Title: Sample Research Paper About Climate Change

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Schrag, George A. Seielstad, Eileen Shea, Coleen Vogel, and Thomas. This cou- pled set of simple
equations already documents the dif- ficulty and challenge related to the prediction of second kind.
Balbus, J. M., and C. Malina. 2009. Identifying vulnerable subpopulations for climate change health
effects in the United. A 2011 study found that when people correctly understand that climate
scientists agree, they are more likely to support policy to mitigate climate change. There are also
ongoing changes in cultural, governance, and economic conditions, as well as in technologies, all of
which have substantial implications for human well-being. Because weather forecasts are based on
the initial conditions of the atmosphere and ocean at the time the prediction is made, accuracy
decays over time. Studies in psychology, sociology, and anthropology, on the other hand, focus on
the social influences on preferences but often fail to account for economic processes. Extracting ice
cores from either Greenland or Antarctica allows scientists to research further into the Milankovitch
theory. Smit, B., O. Pilifosova, I. Burton, B. Challenger, S. Huq, R. J. T. Klein, and G. Yohe. 2001.
Adaptation to Climate Change in the. Many lines of evidence demonstrate that human activities are
primarily responsible for recent climate changes. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, IUCN
Global Marine Programme, and U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 163 pp.
URL. We can predict that on average, a smoker will not live as long as a non-smoker. Those who
have provided support but have not contributed to the research should be featured in an
acknowledgements section. The photos above show what happens to a pteropod’s shell when it
encounters seawater that is too acidic. It draws on several past analyses and assessments of research
gaps and needs (NRC, 1992a, 1997a, 2001, 2002b, 2005a, 2009g, 2009k). Finally, as discussed in
Chapter 10, there are a number of potential options for reducing GHG emissions from the
agricultural, fisheries, and aquaculture sectors through new technologies or management strategies.
The longer these changes in climate continue, the greater the resulting impacts. This graph illustrates
to us the increase in CO 2 concentration as time progresses. Adapting to the Impacts of Climate
Change calls for a national adaptation strategy that provides needed technical and scientific
resources, incentives to begin adaptation planning, guidance across jurisdictions, shared lessons
learned, and support of scientific research to expand knowledge of impacts and adaptation. Mileti,
D., and J. Gailus. 2005. Sustainable development and hazards mitigation in the United States:
Disasters by design. I: Erbe obs ervations of the entropy production of the Earth. For example,
economic analyses often take preferences as given. However, when more than one outcome matters
to decision makers, cost-effectiveness analysis requires a technique for making trade-offs. For
example, Nelson et al. (2009) used ecosystem models to determine the potential for policies aimed at
increasing carbon sequestration to also aid in species conservation. Deliberation with analysis is an
iterative process that begins with the many participants in a decision working together to define a
decision problem and then to identify (1) options to consider and (2) outcomes and criteria that are
relevant for evaluating those options. The knowledge gained by these researchers needs to be
integrated and synthesized in decision-support frameworks that actively involve and are accessible to
decision makers (e.g., Kates et al., 2006; Moser and Luers, 2008). Equity and distributional
weighting issues, including issues related to weighting the interests of present versus future
generations, are areas of particular interest. The relative importance of these three sources of
uncertainty changes over time. Keywords: Physical Climatology; Statistical Climatology;
Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect; Earth-Atmosphere System 1. As discussed in chapter 6 and 7, this
assistance may include grants, loans, loan guarantees, export credits, insurance products, and private
sector investment.
System include hydrothermal (dry steam, flashed, binary), geopressured, hot dry rock, and magma.
