states that the Iormal operational
thought stage permits abstract reasoning and systematic scientiIic problem solving i.e. thinking
beyond the present (Belsky, 2010). Moreover, thoughts can be inIluenced more by logical
principles than by personal perceptions and experiences; in other words, the individual can
imagine the possible and the impossible (Lerner, 2002). Piaget`s theory oI cognitive
development states that this development is systematic, sequential, and orderly. Young
adolescents are still in the concrete phase oI thinking (Belsky, 2010). Piaget calls this the stage
oI Iormal operations (Belsky, 2010). Cognitively, Ashley`s responses to questions seemed to
indicate that she was deIinitely at this milestone oI development. The literature seems to suggest
that adolescents must have a strong sense oI who they are and what they want, they must know
what it means to trust another person and to be trustworthy beIore they can be in a healthy
relationship with another person (Belsky, 2010). Similarly, according to Erikson, the major
developmental task oI adolescence is to establish a sense oI identity (Belsky, 2010). Other major
tasks oI adolescence include separating Irom Iamily, initiating intimacy, and making career
choices (Lerner, 2002). Likewise, adolescents, such as Ashley, develop a sense oI who they are
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 9

and their need to be like others comes Irom the Ieeling that everyone is watching them; they do
not want to be conspicuous or seem diIIerent Irom their peers (Lerner, 2002). This psychosocial
development was evident in Ashley as well. Emancipation is a critical element in the
establishment oI identity (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Developing intimacy is closely entwined
with the resolving oI a person`s sense oI identity. As part oI a search Ior their identity,
adolescents Iocus on the values and ideals oI the Iamily and decide either to embrace them or to
separate Irom them.
Biologically speaking, adolescent girls, speciIically between ages oI 10 to 13 years, growths
are marked by rapid changes in the structure and Iunction oI various parts oI the body (Bornstein
& Lamb, 2005). Moreover, it is also distinguished by puberty i.e. the stage in which the
reproductive organs become Iunctional and secondary sex characteristics develop. The age oI
puberty varies and is somewhat earlier Ior girls than Ior boys. Ashley`s physical appearance
seemed heItier than normal; however the major cause oI weight gain is the increase in skeletal
mass during this stage oI development (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Along those same lines, the
general appearance oI the adolescent tends to be awkward, that is long-legged and gangling; this
growth characteristic is termed asynchrony because diIIerent body parts mature at diIIerent rates,
this was not yet evident regarding Ashley at the time oI this interview. Adolescents also must
adjust to the dramatic changes oI puberty (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). In the adolescent, every
eIIort is made to be just like their peers, egocentrism is common, an imaginary audience is
created and they believe everyone is looking at them. A working understanding oI what is
happening to her can reduce her anxiety, help to develop a rapport with nursing staII, and aIIord
her a chance to ask questions and have parents available as much as possible. Sex education
which begins early with appropriate conversations between parents and child is vital.
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 10

Psychosocially, peer groups help adolescents to Ieel that they belong and make it possible to
experiment with social behaviors (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Within the clique, the adolescent
oIten develops a close personal relationship with one peer oI the same sex. The peer group
serves as a mirror Ior acceptable behavior and helps to determine where one conIorm to
normality (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Sexual experimentation oIten occurs as a response to peer
pressure, as a means Ior momentary pleasure, as a learning experience to satisIy curiosity, or as a
means oI gaining a Ieeling oI being loved and cared about (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Sexual
curiosity and masturbation are common among adolescents, although oI course these topics were
not breeched during this interview.

Conclusions
Similar to the conclusion mentioned earlier about Ashley`s sister (Cynthia), the learning
aspect oI this interview mainly yielded a close approximation between Ashley`s cognitive,
biological psychosocial developments to the milestones illuminated by the theorist mentioned
earlier. Likewise, there were not any surprising revelations here. However, Ashley`s mature
psychosocial abilities seemed quite remarkable and, as mentioned earlier, mirrored the
developmental landmark mentioned in the textbook (Belsky, 2010). Overall, it was a very good
interview.



THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 11

Introduction third interviewee (middle to late adulthood)
Similar to the Iormat oI the Iirst two interviews, the third interviewee interviewed was a 67
year old Iemale, and is the grandmother oI the Iirst two interviewees oI this study (Cynthia and
Ashley). She currently resides in the Trevecca Healthcare Facility which is in Nashville,
Tennessee, and Ior the purpose oI this study she shall be reIerred to as Mrs. Brenda. Mrs.
Brenda unIortunately suIIers Irom a menagerie oI illnesses Ior which most are genetically based;
however, she remains in very good spirits. The interview lasted approximately 81 hours,
sparsely obtained, over the course oI a several days. The inIormation Irom the interview was
obtained in person, during various times around the routine care she received Irom the nursing
staII. The inIormation was voluntary and permission was granted by the supervisors Irom the
healthcare Iacility. This particular interview Iocused on the cognitive, biological, and
psychosocial development oI the interviewee.

