LEARNING

− Learning is a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of experience.

− the acquisition of information, knowledge, and skills through study, experience, or being taught.
− An ongoing process that takes place throughout life and isn't confined to formal education.
− helps individual to overcome obstacles, adjust to new situations, not repeat mistakes.
Eg: when a child touches a burning matchstick they get burnt. The next time, when they come across
a burning matchstick, they immediately withdraw from it and learn to avoid not only the burning
matchstick but also all burning things.
Gardner Murphy: the term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental
requirements.
Henry Smith: learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old
behaviour as the result of learning.

Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is a process and not a product.
2. It involves all those experiences and training of an individual (right from birth) which help him to
produce changes in his behaviour.
3. Learning alters behavior but doesn't always ensure positive growth; negative changes are equally
possible.
4. Learning may result in discontinuance or abandonment of existing behaviour. Unlearning is also a
learning process.
5. Learning prepares an individual for any adjustment and adaptation that may be necessary.
6. Learning is purposeful and goal-oriented. Without purpose, there would be hardly any learning.
7. It is a comprehensive process covering conative, cognitive and affective aspects of human
behaviour.
8. Learning is universal and lifelong. It is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or culture.
9. All learning does not take place in the same manner. It is of various types and involves different
methods.
10. The concept of learning excludes behaviours which are instinctual and reflexive. They aren’t
learned behaviours. E.g., blinking at bright lights or an infant's sucking behaviour.
11. Learning does not include changes in behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue, illness, or
drugs etc.

Types of Learning
Learning is classified based on:
(a) the specific area of behaviour which changed – verbal learning (involving verbal expression),
learning of motor skills (walking, dancing, typing, swimming), affective learning (learning of
habits, interest, attitudes, appreciation), and cognitive learning (learning of concepts, principles,
problem solving).

(b) the methods used for behavioural changes – trial-and-error learning, classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, chain learning, shaping, learning through generalization, learning through
discrimination, serial learning, associate learning, insightful learning.
An alternative classification of learning by Gagne (1970):
1. Signal learning or classical conditioning
2. S.R. learning or instrumental and operant conditioning
Behavioural aspects
3. Chain learning
Complexity increases
4. Verbal associate learning
as you move towards
cognitive aspect 5. Multiple discrimination
6. Learning of concepts
Cognitive aspects
7. Learning of principles
8. Problem solving

1. Verbal learning involves acquiring language and communication skills through methods like rote
memorization and the use of signs, symbols, words, figures and sounds.
2. Motor learning covers mastering various motor skills such as swimming, driving, drawing, horse
riding, or playing an instrument, fostering confidence and proficiency through systematic
practice.
3. Concept learning involves forming mental images and generalized ideas about things, persons or
events, on account of our previous experience, perception or imagination. It is very useful in
recognizing, naming and identifying things. All our behavior, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as
cognitive (what we do, say, understand), are influenced by our concepts.
4. Problem solving is a higher type of learning, requiring cognitive abilities like reasoning, thinking,
discrimination, generalization, imagination, the ability to infer, draw conclusions and try out
novel ways. It enables individuals to tackle problems, unfold mysteries and contribute to societal
progress.
5. Serial learning involves mastering sequential information, like alphabet or multiplication tables,
names of states in a country. Experiments show that items at the beginning and end of the list
are easier to recall than those in the middle.
6. Paired-associate learning connects tasks or information through associations, making it easier to
remember. Ganga, a girl’s name may become easy to remember in a paired association with the
river Ganges. Helps in acquiring and remembering much of the verbal or motor learning.

Factors Affecting Learning

A. Factors associated with Learner:
1. their physical and mental health
2. their basic potential
3. their level of aspiration and achievement motivation
4. their goals of life
5. their readiness and willpower

B. Factors associated with Type of Learning Experiences:

1. nature of learning experience - formal or informal, incidental or organised, direct or indirect.
suitably selected on the basis of the principle of child-centeredness, principle of activity, age,
grade and experiences of the learner or not. learning experiences are suitably organised for the
attainment of desired educational objectives or not.
2. methodology of learning experiences -
a. Linking of New Learning with those of Past.
b. Correlating the Learning in one Area to the other.
c. Utilization of Maximum Number of Senses.
d. Work Revision and Practice.
e. Provision of Proper Feedback and Reinforcement.
f. The Selection of the Suitable Learning Methods and Teaching.

