Review Questions on Phonetics and Phonology

(Đề cương ôn tập môn Ngữ âm lý thuyết)

PART 1: THEORY (6 POINTS)

1. What is a phoneme? How are phonemes classified?

- A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish one word from
another in a particular language.
Ex: /m, n, e, æ, ʌ/
- The phonemes are classified into consonants and vowels.
- There are 44 phonemes in the English language, consisting of 24 consonant sounds (ex: n, m) and
12 vowel sounds (ex: u:,i: , i, u,e, ae,.. ) and 8 diphthongs (ex: au, ei, ai, ..).

2. What is an allophone? Give examples to illustrate your answer.

- An allophone is any of the different forms of a phoneme.
- For example: In English, when the phoneme /p/ occurs at the beginning of words like PUT /put/
and PEN /pen/ , it is said with a little puff of air. That is, it is aspirated.
But when /p/ occurs in words like SPEND /spend/ and SPELL /spel/ it is unaspirated.
Both the aspirated in PEN and the unaspirated in SPELL have the same phoneme function.
That is, they are both heard and identified as [p] and not as [b]. They are both ALLOPHONES of the
PHONEME [p].

3. How does phonology differ from phonetics?

- Definition:
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.
E.g: it made up of symbols both familiar, such as [b] and [m] and unfamiliar, such as [ʃ] and [θ], to
our alphabet.
Phonology is the study of the speech sounds used in a language.
- Branch of Linguistics:
Phonetics belong to descriptive linguistics.
Phonology belongs to theoretical linguistics.
- Areas:
Phonetics studies the production, transmission, reception of sound.
Phonology studies different patterns of sounds in different languages.
- Specificity:
Phonetics does not study one particular language.
Phonology can study one specific language.
4. What is a consonant? How are consonants classified?
- A consonant is a sound in producing it the airstream coming from the lung is stopped,
impeded (cản trở), constricted (hẹp), or otherwise interfered with in its passage to the outside air.
- Consonants are classified: 4 standards
+ Places of articulation (8)
1. Bilabial: 2 lips are pressed together. Ex: /p, b, m, w/
2. Labio-dental: The upper teeth and the lower lip come close together. Ex: /f,v/
3. Dental or Interdental: The tip of the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. Ex: /θ, ð /
4. Alveolar (chân răng): The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Ex: /t, d, 1, n, s, z/
5. Palato-alveolar: The front of the tongue touches the part between the alveolar ridge and the hard
palate. Ex: /r, tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/
6. Velar: The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. Ex: /k, g, ŋ/
7. Palatal: The front of the tongue touches the hard palate. Ex: /j/
8. Glottal: The sound is produced with a friction noise in the glottis between the vocal cords. The
glottis opens wide and the sound is voiceless. Ex: /h/

+ Manner of articulation (6): The ways the airstream modifies the organs of speech.
1. Plosive or stop: The air is stopped, then released with an explosive sound. Ex: /p, b, t, d, k, g/
2.Fricative: The air is constricted, causing friction when passing through the organs of speech. Ex: /
f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ , h/
3.Affricate: It is the combination of the plosive and fricative. The air stream is stopped, then
released slowly with friction. Ex: /tʃ, dʒ/
4.Nasal: The air passes through the nose when the uvula is lowered. Ex: /m, n, ŋ/
5.Lateral: The air passes out at both sides of the tongue. Eg: /l/
6. Gliding or semi-vowel (consonant) or approximant: There is a gliding from one to another
with little or no obstruction of the air stream. The tip of te tongue approaches alveolar ridge. Ex: /w,
r, j/

+ Voicing (voiced/voiceless): There is presence or absence of the vibration of the vocal cords
1.Voiced: When the vocal cords open and close rapidly. Eg: /m, n, l, g, v, z, b, d/
2.Voiceless: When the vocal cords open wide and there is the vibration of the vocal cords.
Eg: / f, t, θ, s, ʃ, k, tʃ/

+ Aspiration:
 Aspirated (âm bật hơi): beginning of a word/ stress syllable. Ex: paper, pen, people
 Unaspirated (âm không bật hơi): before unstressed syllable/ another stop sound. Ex: paper,
spy

5. What is a vowel? How are vowels classified?

- A vowel is a speech of sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way
in the mouth or throat and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords.
- Vowels’ classification: (5 standards)
+ Tongue height: high - mid – low

 Tongue height is the vertical (thẳng đứng) distance between the upper surface of the tongue
and the palate (= degree of opening of the mouth).
 The tongue may be raised high, mid or low.
 Correspondingly the position of the jaw may also be close, mid or open. Eg: high - [u:], [ʊ],
[i:], [ɪ]
 mid - [o], [ɔ],

low - [æ], [ɑ:]

+ Tongue position: front - central – back

This means the front, central or back of the tongue is raised or lowered.

