EMT 2336 Dynamics of Planar Mechanisms

(EMT 2207: Planar Mechanisms II)

Lecture notes compiled by

Gl̃ thu Njiri

May 2011

Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient
material for their studies since the purpose of the notes is not meant to be a substitute for
regularly attending classes, reading relevant textbooks and recommended books. The notes are
aimed at providing a quick reference and a brief guidance for the students.

1
Expected Outcomes

At the end of this course, you should be able to;

• Carry out kinematic synthesis of planar mechanisms.

• Write computer programs to design linkages (Computer Aided Design of Linkages

- Simulation)

• Determine static forces acting on a planar mechanism

• Determine inertia forces acting on a planar mechanism

Course Outline
1. Dynamics of mechanisms: Newtonian mechanics; static forces, dynamic forces,
inertia forces in linkages, centre of percussion

2. Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages - Classification of synthesis; (function gen-

eration, path generation and motion generation), Freudensteins Equation, Cheby-
shev’s theorem, Minimizing Structural Errors, Computer simulation in design of
linkages.

Practicals
1. Case study and computer simulation

Prerequisites
- EMT 2331: Kinematics of Planar Mechanisms

- EMG 2207: Engineering Mechanics-Dynamics

Reference Textbooks
1. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C., Mechanics of Machines -Elementary Theory and
Examples, Arnold International Publishers.

2. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C, Mechanics of Machines -Advanced Theory and

Examples, Arnold International Publishers.

i
 3. Ryder, G.H. and Bennett, M.D., Mechanics of Machines, McMillan Education Ltd
Publishers, 2nd Ed., 1990.

4. Hamilton, H.M and Charles F.R., Mechanics and Dynamics of Machinery,

5. Shigley J. and Uicker, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms,

6. Norton, R.L., Design of Machinery - An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis

of Mechanisms and Machines, McGraw-Hill Publishers, 3rd Ed., 2004.

7. Grosjean, J., Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

(UK) Ltd, 1991.

8. Mabie, H. H., Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machines.

9. Prentice, J. M., Dynamics of Mechanical Systems.

Meeting times
• Lectures:

• Tutorials:

• Practical:

Course Policies

Assignments
• Are part of course work and shall constitute 5%.

• Shall be due a week after it is assigned unless otherwise specified.

• The objective of the homework is to train you to use the principles we covered in
class. Please feel free to solve homework in groups or individually.

• Solution to any assignment problem will be posted after homework is collected.

Continuous Assessment Tests (CATS)

• There will be a total of three CATS which will be held at times scheduled on
mutual agreement in class, but within the periods proposed by the Registrar AA.

• Are part of course work and shall constitute 10%.

• Each CAT will be revised in class on the day the marked scripts are returned.

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Practicals
• Are part of course work and constitute 15%.

• They shall be done in groups which will be formed alphabetically unless there is a
strong reason not to do so.

• Each student shall submit a practical report two weeks after the practical is done.
Collusion will not be accepted and both parties will be penalized.

• Note that marks will be awarded for good conduct in the laboratories. This infor-
mation will be obtained from the technician in charge.

End Semester Exam

• University rules and regulations apply.

• Shall constitute 70%

• The objective of exams is to test your understanding of material covered. Therefore,

please do not expect to see one of the homework problems, slightly masked, in the
test. You should not also expect to see something totally new in an exam, as you
will not have enough time to consider it.

• My experience tells me that your chance of passing an exam is greatly enhanced if

you solve assignments and tutorials regularly.

Therefore the exam constitutes of the Course work and End Semester Exam as;

30% Course work - Assignments (5%), CATS (10%) and Practicals (15%).

70% End Semester Exam.

Notes
• I will only provide approximately 70% in class. It is your duty therefore to go an
extra mile and cover the other 30% by reading the textbooks given as references
herein, or any other material you think appropriate. The reference textbooks are
available in the University’s Main Library.

• My lectures will be based on the most important material in the reading assignment
and i won’t repeat much of the material in the assigned readings. It is the duty
of the students to read carefully and critically, identifying and bringing questions
about the readings to class.

• Feel free to consult me in my office at any time for elaborations and answers to
questions on the subject. Remember, Aulizaye si mjinga

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• I believe you are all aware that, no student should be allowed to sit for an end
semester exam without having attended at least two-thirds of the lectures. To this
effect, nominal rolls will be provided during class times for each student present
to sign as a proof of his/her presence. Regular counter-checks will be done to
determine if anyone absent has been signed for.

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Contents

Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Practicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Reference Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Meeting Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Course Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

1 Forces in Mechanisms 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Free Body Diagrams (FBD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Static forces in linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Static equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Tutorial 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Inertia forces and torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Inertia force and torque in a rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Inertia forces and torques in linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 Four bar linkage as a typical case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.4 Static forces in quick-return mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Kinematic Synthesis of Planar Linkages 18

2.1 Classification of kinematic synthesis problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Input-output relationship of a standard four-bar linkage: Freudenstein’s
equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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2.3 Function generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Structural error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Tutorial 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

vi
Chapter 1

Forces in Mechanisms

1.1 Introduction

A mechanism is a device that transforms motion and in so doing transmits power by

means of forces and torques in its elements.
Planar mechanisms I dealt with the geometry of the mechanism and the relationship
between the displacement, velocity and acceleration with time. The forces which produce
the motion and which result from motion of a mechanism were not considered.
The knowledge of forces acting on a machine member is very important. These forces
must be within the working limit of the material of the member to which they are acting.
For example if the force acting on a piston in an internal combustion engine is too high,
it might cause the gudgeon pin to shear. Also if the force operating on a journal bearing
is too high, it will squeeze the oil film and cause metal to metal contact, and hence
overheating and rapid failure of the bearing.
Therefore a designer of a mechanism should ensure that all the elements of the mechanism
have been properly designed so that they will not fail during service. Hence the study
of forces acting on a mechanism is of paramount importance in design of mechanisms.
In this chapter, we shall investigate the static and dynamic forces and torques in mech-
anisms

1.1.1 Force

This is the action of one body on another. Its a vector quantity and hence to completely
define a force we must specify its magnitude, direction and place of application of the
force.
The forces of action and reaction between any two of the connecting bodies are called
constraint forces. They constrain the body to move in a specific manner. Forces external
to these bodies are called applied forces.