Factors associated with the Men and Material Resources

1) Quality of the teacher in terms of his mastery over the subject matter, teaching skills, rich
experiences and teacher like qualities and behaviour.
2) Socio-emotional climate available in the institution in the form of teacher pupil relationships,
pupil-pupil relationships and school-staff relationships and the like.
3) Availability of appropriate learning material and facilities like teaching learning aids, text books,
library and laboratory facilities, project works.

Availability of proper conducive environment and learning situations like:

a) Proper seating arrangement
b) Calm and peaceful environment
c) Management and control of the factors leading to distraction
d) Cooperative and competitive group situations.
e) Congenial learning environment at home.
f) Provision of proper change, rest and recreation.
g) Provision of opportunity for creativity and self-expression

CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY

The theory emphasizes that learners actively build knowledge through their experiences and prior
understanding. This approach highlights that students integrate new ideas with their existing
knowledge, shaping their learning through active mental work. Learners develop schemas to
organize acquired knowledge.
Recognizing each student's unique perspective and prior experiences becomes crucial, as this
influences their learning process profoundly. Understanding the impact of these experiences helps
educators recognize the starting point of each student's learning journey, making learning theories as
essential to teaching as academic qualifications.
The theory of constructivism has many elements:
1. Knowledge is constructed: Learning involves building upon preexisting knowledge, with each
student selecting and integrating unique pieces of experience.
2. Learning is a social activity: Collaborative activities, discussions, and interactions are crucial for
knowledge construction, highlighting the connection between learning and relationships.
3. Learning is an active process: Students must engage actively to construct meaningful ideas,
emphasizing that passive roles hinder true understanding.
4. Learning is contextual: Making connections between existing knowledge and new information
within the context of life experiences aids in meaningful learning and retention.
5. People learn to learn, as they learn: Through the learning process, students improve their
abilities to select, organize, and synthesize information, recognizing simultaneous learning in
various contexts.
6. Learning exists in the mind: Hands-on activities aren't sufficient for knowledge retention; active
mental engagement and reflection are essential for thorough understanding.
7. Knowledge is personal: Each individual's perspective and experiences shape their learning
journey, leading to unique understandings.
8. Motivation is the key to learning: Motivation is crucial for making connections and fostering
understanding, emphasizing the role of educators in motivating students for active engagement
in learning.

Constructivism in Education
Constructivist classrooms prioritize student-centered learning, fostering exploration, dialogue, and
critical thinking. Teachers guide students to build upon existing knowledge, encouraging growth and
deeper understanding through reflection and active engagement.
Four Key Areas for Success in a Constructivist Classroom:
1) Facilitator Role: Instructors transition from directing to facilitating learning.
2) Equal Authority: Both students and instructors share authority and responsibility.
3) Small Group Learning: Collaborative learning takes place in small groups.
4) Shared Knowledge: Knowledge is exchanged and constructed by both students and instructors.

Implementing Constructivist Theory in Classroom Lessons:

1) Eliciting Prior Knowledge: Lessons begin by activating students' existing knowledge through
discussions or activities.
2) Creating Cognitive Dissonance: Challenging tasks encourage students to reevaluate their
understanding and find new solutions.
3) Applying Knowledge with Feedback: Assessments or discussions provide feedback to encourage
further growth and understanding.
4) Reflecting on Learning: Students showcase their understanding through essays, presentations, or
sharing knowledge with peers.

Examples of Constructivist Classroom Activities

Reciprocal teaching/learning: a group of 2 or more students work together and teach one another.

Inquiry-based learning: students create their own questions and seek to solve them through
research and observations. After underlining the arguments for their response, they make
connections between their prior knowledge and the information discovered through their research.
Students conclude by identifying possible gaps and developing further questions for the next project.

Problem-based learning: focuses on problems in the real world. Students work in groups to research
possible solutions and gain valuable skills by working together. Seeking evidence, making
connections, and drawing conclusions as a team help students develop communication and
collaborative skills while solving real-world issues.

Cooperative learning: small group activity with one key difference – interdependence. While most
constructivist activities rely on group learning, cooperative activities are where group members are
dependent on others to achieve solutions. There is no division of tasks in cooperative learning;
instead, group members rely on the knowledge of others to further their own understanding.