Eg : front- [i:], [ɪ] , [e], [ɛ:], [æ]

central- [ʌ], [ə]

back- [u:], [ʊ], [o], [ɔ], [ɑ:]

+ Lip rounding: rounded – unrounded – neutral

Different shapes and positions of the lips. They may be rounded, unrounded or neutral.

Eg: rounded vowels are [u:], [ʊ], [o], [ɔ]

unrounded vowels are [i:], [ɪ], [e], [ɛ], [æ], [ɑ:], [ʌ], [ə].

+ Muscle tension: lax (short vowel)

tense (long vowel)
Tenseness in the muscles of the jaw and throat. The muscles may be lax or tense. Short vowels (/i, u,
Ɔ, ə, e, æ, ⋀/) are often lax vowels meanwhile tense vowels are often long vowels (/i:, u:, Ɔ:, ə: a:/).

+ Vowel length: short vowel

long vowel
There are 5 long vowels: /i:, u:, Ɔ:, ə: a:/ and 7 short vowels: /i, u, Ɔ, ə, e, æ, ⋀/

6. In what cases are consonants syllabic? Give illustrative examples.

- Syllabic consonants are the ones which can form syllable without vowels. The small vertical
(thẳng đứng) mark is used to show that a consonant is syllabic.
Ex: table /teibl/
- A consonant , either l, r or a nasal stands as the peak (chóp/đỉnh) of weak syllables instead of
the vowels.
+ Syllabic l:
E.g. castle /ka:sl/
+ Syllabic n:
E.g. student /’stjudnt/
+ Syllabic r:
E.g. literal /litrl/

7. What is the difference between vowels and consonants?

They are different in 2 aspects:
- A vowel is produced without any stoppage of the airstream in the oral cavity meanwhile there is
obstruction in the production of a consonant.
Ex: : /e, æ, ʌ, ɔ, ɔ:, Ə, Ə:/; /m, n, ŋ, ʒ, ʤ, ʧ /
- A vowel is syllabic, it forms the centre or nucleus of a syllable meanwhile a consonant is not
expect some syllabic consonants.
Ex: are (V) , car (CV) , art (VC) , cart (CVC).

8. Show the difference between phonemic and phonetic transcription of the

sounds in the English language. Illustrate your answer with examples.
* The difference between phonemic and phonetic transcription of the sounds in the
English language:
Phonetic (ngữ âm) transcription Phonemic (âm vị) transcription
- The transcription in which phonemes - The transcription in which phonemes
are transcribed phonetically (thuộc are transcribed phonemically (thuộc
ngữ âm) (with allophones). âm vị).

- The phonetic symbol is [ ] (square - The symbol is / / (slant bars).

brackets).
- This type is more complex, more - This type is easy and quick to learn. It
detailed & gives more information is preferred due to these 2 reasons:
about a phoneme. simple phonemic symbols and easy
printing.
- As a result, it is the study object of
PHONOLOGY (âm vị) - As a result, it is the study object of
(PHONEMICS). PHONETICS (ngữ âm).

- Example 1: Clean
• Phonemic (âm vị) transcription: ‘clean’ – /klin/
• Phonetic (ngữ âm) transcription: ‘clean’ – [kli̥ :n]
- Example 2: Strewn
• Phonemic transcription: ‘strewn’ – /strun/
• Phonetic transcription: ‘strewn’ – [stru:n]