1
The direction of a force includes the concept of the line along which the force is directed
and sense. Thus a force is directed negatively or positively along the line of action

1.1.2 Free Body Diagrams (FBD)

A FBD is a sketch of a body isolated from other bodies on which the forces and moments
are shown in action. If the FBD is of the entire machine, then the forces and moments
shown are the external applied forces and moments, whereas, if the FBD is of a portion
of a machine part, then the forces shown should include the internal actions and reaction
forces.
Free bond diagrams are very important in analysis of forces and moments in machines,
since;

• they assist in understanding of the problem

• they make it easy for one to translate word thoughts into physical models
• they make mathematical relations in static equilibrium easy to see and find.

1.2 Static forces in linkages

In order to calculate the forces and torques in any mechanism, it is necessary to isolate
each element of the mechanism as a free body and then apply the equilibrium conditions.

1.2.1 Static equilibrium

Lets consider the transmission of forces in mechanisms neglecting inertia forces, in which
case the forces and torques will be in static equilibrium.
Force and torque being vector quantities can be resolved into components, and for a
body to be in static equilibrium, then, the summation of forces in any direction must be
zero, and also the summation of torques about any axis must be also zero, that is,
X
Fx = 0
X
Fy = 0
X
Fz = 0
X
Mx = 0
X
My = 0
X
Mz = 0

For a body to be in equilibrium under the action of two forces F1 and F2 applied at
points A and B as shown in figure 1.1(a), these two forces must be equal in magnitude,
opposite in sense and must be collinear.

2
In the case of a body subjected to three forces F1 , F2 and F3 applied at points A, B and
C respectively as shown in figure 1.1(b), then for static equilibrium, the line of action of
these forces must be concurrent and meet at the same point P . This is the principle of
concurrence
F2
(a)
F3
(b)

B C

F1 A

A
B

F1
F2

Figure 1.1:

All the three forces can be represented in a triangle of forces, each side of which is parallel
to the line action of a force.

Example 1.1

The figure below shows a slider-crank mechanism whose crank is 65 mm and connecting
rod 200 mm long. At the instant when θ2 = 450 , the force on the slider is 500 N.
Calculate the torque T which must be exerted on the crank Ao A in order to maintain
static equilibrium. Calculate also the corresponding forces in all the members. Neglect
friction and inertia forces.

T
θ2 P
B
Ao

Solution: First we draw free body diagrams for all the members of the mechanism.
First method- Draw free body diagrams for all the members of the mechanism. The
forces FAB acting in the connecting rod must be equal, opposite and collinear. The slider
is subjected to three forces P which is known in both magnitude direction , FAB and FB
which are known in direction only.

3
 FAB
A
A
FAB

T φ B
FAB FAB
θ2 P
FAB B
Ao
Fb

Angle φ is,
!
−1 Ao A sin θ2
φ = sin
AB
65 sin 450
!
= sin−1 = 13.290
200

Apply static equilibrium to each member.

At the slider,
X
Fx = 0
P − FAB cos φ = 0
P 500
FAB = = = 513.76 N
cos φ cos 13.290

X
Fy = 0
Fb − FAB sin φ = 0
Fb = FAB sin φ = 513.76 sin 13.290 = 118.1 N

At the crank Ao A,
X
MAo = 0
T = Ao AFAB cos φ sin θ2 + Ao AFAB sin φ cos θ2
= Ao AFAB sin(φ + θ2 )
= 0.65 × 513.76 sin 13.290 + 450 ) = 28.4 Nm

The torque required to maintain static equilibrium is T = 28.4N m in the clockwise

direction.
Alternative method- Draw free body diagrams for all the joints in the mechanism,
Apply static equilibrium to each member.

4
 R Ay
R Ax
A

A
R Ax
R Ay
T R Ao y RBy
φ
θ2 RBx RBx P
B B
Ao RAo x RBy
Fb

At the slider,
X
Fx = 0
P − RBx = 0
RBx = P = 500 N

At the connecting rod,

X
MA = 0
RBx AB sin φ + RBy AB cos φ = 0
−RBx sin φ 500 sin 13.290
RBy = = = −118.1 N
cos φ cos 13.290

X
Fx = 0
RAx − RBx = 0
RAx = RBx = 500 N

X
Fy = 0
RAy − RBy = 0
RAy = RBy = −118.1 N

At the crank,
X
MAo = 0
T = RAx Ao A sin θ2 − RAy Ao A cos θ2
= 500 × 0.065 sin 45 − (−118.1) × 0.065 cos 450 = 28.4 Nm

5
1.3 Tutorial 2
1. For the double crank-slider mechanism shown in figure 1.2, calculate the force F
on slider A, necessary to maintain static equilibrium at the instant shown. The
dimension of the links are: AB = 152 mm, Co B = CD = 127 mm, and BC = 42
mm.
B

F P = 7000 N
A
D

50mm
60 0 Co

Figure 1.2:

2. For the quick-return mechanism shown in figure 1.3, calculate the torque T required
to overcome a load P = 200 N and the corresponding forces in all the members at
the instant shown. The dimensions of the links are: Ao B = 62.5 mm , Bo C = 400
mm and DC = 200 mm. Neglect the inertia effects and the friction at the joints
except at the slider D where coefficient of friction is µ = 0.3.
D
P

250mm

T Ao
45 0

150mm

Bo

Figure 1.3:

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 3. Figure 1.4 shows a dockside crane. Neglecting the mass of each member, calculate
the static torque T required to overcome a load W of 300 kN when θ = 600 and 1350 ,
corresponding to initial and final positions. The link dimensions are: AB = 14.7
m, BD = 6.5 m, DE = 19.3 m, BC = 22.3 m, and CD = 16 m.

D
W
T

θ
A
5.3m

6.4m

Figure 1.4:

1.4 Inertia forces and torques

1.4.1 Inertia force and torque in a rigid body

Consider a moving rigid body of mass m acted upon by a system of forces.

F1
F2

FR

L TR

aG F3
F5

F4

Figure 1.5:

7
The resultant force vector is;
N
F~R =
X
F
i=1

In general, the line of action of this resultant force will not be through the center of mass
G of the body, and its effect is to produce a linear and angular accelerations.
The linear and angular accelerations can be obtained using the Newton’s second law of
motion. Linear acceleration is obtained from equation,

F~R = ma~G (1.1)

and the angular acceleration is obtained from equation,

T~R = I α~G (1.2)

where T~R is the resultant moment about the center of mass of the body produced by the
resultant force. Hence,

T~R = F~R L

Thus if all forces and moments acting on a body are known, then equations 1.1 and 1.2
can be used to determine the linear and angular accelerations of the rigid body.

1.4.2 Inertia forces and torques in linkages

In most cases the motion of a mechanism members is usually specified in advance by

the machine requirements. Hence the problem now becomes; given the motion of a
mechanism, determine which forces are required to produce this motion, that is, given
the linear and angular accelerations of a body, use equations 1.1 and 1.2 to determine
the inertia forces and torques acting on the various members of the mechanism.
To determine the linear and angular accelerations of various members in a mechanism,
acceleration analysis should be done using either of the methods discussed in Planar
Mechanisms I (i.e, graphical or analytical methods of acceleration analysis)
When a mechanism is accelerating the resulting forces and torques are referred to as
inertia forces and inertia torques. They are also known as dynamic forces and torques.
They can be very high particularly in high speed mechanisms such as, slider-crank mech-
anism used in internal combustion engines, packaging machines, stitching machines etc.
It is therefore important to be able to calculate them in order to take them into account
in detailed designs of all the members of the mechanisms.
When a body ia accelerating, there must a force F and a torque T acting on the body
such that,

F = ma (1.3)
T = Iα (1.4)

8
Where m is the mass of the body, a is the acceleration of the center of mass of the body,
I is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis through the center of mass of the
body, and α is the angular acceleration of the body.
The inertia force F = ma acts in the center of mass of a body and has the same line
of action as the linear acceleration of the mass center but in the opposite direction.
Similarly, the inertia torque T = Iα acts about the mass center of the body, and is in
the opposite direction with the angular acceleration of the body.
When calculating forces and torques in mechanisms graphically, it is necessary to replace
a force a torque on a body by a single force. This is a well known principle in mechanics
and is illustrated in figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6(a) shows a body subjected to inertia force F = ma and inertia torque T = Iα.

(a )
(b)

F = ma F
G
F
T = Iα G
d F

Figure 1.6:

In figure 1.6(b), two extra forces have been added, one at G opposite and equal to the
applied force F , and another at O at a distance d from G.
For the two forces in figure 1.6(a) and (b) to be dynamically equivalent, then the two
forces at G should cancel out, and the single force at O should replace the original force
and torque. The force F at O must therefore be applied at a distance d from center of
mass G such that,

Fd = T
T Iα
d = = (1.5)
F ma

In a mechanism, if we know the ma and Iα of a particular link as inertia force and inertia
torque respectively, then,
X
F orces = 0
X
T orques = 0

P
These equations are considered as equations of static equilibrium in which the F orces
P
includes the inertia forces, and T orques include inertia torques. This implies that the
dynamic problem is reduced to a static problem called d’Alembert’s principle.

9
1.4.3 Four bar linkage as a typical case

Consider a four bar linkage shown below whose crank rotates at a constant velocity ω2 .
C2 , C3 and C4 are the mass centers of crank, coupler and follower links. m2 , m3 and m4
are the masses of crank, coupler and follower links. I2 , I3 and I4 are the moments of
inertia of crank, coupler and follower links.
We need to determine torque T , which must be applied at the crank to produce motion.
First, we draw an acceleration diagram of the linkage in order to determine the angular
accelerations of all the links, and the linear accelerations of the mass centers of all the
links.
To draw an acceleration diagram, we need to determine all the angular velocities of the
links. This can be achieved graphically through velocity diagram method or instant
center method.