E.L. THORNDIKE’S TRIAL AND ERROR THEORY

According to Edward Lee Thorndike, learning takes place because of formation of bond or connection
between stimulus and response. Learning is done through a process of approximation and
correction. He suggests that a person makes a number of trials until he gets satisfactory responses.
His most widely quoted experiment is with a cat placed in a puzzle box.
On the basis of the experiment on the hungry cat, he named it as Trial-and-Error Learning. The
analysis of learning behaviour of the cat in the box shows that besides trial and error, the principles
of goal, motivation, explanation and reinforcement are involved in the process of learning by trial
and error. Based on the trial-and-error learning theory, Thorndike gave certain laws of learning:
Law of Readiness:
− Learning takes place only when the learner is prepared to learn.
− If the child is ready to learn, they learn more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction
than if they’re not ready to learn.
− This law means mental preparation for action.
− It says not to force a child if he’s not ready.
− Learning failures are the result of forcing the learner to learn when he is not ready to learn.

Law of Exercise:
− This law explains the role of practice in learning.
− Learning becomes efficient through practice or exercise.
− This law further splits into two parts:
a) Law of use: connection between S and R is strengthened by its occurrence, its exercise or its use.
b) Law of disuse: when a modifiable connection is not made between a stimulus and a response
over a length of time, the strength of that connection is decreased. Any act that is not practiced
for some time gradually decays.

Law of Effect
− When a connection between S and R is accompanied by a satisfying state, its strength is
increased. When it is accompanied by annoying state of affairs, its strength is weakened.
− The responses that produce satisfaction or comfort for the learner are strengthened and
responses that produce annoyance or discomfort for the learner are weakened.
− This law was revised by Thorndike and he stated that reward strengthened the response but
punishment did not always weaken the response.
− Then he placed more emphasis on the reward aspect than on the punishment aspect of the law
of effect.

B.F. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

− also known as Instrumental Conditioning
− method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour that is
displayed.
− Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence
for that behaviour.
− The term ‘operant’ is used to refer to any active behaviour that operates upon the environment
to generate consequences.
− Skinner’s work is based on Thorndike’s law of effect – reinforcement – behaviour that is
reinforced tends to be repeated, behaviour that is not reinforced tends to die out or be
extinguished (weakened).
− Skinner studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments on rats, which he placed in a
“Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.
Skinner identified 3 types of responses or operant that can follow behaviour:
1. Neutral Operant: Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behaviour being repeated.
 2. Reinforcement: These are any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows by
benefitting the receiver. There are 2 kinds of reinforcers –
i. Positive reinforcers: favourable events or outcomes that are presented after the behaviour. A
response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct
reward.
ii. Negative reinforcers: involve the removal of unfavourable events or outcomes after the display
of a behaviour. A response is strengthened by the removal of something unpleasant.
3. Punishment: It is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behaviour it follows. Punishment weakens behaviour. There are 2 kinds of punishment:
i. Positive punishment: sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the
presentation of an unfavourable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
ii. Negative punishment: sometimes known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favourable
event or outcome is removed after a behaviour occurs.

PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning which has been acquired through
experience. One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning can be found with the Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his experiments on dogs.
Various components involved in classical conditioning:
1. The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): It is anything, which can evoke a response without prior
learning or conditioning. Food.
2. The Conditioned Stimulus (CS): It is created by learning, and therefore does not create a
response with prior conditioning. Here learning happens before response. Bell.
3. The Unconditioned Response (UCR): It is anything that happens automatically without having to
think about it. This response happens automatically and one did not have to learn how to do it.
4. The Conditioned Response (CR): It is a response which one has learnt to associate with
something. It is a behaviour that can be evoked in response to a conditioned stimulus.

Basic concepts in Classical Conditioning:

1) Acquisition: In the initial period of learning, acquisition describes when an organism learns to
connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
2) Extinction: In psychology, extinction refers to gradual weakening of a conditioned response by
breaking the association between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli. For example,
when the bell was repeatedly rung and no food presented Pavlov’s dog gradually stopped
salivating at the sound of the bell.
3) Spontaneous Recovery: Spontaneous Recovery is a phenomenon of Pavlovian conditioning that
refers to the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time following
extinction. For example, when Pavlov waited a few days after extinguishing the conditioned
response, and then rang the bell once more, the dog salivated again.
4) Stimulus Generalization: In psychology, generalisation is the tendency to respond in the same
way to stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus. For example, in
Pavlov's experiment, if a dog is conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, it may later salivate
to a higher pitched bell.
5) Stimulus Discrimination: In classical conditioning, discrimination is a process through which
individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one.
For example, eventually Pavlov’s dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and
no longer salivates at the sound of the non-food bell.