9. What is stress? What are the rules applied for affix-words? What are the rules
applied for two- syllable verbs? What are the rules applied for three- syllable
nouns?
- Stress is the degree of force used in producing a syllable. It is an aspect of pronunciation that
creates rhythm. Stress is saying a word or syllable loudly. Stress is the prominence given to the
syllable. The prominence is made up of 4 factors: clearer, longer, higher and louder.
- AFFIXES: prefixes, suffixes
*Prefixes and stress: Stress in words with prefixes is governed by the same rules
as those of words without prefixes. E.g. ‘legal-il’legal* Suffixes and stress:
+Suffixes: carry main stress
E.g. enter’tain
+ Suffixes: do not affect stress
E.g. ‘comfort-‘comfortable
+ Suffixes: influence stress in the base:
E.g: ‘photo → pho’tography
- TWO – SYLLABLE VERBS:
+ If the second syllable of the verbs contains a long vowel or diphthong
(EXCEPT |Əʊ|) or if it ends with more than one consonant, that second syllable is stressed.
E.g. A’pply, a’rrive, a’ttract, a’ssist
+ If the second syllable of the verbs contains a short vowel and ends with one or no final consonant,
the first syllable is stressed.
E.g. ‘enter, ‘envy, ‘open, ‘equal….
- THREE – SYLLABLE NOUNS:
+ If the last syllable contains a short vowel or |ƏƱ |, it is unstressed and if thesyllable preceding this
final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, that middle syllable will be stressed.
E.g. po’tato, di’saster
+ If the last and the middle syllables contain a short vowel and ends with not more than one
consonant, the first syllable is stressed.
E.g. ‘cinema, ‘quantity, ‘emperor
+ If the last syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong and/or ends with more than one consonant,
the first syllable will be stressed.
E.g. ‘intellect, ‘marigold,

10. How does the stress help to make the difference between compound words and
free word groups?
- When an adjective modifies a noun, the noun usually has the primary stress.
E.g. silver’ fish (a group of free words)
- When an adjective and noun combine to form a compound noun, the first element often takes
the primary stress.
E.g. ‘silver fish (a kind of insect)

11. What is linking? When does linking occur? Illustrate your answer with
examples.
- Linking is a way of joining the pronunciation of two words so that they are easy to say and flow
together smoothly.
- Linking happens when we link words together, usually for ease of pronunciation.
- Linking usually occurs in colloquial, connected speech.
- We can link:
+ Vowel to vowel: Very interesting, the story is
+ Stop-to-stop consonants: That's a bad dog, Put ten in the box
+ Consonant-to-vowel: Drink a cup of tea
- Linking occurs:
+ If a word ends with a consonant followed by another word beginning with a vowel, the consonant
is linked.
E.g.: Give him a book.
// gi v im ə buk //
// gi v im ə buk //
+ When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word ending with r/re in the spelling, / r / must
be pronounced.
E.g.: near /niə/ + er = nearer / niərə /
more / mƆ: / + over = moreover /mƆ:rəuvə /
+ If a word ending with r/re in the spelling followed by another word beginning with a vowel, / r / is
pronounced.
E.g.: for a week // fər ə wi:k //
here and there // hiər ən ðeə //
+ Native English speakers usually insert / r / after / a:, ə; Ɔ: / for ease of pronunciation.
E.g.: The idea of it / aidiər əv it /
raw eggs / rƆ: regz /
ma and pa / ma: r ən pa: /

12. What is elision? What are cases of elison? Illustrate your answer with
examples.
- Elision is typical of rapid casual speech. Foreign learners do not need to learn to produce elisions,
but the perception of elision is important. It is the complete disappearance of a sound.
- There are 2 cases of elision: vowel elision and consonant elision
+ / h / may be elided from he, his, her, have, has, had when these words are unstressed and do not
begin a sentence.
E.g.: Where does he live?
/ weə də z (h)i: liv /
+ /t, d/ may be elided if they occur in the middle of a sequence of three consonant sounds.
E.g.: first time / fə:s(t) taim /
blindman / blain(d)mæn/
+ / ə / is frequently elided within words if the resulting sequence of consonants is an acceptable
English cluster.
E.g.: / t(ə)r / → / tr / history /'hist(ə)ri/
/ s(ə)p / → / sp / surprised /s(ə)'praizd/
+ When plosives occur in clusters with other plosives, the first plosive is elided. /p, t, k, b, d, g/
E.g.: ca(p)tain
foo(t)ball
blac(k)board
ba(g)pipe