C3 B

A
ω3 C4
C2
ω2 ω4

O2
O1
d

o
c2
n a Bn
a A

n
a' , a
aBA

b' b"
c4

t
c3
aBA
aBt

Figure 1.7:

From the acceleration diagram, the accelerations of the center of masses of the links are,

• Acceleration for the mass center of crank is, ac2 = oc2

• Acceleration for the mass center of coupler is, ac3 = oc3

• Acceleration for the mass center of the follower is, ac4 = oc4

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Also from the acceleration diagram, angular accelerations of the coupler and follower
links are,

• Angular acceleration for the coupler link AB is,

atBA b0 b
αAB = α3 = =
AB AB
• Angular acceleration for the follower link O2 B is,
atB b00 b
αO2 B = α4 = =
O2 B O2 B

The direction of these accelerations are obtained from the diagram. The angular accel-
eration of the crank link is zero, since the link rotates with constant angular velocity.
The figure below shows the three links together with the inertia forces and torques shown
dotted and opposite to the direction of accelerations.
F3 = m3 ac 3

α3 B

C3
A B
A F4 = m4 ac 4
ac 3 T3 = I 3α 3
C2 F2 = m2 ac 2
T4 = I 4α 4
C4
α4
ac 2
O1
ac 4
O2

Figure 1.8:

We are now in a position to draw a free body diagram for each link. The inertia forces
and torques are considered to be external and must be in equilibrium with the reactions
at each joint.
The vector sum of the inertia forces, that is, S = F2 + F3 + F4 commonly referred to as
shaking force, will result in vibrations of the linkage. Such vibrations may sometimes be
unacceptable and design efforts to balance the linkage will be necessary to avoid damage
to the mechanism and to reduce the transmission of these vibrations to the surroundings.

Example 1.2

The figure 1.9 below shows a slider crank mechanism whose crank Ao A is 65 mm long
and connecting rod AB is 200 mm long. At the instant when θ2 = 300 , the crank is

11
rotating at a constant speed of 3000 rev/min in anticlockwise direction. The masses of
the crank, connecting rod and slider are 1.75 kg, 3.25 kg, and 1.25 kg, respectively. The
location of centers of mass for the crank and connecting rod are at 25 mm and 65 mm
from Ao and A respectively. The moment of inertia of the crank and connecting rod is
2.5 × 10−3 kg/m2 and 4.3 × 10−2 kg/m2 respectively. Calculate the torque T at the crank
which is required to overcome the inertia forces.

T
θ2
B
Ao

Figure 1.9:

Solution: The first step is to calculate linear and angular accelerations of each member of
the mechanism. To do this we require the angular velocities of the crank and connecting
rod.
The angular velocity ωAo A of the crank is,
2πNAo A 2π × 3000
ω Ao A = = = 314.2 rad/s
60 60

The angular velocity ωAB of the connecting rod is obtained by drawing a velocity diagram
for the linkage at the instant.
Absolute velocity of point A,

VA = ωAo A × Ao A = 314.2 × 0.065 = 20.4 m/s

From the velocity diagram,

VBA ab 18
ωAB = = = = 90 rad/s
AB AB 0.2

The next step is to draw the acceleration diagram to determine the accelerations of the
center of masses and angular accelerations of the link.

• Normal acceleration of the point A is, anA = ωA2 o A × Ao A = 314.22 × 0.065 = 6417
m/s2 .

• The tangential acceleration of point A is zero since the crank rotates at a constant
speed.

12
 b aB
o

ac 2 ac1
a
t c1
aBA c2
VBA
VA a An

VB n
aBA a
b o b'
A
C2
C1

B
Ao

Figure 1.10:

2
• The normal acceleration of point B relative to A is anBA = ωAB × AB = 902 × 0.2 =
1620 m/s2 .

From the acceleration diagram,

Linear acceleration of mass center of the crank is,

ac1 = oc1 = 2466 m/s2

Linear acceleration of mass center of the connecting rod is,

ac2 = oc2 = 6300 m/s2

Linear acceleration of the slider is,

aB = ob = 6672 m/s2

Angular acceleration of the connecting rod is,

anBA b0 b 2940
αAB = = = = 14700 rad/s2
AB AB 0.2

Inertia force at the crank is,

F1 = M1 × ac1 = 1.75 × 2466 = 4315.5 N

Inertia force at the connecting rod is,

F2 = M2 × ac2 = 3.25 × 6300 = 20475 N

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Inertia force at the slider is,
F3 = M3 × aB = 1.25 × 6672 = 8340 N

Inertia torque at the connecting rod,

T2 = I3 × αAB = 4.3 × 10−2 × 14700 = 632.1 Nm

Draw free-body diagrams for all the members as shown below,

R Ax
A
T2 F2
R Ay
R Ay 20.10
C2
A

F1 R Ax
RBy
9.350 RBx
R Ao y C1 0
30
B
T

Ao RAo x RBy
F3

RBx B

Rs

Figure 1.11:

Applying static equilibrium to each link,

At the slider,
X
Fx = 0
RBx − F3 = 0
RBx = F3 = 8340 N

At the connecting rod. Taking moments at the connecting rod about point A,
X
MA = 0
RBy × AB cos 9.350 = T2 − F2 sin 20.10 × AC2 cos 9.350 − F2 cos 20.10 × AC2 sin 9.350
−RBx AB × cos 9.350
= 632.1 − 20475 sin 20.10 × 0.065 cos 9.350 − 20475 cos 20.10 × 0.065 sin 9.350
−8340 × 0.2 sin 9.350 = −293.3 N
−293.3
RBy = = −1486.2 N
0.2 cos 9.350
14
 X
Fx = 0
RBx + F2 cos 20.10 − RAx = 0
RAx = 8340 + 20475 cos 20.10 = 27568 N

X
Fy = 0
0
RBy + F2 sin 20.1 − RAy = 0
RAy = −1486.2 + 20475 sin 20.10 = −5550.2 N

Taking moments at the crank about point Ao to determine torque T . Note that the
inertia force F1 has no moment about point Ao since its line of action passes through
this point.