The Interview
Older adulthood begins at about age 65 and continues until death, which can cover a span oI
40 years or more. It is important to note that chronologic age in an inadequate indicator oI old
age. Considering an elderly person`s Iunctional age really constitutes the best indicator oI
physical and mental viability (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). While Mrs. Brenda`s physical abilities
have diminished through a series oI illnesses, her cognitive abilities are extremely sharp,
evidence by her responses to questions such as, hat was the greatest moment in your life`,
'o you have any regrets about your life, if so, what`, and ow do you feel about your illness`
It was clear during the interview that part oI the diseases aIIlicting Mrs. Brenda stemmed Irom
her obesity problem, Ior which will be discussed later in this segment. Good nutrition is
essential to the health, Iunction, and quality oI liIe; unIavorable outcomes result Irom either
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 12

under or over nutrition (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Nutritional problems account Ior one-third to
one-halI oI all health problems in older adults, and many independently living older adults
demonstrate nutritional deIiciencies (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005).

Discussion
Biologically speaking, wellness is based on a belieI that each person has an optimal level oI
Iunction. A well-balanced diet without excess sugar, Iat, or alcohol is another important aspect
oI primary prevention (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). Secondary prevention in older adults Iocuses
on early detection and treatment oI disease. To this end, obesity takes center stage regarding
Mrs. Brenda`s circumstances. Moreover, one oI the undercurrents oI obesity is diabetes, which
in this case, is directly germane to Mrs. Brenda`s medical issues. Incidentally, type II Diabetes is
also called Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM) in which Mrs. Brenda`s pancreas
does not produce enough insulin to allow glucose to be absorbed within her cells. UnIortunately,
because her cells are not receiving the Iuel that they need to work and grow, several side eIIects
occur as a result (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). SuIIice it to say, these side eIIects, which explain
why Mrs. Brenda is always Ieeling hungry and weak is due to cell non-satiety, and constitute the
primary reason why Mrs. Brenda has little control over her weight gain. Many nutritionists
argue that exercise and proper diet can curtail many oI the negative eIIects oI obesity, and by
deIault, Type II diabetes as well. Cognitively Mrs. Brenda knows this, but simply can not
summon the desire to Iollow through, leading to depression. Depression, oI course, is more
common in the older population than any other population (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005).
SigniIicant psychosocial changes experienced by older adults may include personal, social,
and economic losses all oI which Mrs. Brenda has endured, according to the responses she
rendered during the interview. Depression is also brought on by changes in roles and retirement
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 13

and the loss oI signiIicant others i.e. parents, siblings, children, spouses, and Iriends (Bornstein
& Lamb, 2005) also (Belsky, 2010). Although the literature suggests that Iew older adults
receive treatment Ior depression, the Trevecca Healthcare Facility has provided a Iairly
comprehensive approach toward helping residents like Mrs. Brenda combat depression.
Older people may complain oI dryness and itching (pruritus) oI the skin, especially in cold
dry weather, because oI reduced glandular secretions and moisture (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005).
Mrs. Brenda has this problem as well. In general, the literature suggests less Irequent bathing as
a recommended Ior sedentary older adults, mainly because the normal body oils and perspiration
are reduced thus producing dry and itchiness (Belsky, 2010). Also, physiologically, nerve
impulse transmission in the nervous system slows, resulting in a longer reaction time Ior older
adults (Bornstein & Lamb, 2005). With aging there are Iewer periods oI deep sleep and Irequent
periods oI wakeIulness, giving the impression oI sleeplessness even though the total sleep time is
the same or only slightly reduced Irom that oI young adulthood. This, too, is a problem Ior Mrs.
Brenda.

Conclusions
Actually, Ior the Iirst time ever it is very likely that most people in the United States will
live into and beyond their 90`s in good health, active up to and immediately beIore their death.
The age oI 65 is no longer considered old, which is a comIort to Mrs. Brenda. However,
individuals must taking charge oI their own health, and the younger generation must position
themselves both physically and mentally to take on the challenge oI assisting the elderly. For
instance, older adults who have a Iluid deIicit because oI diIIiculty picking up a cup or bending
their neck, will beneIit by being equipped with specially adapted cups with a double handles.
When conversations with Mrs. Brenda regarding these suggestions were addressed, she was
THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 14

elated with both hopeIulness and enthusiasm which is perhaps the greatest element retrieved
Irom this interview.

THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 15

ReIerences

Berk L (2005). nfants, Children, and Adolescents. Boston: Allyn & Bacons.
Hart B and Risley T (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American
children. Baltimore: P.H. Brookes
Siegler, Robert (2006). ow Children evelop, Exploring Child evelopment Student Media Tool Kit &
Scientific American Reader to Accompany ow Children evelop. New York: Worth Publisher
Bjorklund, D. F. & Pellegrini, A. D. (2000). Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology.
Child evelopment, 71, 1687-1708
Lerner, R. M. Concepts and theories of human development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002.
Bornstein, M. H. & Lamb, M. E. evelopmental science. An advanced textbook. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum, 2005













THREE GENERATIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 16