13. What is assimilation? What are kinds of assimilation? Illustrate your answer
with examples.
- Assimilation is the influence of one phoneme upon another neighbouring phoneme, so that they
become more alike. It is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow,
careful speech. Assimilation affects consonants only.
- There are 3 kinds of assimilation:
 Regressive (lui xuống) assimilation: consonant final (Cf) → consonant initial (Ci)
Ex: in the /in ðə/ /in nə/
 Progressive (tiến lên) assimilation: (Cf ← Ci)
Ex: one more /wΛn mƆ:/
/wΛm mƆ:/

+ / t, d, n/ are likely to be replaced by

/p, b, m/ before bilabial /p, b, m/ and to /k, g, ŋ/ before velar /k, g/.
/ t / > /p, b, m/ → / p /
/ d / > /p, b, m/ → / b /
/ n / > /p, b, m/ → / m /
/ t / > /k, g/ → / k /
/ d / > /k, g/ → / g /
/ n / > /k, g/ → / ŋ /
 Coalescent (gộp lại-> một nhóm) assimilation:
+ Word medial /s/ + /j/ = / ʃ /
/z/ + /j/ = / ʒ /
E.g.: issue / 'isju:/  / 'iʃu: /
azure / 'æzjə / → / 'æʒə /
Word medial /t/ + /j/ = / tʃ /
/d/ + /j/ = / dʒ /
E.g.: student / 'stju:dnt / / 'stʃu:dnt /
educate / 'edju:keit /→ / 'edʒu:keit /
/s/>/ʃ/→/ʃ/
/z/>/ʃ/→/ʒ/

14. According to place of articulation, how are consonants classified?

Place of articulation:
1. Bilabia (âm 2 môi)l: 2 lips are pressed together. Ex: /p,b,m,w/
2. Labio-denta(âm răng môi)l: The upper teeth and the lower lip come close together. Ex: /f,v/
3. Dental or Interdenta (âm răng)l: The tip of the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. Ex: /
θ, ð /
4. Alveolar (âm chân răng): The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Ex: /t, d, 1, n, s, z/
5. Palato-alveolar (vòm miệng – phế nang): The front of the tongue touches the part between the
alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Ex: /r, tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/
6. Velar(ngạc mềm): The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. Ex: /k, g, ŋ/
7. Palatal(vòm miệng): The front of the tongue touches the hard palate. Ex: /j/
8. Glottal(âm thanh hầu): The sound is produced with a friction noise in the glottis between the
vocal cords. The glottis opens wide and the sound is voiceless. Ex: /h/

15.According to manner of articulation, how are consonants classified?

MANNER(loại) OF ARTICULATION: The ways the airstream modifies the organs of speech.
1. Plosive or stop: The air is stopped, then released with an explosive sound. Ex: /p, b, t, d, k, g/
2. Fricative: The air is constricted, causing friction when passing through the organs of speech. Ex: /
f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ , h/
3. Affricate: It is the combination of the plosive and fricative. The air stream is stopped, then
released slowly with friction. Ex: /tʃ, dʒ/
4. Nasal: The air passes through the nose when the uvula is lowered. Ex: /m, n, ŋ/
5. Lateral: The air passes out at both sides of the tongue. Eg: /l/
6. Gliding or semi-vowel (consonant) or approximant: There is a gliding from one to another with
little or no obstruction of the air stream. The tip of the tongue approaches alveolar ridge. Ex: /w, r, j/

*16.How does a stressed syllable differ from an unstressed one? Illustrate your
answer with examples.
A stressed syllable is higher, longer, louder and clearer than an unstressed syllable.
E.g. ‘Intelligent

*17.What are main articulators?

- Articulators: The movable parts to modify the air stream to produce different sounds.
- There are 6 main articulators:
1. Vocal cords in the larynx: Where sounds may be produced with vibration (voiced sounds) or
without vibration (voiceless sounds). The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis.
2. Pharynx: The tube above the larynx. The epiglottis in the pharynx can he raised or lowered to
open or close the way to the windpipe.
3. Tongue: The most important articulator because it is flexible and it can move to different places in
the mouth.
4. Uvula: The extreme back of the roof of the mouth. It can he raised or lowered to open or close the
passage to the nose.
5. Lower teeth (lower jaw): Behind the lower lip.
6. Lower lip: Faces the upper lip. It is flexible and can be pressed against the upper lip or can be
rounded or spread.