X
MAo = 0
T = RAy × Ao A cos 300 − RAx × Ao A sin 300
= 5550.2 × 0.065 cos 300 − 27568 × 0.065 sin 300
= −583.5 Nm

Therefore the torque required at the crank to overcome inertia forces is T = 583.5N m
in the an anticlockwise direction.

1.4.4 Static forces in quick-return mechanism

Figure 1.12 shows the configuration of a quick-return mechanism. The cutting force P
acting on the tool passes through the center of the slider. Its required to determine the
necessary driving torque which is to be applied on link 2 to overcome the cutting force
P, neglecting the friction and inertia forces.

Figure 1.12:

15
 Figure 1.13:

The free body diagrams are drawn as shown in figure 1.13

Apply static equilibrium at slider C;
X
Fx = 0
RCx = −P
Apply static equilibrium at link BC;
X
MB = 0
RCy BC cos φ = −RCx BC sin φ
RCy = −RCx tan φ = P tan φ

X
Fx = 0
RBx = RCx = −P

X
Fy = 0
RBy = RCy = P tan φ
It is evident that the force FA is perpendicular to link O4 B since block A slides along
this link.
Apply static equilibrium at link O4 B
X
MO4 = 0
FA O4 A + RBy O4 B cos β = RBx O4 B sin β
RBx O4 B sin β − RBy O4 B cos β
FA =
O4 A

Apply static equilibrium at slider A;

X
Fx = 0
RAx = FA cos α

16
 X
Fy = 0
RAy = FA sin α

Apply static equilibrium at link O2 A

X
MO2 = 0
T + RAy O2 A cos θ = RAx O2 A sin θ
T = RAx O2 A sin θ − RAy O2 A cos θ

17
Chapter 2

Kinematic Synthesis of Planar

Linkages

Synthesis of a mechanism refers to the procedure of starting with a required motion then
proportioning the mechanism to produce the required motion.
The following two types of errors are present in the design of linkages,

(a) Structural error - This is the difference between the motion that is desired and the
motion that is actually produced by the mechanism.
(b) Mechanical error - This comes from imperfect machining or manufacturing of the
linkage components, mechanical clearances and play in the joints, the elasticity of
the links and deformation due to loading

2.1 Classification of kinematic synthesis problems

Linkage synthesis may be classified into,

1. Function generation: The output motion is to be a specified function of the input

motion. For instance for a four-bar linkage, the function generation synthesis
problem is to find the dimensions of the linkage required to produce a specified
functional relationship between the input and output angles.
2. Path generation: The output motion requires a point on the mechanism to trace
a particular path. The mechanism designed is required to guide a point (called
tracer point) along a specified path.
3. Motion generation: An object is required to execute a specified motion.

For each of these classes of synthesis, there are three stages,

1. Type synthesis: This involves definition of a proper type of mechanism best suited
for the problem.

18
 2. Number synthesis: This involves choosing the appropriate number of links and
connections needed to produce the required motion.
3. Dimensional synthesis: This involves determining length of links necessary to ac-
complish the desired motion.

2.2 Input-output relationship of a standard four-bar

linkage: Freudenstein’s equation

Consider a four-bar linkage whose links are drawn as position vectors which form a vector
loop as shown in figure 2.1. We are interested with input angle-output angle, that is θ2
and θ4
C
R3
b R4
B
θ3
R2
c
a θ4
θ2

d R1
A D

Figure 2.1: Position vector loop for a four-bar linkage

The loop closes on itself, and hence the sum of the vectors in the loop must be equal to
zero.
Note that the directions of the position vectors are chosen so as to define their angles
where we want them to be measured. By definition, the angle of a vector is always
measured at its root not its head.
Therefore;
R2 + R3 − R4 − R1 = 0 (2.1)
Substituting the complex number notation for each position vector in equation 2.1, we
get;
aeiθ2 + beiθ3 − ceiθ2 − deiθ1 = 0 (2.2)

Substituting the Euler-identity for the eiθ term, i.e., e±θ = cos θ ± i sin θ in the vector
equation 2.2 and noting that θ1 = 0, we get;

0 = a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 )

−d(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) (2.3)
= a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 ) − d (2.4)

Equation 2.4 can be split into its imaginary and real parts, and each equated to zero.

19
Real part;
0 = a cos θ2 + b cos θ3 − c cos θ4 − d (2.5)
Imaginary part;
0 = i(a sin θ2 + b sin θ3 − c sin θ4 )
= a sin θ2 + b sin θ3 − c sin θ4 (2.6)
The scalar equations 2.5 and 2.6 can be solved simultaneously for θ3 and θ4 . Lets first
eliminate θ3 to solve for θ4 by rewriting equations 2.5 and 2.6 as follows;
b cos θ3 = −a cos θ2 + c cos θ4 + d (2.7)
b sin θ3 = −a sin θ2 + c sin θ4 (2.8)
Square equations 2.7 and 2.8 and add them.
b2 (cos2 θ3 + sin2 θ3 ) = (−a cos θ2 + c cos θ4 + d)2 + (−a sin θ2 + c sin θ4 )2 (2.9)
Expand the right hand side of equation 2.9.
b2 = a2 sin2 θ2 + c2 sin2 θ4 − 2ac sin θ2 sin θ4 + a2 cos2 θ2 + c2 cos2 θ4 + d2 − 2ac cos θ2 cos θ4
−2ad cos θ2 + 2cd cos θ4
= a2 + c2 + d2 − 2ac(sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 ) − 2ad cos θ2 + 2cd cos θ4 (2.10)
Equation 2.10 can be rearranged as;
a2 − b 2 + c 2 + d 2 d d
− cos θ2 + cos θ4 = sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 (2.11)
2ac c a
To further simplify the equation let;

d
K1 = a
d
K2 = c

a2 −b2 +c2 +d2

K2 = 2ac

Which when substituted in 2.11 we get;

K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = sin θ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4
K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = cos(θ2 − θ4 ) (2.12)

Equation 2.12 is the form known as the Freudenstein’s equation. It relates the input to
the output as a function of the sizes of links and can be used in two ways,

• Given the required relationship between the input and output angles, the link
length ratios can be obtained
• Given θ2 , we can solve for the output angle θ4 if the link lengths are known. Hence
by differentiating it with respect to time, we obtain the the velocity and acceleration
of the output link.