18. What are the functions of intonation? Illustrate your answer with examples.
- The function of intonation is to express attitude, feeling or emotion.
Ex: Thank you. ä (showing real gratitude)
Thank you. æ (casual acknowledgment of something not very important)
- Function of intonation: Without intonation speech will be as though produced by a
mechanical speech device.
- Functions of intonation: 6 functions
• Attitudinal functions: Intonation enables the speaker to express emotions and
attitudes which adds a special meaning to spoken language as a difference from
its written counterpart.
Eg: Was she glad to /SEE (Rising intonation -lên giọng) him? ( show surpried
in attitude).
 • Indexical functions : Intonation marks the speaker’s personal or social identity.
Although native speakers can often identify the professional or social background
of the speaker on the basis of intonation they use. Indexical function is to act as a
marker of personal or social identity.
Eg: someone speaking like a teacher, doctor, lawyer etc.

• Accentual functions: Accentual function is derived from the word “accent”

which means stress. In fact, the Placement of tonic stress is determined by
intonation. Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that
should be perceived as stressed while tonic stress on a particular syllable marks
the word as the most important in the tone-unit.

• Grammatical functions : Grammatical intonation is used in those sentences which

when written are ambiguous, and whose ambiguities can only be removed by
using differences of intonation.

• Discourse (diễn thuyết) functions: discourse intonation can signal the listener
what is to be taken as new information and what is already given. It can also
indicate when the speaker is indicating some kind of contrast or link with material
with another tone unit.

• Psychological Function of Intonation: Psychological function of intonation is to

organize speech into units that are easy to perceive, memorize and perform.

19. How are tones used in different kinds of sentences according communicative
functions?
- Falling tune (glide down):
• Statement – complete/definite
• Finality, definiteness, strong exclamation.
• -WH question- business like
• Short Yes/No- questions
• tag question (expecting answer YES from the listener.)
• Strong command
Ex: //it wəz 'kwait `gud// It was quite good.
- First Rising Tune (glide up):
• Full Y-N questions
• WH-question show interest
• statements intended as questions
• Statement -intended to be soothing, encouraging
• Exclamation (cảm thán) -Greeting, saying goodbye
• Exclamation- unexpected
Ex: //ju: ,laik it?// You like it?
- Fall-rise (dive):
• Statement- Uncertainty, doubt, requesting, correction, warning
• Statement – Incomplete
• Statement- Reservations (thăm dò)
• Statement- 2 parts (vế 1 quan trọng hơn vế 2 về nghĩa)
• Command- pleading request (đề nghị mẫu mực)

Ex: //ai 'laik jƆ: ˇhæt// I like your hat.

- Second Rising Tune Take-off:
• WH-question – repetition (lặp lại)
• Tag questions after commands
• Tag question – have not/ (not) from both 2 parts of a sentence
• Tag question – have not/ (not) from one of two parts of a sentence (No answer)
• If exclamation is questioning
• Statement-grumble
Ex: //ai didn’t ,hə:t ju:// I didn’t hate you.

20. What is a rhythm unit? Give examples for your answer.

-Rhythm may be defined as regular succession of stressed syllables and unstressed ones.
-Rhythm often coincides with secondary and primary stress.
Kids make noise.
The kids make noise.
The kids are making noise.
The kids have been making noise.
•Grammatical words – unstressed
•All the utterances above are pronounced in the same amount of time.
(((((1. Each rhythm unit consists of at least one stressed word.
E.g. I was in London.
2.Divide the utterance into rhythm units before marking the linking sounds.
E.g.: Cheap affairs cheaper fares
//I haven’t met him before/I’m sure.//
3.Base on grammatical connections. Stable structures To give sb st (To give st to sb)
To take sb somewhere Eg.: I give him some money.
I give a book to my brother. Please take her for a walk.
//Everyday/at six o’clock/ she takes me to school.//
//At the party,/ last night/, I talked with her. //)))))

PART 2: PRACTICE (4 POINTS)

1.Read the sentences and indicate the right tune.
a. Who’s on ,duty today? Wh-question – 10 – Glide up