Due to the geometry of the mechanism, a uniform input motion will be transformed into
a non-uniform output motion.

20
Transmission angle

For smooth operation of any mechanism without jerky movements, it is important to

ensure that the transmission angle µ lies between 400 and 1400 . The ideal value is 900
but this cant remain constant during a cycle.
The transmission angle for a four bar linkage as shown in figure 2.2 can be obtained as
follows,

ABo2 = a2 + d2 − 2ad cos θ2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos µ

b2 + c2 − a2 − d2 + 2ad cos θ2
cos µ = (2.13)
2bc

b
A μ

c
a
θ2

d
Ao Bo
Figure 2.2:

Example 2.1
Design a four-bar linkage to coordinate rotation of two shafts whose input and output
angles are given in the table below, and the length of the fixed link is to be 300 mm.
Input angle Output angle
300 150
450 400
0
60 650
Also check if the linkage will operate smoothly within the given range.
Solution: Freudenstein’s equation is,

K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = cos(θ2 − θ4 )

21
Which when applied at each pair of input and output angles we get three simultaneous
equations to solve for K1 , K2 , and K3 as,

K1 cos 150 − K2 cos 300 + K3 = cos 150

K1 cos 400 − K2 cos 450 + K3 = cos 50
K1 cos 650 − K2 cos 600 + K3 = cos −50

Which reduces to,

0.966K1 − 0.866K2 + K3 = 0.966

0.766K1 − 0.707K2 + K3 = 0.996
0.423K1 − 0.500K2 + K3 = 0.996

Which can be solved by appropriate matrix manipulation, such as Cramer’s rule to get,
K3 = 1.19, K1 = 0.476, and K2 = 0.789.
Since d = 300 mm, then,
d 300
a = = = 630.3 mm
K1 0.476
d 300
c = = = 380.2 mm
K2 0.789
b2 = a2 + c2 + d2 − 2acK3 = 630.32 + 380.22 + 3002 − 2 × 630.3 × 380.2 × 1.19
b2 = 61486.8
b = 248 mm

To check if the mechanism operates smoothly within the given range, we use equation
2.13 to determine if the transmission angle lies between 400 and 1400 .
θ2 ν
300 75.80
450 94.20
600 119.20

Since 400 < µ < 1400 , the quality of transmission should be good and the linkage will
operate smoothly even allowing for the inevitable presence of friction.

2.3 Function generation

One of the problems in kinematic synthesis is to find the dimensions of the linkage such
that θ4 = F (θ2 ), where F is the desired functional relationship between the output and
input angles.
One of the simplest ways to calculate the link dimensions is to choose three arbitrary
pairs of θ2 and θ4 , and then use the Freudenstein’s equation to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 ,
but deviations (structural errors) occur elsewhere.

22
We therefore need three pairs of θ2 and θ4 to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 which should be
ideally chosen to minimize the structural errors throughout the operating range.
The best spacing for the precision points for input angle is called Chebyshev’s spacing,
which is such that for n points in the range xo ≤ x ≤ xf , the precision points are,
1 1  π(2j − 1) 
xj = (xo + xf ) − (xf − xo ) cos (2.14)
2 2 2n
Where,

j = 1, 2.....n
xj ’s are the precision points.

Example 2.2
If y = x0.8 , determine three precision points for the range 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 using Chebyshev’s
spacing.
Solution: The precision points are given by equation 2.14.
1 1  π(2j − 1) 
xj = (xo + xf ) − (xf − xo ) cos
2 2 2n

Where n = 3, xo = 1 and xf = 3, therefore the first precision point (when j = 1) is

1 1  π(2 × 1 − 1) 
x1 = (1 + 3) − (3 − 1) cos
2 2 2×3
π
= 2 − cos = 1.134
6

The second precision point (when j = 2) is

1 1  π(2 × 2 − 1) 
x2 = (1 + 3) − (3 − 1) cos
2 2 2×3
π
= 2 − cos = 2.000
2

The third precision point (when j = 3) is

1 1  π(2 × 3 − 1) 
x3 = (1 + 3) − (3 − 1) cos
2 2 2×3
5π
= 2 − cos = 2.866
6

Example 2.3
The functional relationship between the input and output angles of a four-bar linkage is
required to be
2400 (θ2 − 7.50 )
θ4 =
θ2 + 600

23
for 300 ≤ θ2 ≤ 1200 . Where θ2 and θ4 define the rotation angles of the input and output
links respectively. If it is required that the length of the fixed link be 200mm, determine
the sizes of the other three links. Use Chebyshev’s spacing to obtain the three precision
points.
Solution: From the Chebyshev’s spacing formula,
1 1  π(2j − 1) 
θ2j = (θ2o + θ2f ) − (θ2f − θ2o ) cos
2 2 2n
Where n = 3, θ2o = 300 , and θ2f = 1200
The first precision point for the input angle (when j = 1) is
1 0 1  π(2 × 1 − 1) 
θ21 = (30 + 1200 ) − (1200 − 300 ) cos
2 2 2×6
π 0
= 75 − 45 cos = 36.03
6
The corresponding value for θ4 is
2400 (θ21 − 7.50 )
θ41 =
θ21 + 600
2400 (36.03 − 7.50 )
= 0
= 71.30
36.03 + 60

The second precision point for the input angle (when j = 2) is

1 0 1  π(2 × 2 − 1) 
θ22 = (30 + 1200 ) − (1200 − 300 ) cos
2 2 2×6
3π
= 75 − 45 cos = 750
6
The corresponding value for θ4 is
2400 (θ22 − 7.50 )
θ42 =
θ22 + 600
2400 (75 − 7.50 )
= = 120.00
75 + 600

The third precision point for the input angle (when j = 3) is

1 0 1  π(2 × 3 − 1) 
θ23 = (30 + 1200 ) − (1200 − 300 ) cos
2 2 2×6
5π
= 75 − 45 cos = 113.970
6
The corresponding value for θ4 is
2400 (θ23 − 7.50 )
θ43 =
θ23 + 600
2400 (113.97 − 7.50 )
= = 146.90
113.97 + 600

24
Using the Freudenstein’s equation to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 ,

K1 cos 71.30 − K2 cos 36.030 + K3 = cos −35.270

K1 cos 120.00 − K2 cos 75.000 + K3 = cos −450
K1 cos 146.90 − K2 cos 113.970 + K3 = cos −32.930
Which reduces to,

0.321K1 − 0.809K2 + K3 = 0.816

−0.50K1 − 0.259K2 + K3 = 0.707
−0.838K1 + 0.407K2 + K3 = 0.839
Which can be used by appropriate matrix manipulation, such as Cramer’s rule to get,
K1 = 0.402, K2 = 0.402, and K3 = 1.012.
Since d = 200 mm, then,
d 200
a = = = 497.5 mm
K1 0.402
d 200
c = = = 497.5 mm
K2 0.402
b2 = a2 + c2 + d2 − 2acK3 = 497.52 + 497.52 + 2002 − 2 × 497.5 × 497.5 × 1.012
b2 = 34059.85
b = 184.6 mm

2.3.1 Structural error

To compute the structural error, we require the values of θ4 generated by the linkage
constructed with the link lengths obtained. These values can be obtained by solving for
θ4 from the Freudenstein’s equation using the calculated link length ratios, K1 , K2 and
K3 .
To reduce the equation 2.12 into a more tractable form for solution of θ4 , lets substitute
half-angle identities to convert the sin θ4 and cos θ4 to tan θ4 .
θ4
1 − tan2 2
cos θ4 = θ4
1 + tan2 2
2 tan θ24
sin θ4 =
1 + tan2 θ24
Substituting the identities in equation 2.12 and simplifying, we get an equation of
quadratic form.
θ4 θ4
A tan2 + B tan + C = 0 (2.15)
2 2
where;

25
A = (1 − K2 ) cos θ2 − K1 + K3

B = −2 sin θ2

C = K1 − (1 + K2 ) cos θ2 + K3

Solving equation 2.15 we get;

√ !
−1 −B ± B 2 − 4AC
θ41,2 = 2 tan (2.16)
2A

Equation 2.15 is a quadratic equation having two solutions for (output angles) for every
single output angle. The solutions may be,

• Real and equal : in this case we have one output angle.

• Real and unequal : this will refer to two branches of a linkage (open and closed
configuration)

• Complex conjugate : this implies that the link lengths chosen are not capable of
connection for the particular input angle.

Example 2.4
In example 2.3 determine the structural errors through out the given for 300 ≤ θ2 ≤ 1200
and at an increment of 100
Solution: The required output angles are given by;

2400 (θ2 − 7.50 )

θ4R =
θ2 + 600

and the generated output angles are given by,

√
−B ± B 2 − 4AC
θ4g = 2 tan −1
2A
where;

A = (1 − K2 ) cos θ2 − K1 + K3
= 0.598 cos θ2 + 0.61
B = −2 sin θ2
C = K1 − (1 + K2 ) cos θ2 + K3
= 1.414 − 1.402 cos θ2

The desired and the generated values for θ4 together with the structural errors are tab-
ulated below,

26
 Table 2.1:
S/NO. Input angle, θ 2 Required Generated Error= θ 4R − θ 4G
output output angle, θ 4G
angle, θ 4
R

1.0 30.00 60.0000 60.4334 -0.4334

2.0 40.00 78.0000 78.0976 -0.0976
3.0 50.00 92.7273 92.7521 -0.0249
4.0 60.00 105.0000 105.0273 -0.0273
5.0 70.00 115.3846 115.4127 -0.0280
6.0 80.00 124.2857 124.3058 -0.0200
7.0 90.00 132.0000 132.0209 -0.0209
8.0 100.0 138.7500 138.8003 -0.0503
9.0 110.0 144.7059 144.8252 -0.1193
10.0 120.0 150.0000 150.2220 -0.2220

Assignment 3

The functional relationship between the input and output angles of a four bar linkage is
is required to be,
18000
θ4 = 70 −
θ2
Given that initial value of input angle, θ2o = 1800 , final value of input angle, θ2f = 1200
and the length of crank is required to be 1m, Determine the sizes of the other three links
using the following accuracy points,

(i) The end points and center point

(ii) The Chebyshev’s spacing.

Also calculate the structural errors throughout the given range of input angles and at
an increment of 50 for the two cases, and plot the variation of the structural error as a
function of the input angles for the two cases. Comment on the results.