I ‘am. Statement – 1 – Glide down

b. Do you ‘know ‘where he ,comes from? Yes/No-question -14- Glide up
No (statement -1- GD), I don’t. (Statement-1-GD)
c. I’ll fetch you in the ‘car. (Statement-1-GD)
That’s very ‘good of you. (Statement-1-GD)
d. He said he ‘knew nothing about it. (Statement-1-GD)
But I ‘told him myself. . (Statement-1-GD)
e. You want me to ‘help you (statement-1-GD), don’t you (Tag-ques -18-TO)?
Please. (Statement-1-GD)
f. How long have you ,been here? (Wh-question – 10 – Glide up)
Six months. (Statement-1-GD)
g. Six months? (statement-5-GU) I don’t ‘believe it. (Statement-1-GD)
Why? (Wh-question – 12 – TO)

2.Read the sentence and describe the vowel/consonant sounds of the underlined
words.
a. Did you see Othello on television last night?
/ˈtel.ɪ.vɪʒ.ən/

Voiced/voiceless Place of articulation Manner of articulation Aspiration

t voiceless alveolar stop x
l Voiced alveolar lateral o
v voiced Labio-dental fricative o
ʒ Voiced Palato-alveolar fricative o
n voiced alveolar nasal o

Tongue height Tongue Lip rounding Muscle tension Vowel length

position
e mid front unrounded lax short
i high front unrounded lax short
ə mid central unrounded lax short

b. Though there’s a good deal of pressure, of course.

/ ˈpreʃ.ər/

Voiced/voiceless Place of articulation Manner of articulation Aspiration

p voiceless bilabial stop x
r voiced palato-alveolar gliding o
ʃ voiceless palato-alveolar fricative o

Tongue Tongue Lip Muscle Vowel

height position rounding tension length
e mid front unrounded lax short
ə mid central unrounded lax short
 c. It’s probably better to avoid the occasion of sin.
/ ˈprɒb.ə.bli/

Voiced/voiceless Place of articulation Manner of articulation Aspiration

p voiceless bilabial stop x
l voiced alveolar lateral o
b voiced bilabial stop o
r voiced palato-alveolar gliding o

Tongue Tongue Lip Muscle Vowel

height position rounding tension length
e mid front unrounded lax short
ɒ mid back rounded lax short
ə mid central unrounded lax short

d. I am not aware that I gave you permission to leave.

/pəˈmɪʃ.ən/

Voiced/voiceless Place of articulation Manner of articulation Aspiration

p voiceless bilabial stop x
m voiced bilabial nasal o
n voiced alveolar nasal o
ʃ voiceless palato-alveolar fricative o

Tongue Tongue Lip Muscle Vowel

height position rounding tension length
i high front unrounded lax short
ə mid central unrounded lax short

e. I have a problem that is much more complicated than that.

/ˈkɒm.plɪ.keɪ.tɪd/

Voiced/voiceless Place of articulation Manner of articulation Aspiration

k voiceless velar stop x
l Voiced alveolar lateral o
p voiceless bilabial stop o
m Voiced bilabial nasal o
t voiceless alveolar stop o
d voiced alveolar stop o
 Tongue height Tongue Lip rounding Muscle Vowel length
position tension
i high front unrounded lax short
ɒ mid back rounded lax short

3. Read the sentences and indicate cases of linking, elision and assimilation if there is.
a. How many people were killed in street accidents last year?
// haʊ ˈmeni ˈpiːpl wə kɪlt in striːt ˈæk.sɪ.dən(t)s lɑːs(t) jɪə //
linking elision s - assimilation
b.None of us have finished Chapter two yet.
// nʌn əv əs əv ˈfɪn.ɪʃt ˈtʃæp.tə tuː jet // linking
c.I never imagine that such a thing could happen. Did you?
// aɪ ˈnevər ɪˈmædʒɪn ðət sʌtʃ ə θɪŋ kʊd ˈhæpən//. // dɪd juː //
linking dʒ - assimilation
d.These bookshelves are becoming very popular in Sweden?
// ðiːz ˈbʊkʃelvs ə bɪˈkʌm.ɪŋ ˈveri ˈpɒpjələr in ˈswiːdən//

e.The process of changing a computer program can be compared with human dreams.
// ðiː ˈprəʊ.ses əv ˈtʃeɪn.dʒɪŋ ə kəm ˈprəʊ.ɡræm kən biː kəmˈpeərd wɪð
ˈhjuː.mən ˈpjuː.tə
b- assimilation

driːmz//