Minimizing the structural error

We have seen that the four-bar linkage can be used to generate functions, that is, θ4 =
F (θ2 ), but there will be structural errors between the desired and generated functions.
To reduce the structural errors throughout the range of operation, more than three
precision points are considered.
This will lead to more equations than the unknowns which can be solved by the method
of least squares.
If θ4R (θ2i ) is the required function, and θ4G (θ2i ) is the generated function using a four bar
linkage having link ratios K1 , K2 and K3 , then the structural error ei for any value θ2i
of the input is given by,
ei = θ4R (θ2i ) − θ4G (θ2i )

27
for i = 1, 2, 3....N
This error is a function of the link ratios and hence a function of the three parameters
K1 , K2 and K3 .
The sum of the square of the errors is given by
N N  2
e2i = θ4R (θ2i ) − θ4G (θ2i )
X X
S = (2.17)
i=1 i=1

The values of K1 , K2 and K3 which make S a minimum are given by the following
conditions,
∂S
= 0
∂K1
∂S
= 0
∂K2
∂S
= 0
∂K3

The simplest way of applying this principle of least squares to the design of a four bar
linkage to generate functions, is to minimize the error in Freudenstein’s equation. For
any θ2i and θ4i , Freudenstein’s equation is,

K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 = cos(θ2i − θ4i )

A measure of error is therefore given by,

ei = K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i )

The sum of the squares of the errors for N points is,

N N  2
e2i
X X
F = = K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i )
i=1 i=1

For F to be minimum, then,

∂F
= 0
∂K1
∂F
= 0
∂K2
∂F
= 0
∂K3

∂F
For ∂K1
= 0 we have,
N h
X  i
2 cos θ4i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0
i=1
XN h  i
cos θ4i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0 (2.18)
i=1

28
 ∂F
For ∂K2
= 0 we have,

N h
X  i
− 2 cos θ2i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0
i=1
N h
X  i
cos θ2i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0 (2.19)
i=1

∂F
For ∂K3
= 0 we have,

N h 
X i
2 K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0
i=1
N h
X i
K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0 (2.20)
i=1

Expanding each of equation 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20 we get,

N N N N h  i
cos2 θ4i − K2
X X X X
K1 cos θ2i cos θ4i + K3 cos θ4=
i
cos θ4i cos(θ2i − θ4i ) (2.21)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
N N N N h  i
cos2 θ2i + K3
X X X X
K1 cos θ4i cos θ2i − K2 cos θ2=
i
cos θ2i cos(θ2i − θ4i ) (2.22)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
N
X N
X N h
X i
K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 N= cos(θ2i − θ4i ) (2.23)
i=1 i=1 i=1

Equations 2.21, 2.22 and 2.23 can written in matrix form as,
PN
cos2 θ4i − N cos θ2i cos θ4i N
 P P  
i=1 i=1 i=1 cos θ4i K1
 N N 2 PN
− i=1 cos θ2i
P P
 i=1 cos θ4i cos θ2i i=1 cos θ2i   K2  =
 
PN PN
i=1 cos θ4i − i=1 cos θ2i N K3
 PN 
cos θ4i (cos(θ2i − θ4i ))
Pi=1
N

cos θ cos(θ2i − θ4i )) 
(2.24)
PN 2i
i=1
 
i=1 cos(θ2i − θ4i )

Equation 2.24 can be solved for K1 , K2 and K3 using any matrix manipulation method,
such as Cramer’s rule, or Gaussian elimination method.
Once K1 , K2 and K3 are obtained then the link lengths can be found.

2.4 Tutorial 1
Q1 A slider-crank mechanism is to be designed to coordinate three positions of the
slider S with three positions of a knob K as shown in Figure 2.3. The knob is
connected by a shaft to a gear G1 which meshes with a geared segment G2 rigidly
attached to the crank Ao A, the gear ratio being 7.2 to 1. The relationship between
the position α and slider position x is as shown in table below,

29
 α x (mm)
900 64
1800 81
2700 96
and with θ = 600 as a first trial.

(a) Show that the relationship between θ and x can be expressed as,

K1 sin θ + K2 x cos θ + K3 = x2

Where,
K1 = 2ac
K2 = 2a
K 3 = l 2 − a2 − c 2
(b) Hence calculate the lengths a, l and c to two decimal places.

G1 A

l
a
S
G2 θ c
Ao

K x
α

Figure 2.3:

Q2 The striking mechanism of a weaving machine consists of a four bar linkage. In a

particular case, such a linkage is required to coordinate five positions of the rocker
follower with five positions of the input crank as shown in the table 2.2. The length
of the fixed link is required to be 180 mm.

Table 2.2:
S/NO. Input angle, θ 2 Input angle, θ 4
1.0 40 0 70 0
2.0 45 0 76 0
3.0 50 0 830
4.0 55 0 910
5.0 60 0 100 0

(a) Evaluate K1 , K2 and K3 using the least square method, and hence determine
the length of the other links.

30
 (b) Investigate also the quality of transmission of the resulting linkage.

Q3 The functional relationship between the input and output angles of a four bar
linkage is required to be,
θ4 − 0.35θ2 = 2450
Given that initial value of input angle, θ2o = 200 , final value of input angle, θ2f =
1500 and the length of fixed link is required to be 400 mm, Determine the sizes of
the other three links using the following accuracy points,

(i) The end points and center point

(ii) The Chebyshev’s spacing.

Also calculate the structural errors throughout the given range of input angles and
at an increment of 50 for the two cases, and plot the variation of the structural
error as a function of the input angles for the two cases. Comment on the results.

31