(DJE 2005). Chapter 3 examines reported federal funding from 2010 to 2017 and the extent to
which reports on such funding are clearly linked to the federal fiscal exposure to climate change; the
extent to which selected agencies reported climate change funding that supports programs where
addressing climate change is the primary purpose; and the extent to which the primary purpose
programs are fragmented, overlapping, or duplicative. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've
made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our
website. For example, U.S. households could significantly reduce their GHG emissions (and save
money) by adopting more energy-efficient driving behaviors and by properly maintaining
automobiles and home heating and cooling systems (Dietz et al., 2009b). Research on behavioral
change suggests that a good portion of this potential could actually be achieved, but further analysis
is needed to develop and assess specific strategies, approaches, and incentives. A large amount of
energy in the U.S. is also used to heat and cool buildings, so changes in building design could
dramatically reduce energy use. The photos above show what happens to a pteropod’s shell when it
encounters seawater that is too acidic. Global surface temperatures are measured by weather stations
over land and by ships and buoys over the ocean. Even in case of this thought experiment we have
to consider that the temperature ??, T. We may assume that the condition of the local thermodynamic
equilibrium is fulfilled (usually up to 60 km or so above the Earth’s surface). The department is a
member of the FDLP Content Partnerships Program and an Affiliated Archive of the National
Archives. A slowdown of the Conveyor Belt would increase regional sea level rise along the east
coast of the United States and change patterns of temperature in Europe and rainfall in Africa and
the Americas, but would not lead to global cooling. The ab- sorbed solar radiation is converted into
heat and, hence, contributes to the warming of the soil and water layers adjacent to the Earth’s
surface, respectively. Often referred to as reanalysis, the fundamental idea behind such efforts (see,
e.g., Kalnay et al., 1996) is to use data assimilation methods to capitalize on the wealth of disparate
historical observations and integrate them with newer observations, such as space-based data. This
cou- pled set of simple equations already documents the dif- ficulty and challenge related to the
prediction of second kind. It set the environmental impacts of geothermal power in the context of
those of other renewables, coal, and nuclear. It is clear that these ice sheets are already losing mass as
a result of human-induced climate change, and the evidence suggests that Greenland and Antarctica
are likely to continue to lose ice mass for centuries. Older people are at much higher risk of dying
during extreme heat events. The greenhouse effect is caused by heat-trapping gases, such as water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane, in the Earth’s atmosphere. Permission of the copyright owner
must be obtained before making use of copyrighted material. Given that new scientific
understanding emerges from this exhaustive process, the widespread agreement in the scientific
community regarding the reality of climate change and the leading role of human activities in driving
this change is striking. How- ever, if Eq.2.14 is integrated over all days of a year, the annual
insolations are equal at corresponding latitudes of each hemisphere. For example, economic analyses
often take preferences as given. Improvements in data assimilation systems have led directly to
substantial improvements in numerical weather prediction over the past several decades by improving
the realism of the initial conditions used to run weather forecast models. Expanded computing
resources and human capital are also needed. There was overwhelming agreement on human-caused
global warming in every year since 1991. AIACC (Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to
Climate Change). 2010. Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to. Backlund, A. Janetos, D.
Schimel, J. Hatfield, K. Boote, P. Fay, L. Hahn, C. Finally, to support adaptive risk management and
iterative decision making with re-. For a given climate forcing scenario, the timing of atmospheric
warming is strongly dependent on the north-south transport of heat by ocean currents and mixing of
heat into the ocean interior. However, significantly greater temperature increases are expected if
emissions follow higher scenarios associated with continuing growth in the use of fossil fuels; in that
case, the increase in U.S. average air temperature is likely to exceed 11?F by the end of this century.
Particles from exceptionally large eruptions like Mount Pinatubo in 1991 or Krakatoa in 1883 can
reach all the way into the stratosphere, where they can stay for several years. The global average
temperature since 1900 has risen by about 1.5F. By 2100, it is projected to rise another 2 to 11.5F.
The U.S. average temperature has risen by a comparable amount and is very likely -- to rise more
than the global average over this century, with some variation from place to place. A large amount of
energy in the U.S. is also used to heat and cool buildings, so changes in building design could
dramatically reduce energy use. Climate change occurs when these large-scale climate factors change
over time. Their large mass and thermal properties enable them to store vast quantities of heat. The
oceans will continue to absorb carbon dioxide produced by human activities and become even more
acidic in the future. As discussed in Subsection 2.1.2, the latter is mainly caused by the temperature
distribution in the troposphere linked to convective heating and the release of latent heat and the
temperature distribution in the stratosphere related to the absorption of solar radiation by O 2 and O
3 molecules, respectively. In particular, continued use of fossil fuels and resulting emissions will
significantly alter climate and lead to a much warmer world. Huntington, H. P. 2000. Native
observations capture impacts of sea ice changes. This lag is primarily the result of the very large heat
storage capacity of the world’s oceans and the length of time required for that heat to be transferred
to the deep ocean. Climate and Weather Weather Weather describes whatever is happening outdoors
in a given place at a given time. Since in case of the real Earth-atmosphere system the global average
of air temperat ures observed in the close vicinity of the Earth’s surface corresponds to ns T ? 288 K,
the difference between this mean global tem- perature and the temperature of the planetary radiative
equilibriumgiven by Eq.3.4 amounts to ns e TT T ??? ? 33 K. For example, current benefits of
warming include longer growing seasons for agriculture and longer ice-free periods for shipping on
the Great Lakes. Perhaps the single greatest roadblock to achieving this capability is the lack of
comprehensive, robust, and unbiased long-term global observations of the climate system and other
related human and environmental systems. Other scientific and technical challenges. The upper ocean
has warmed, and more than 90% of the additional energy absorbed by the climate system since the
1960s has been stored in the oceans. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment
Report of. Commonly discussed strategies for limiting climate change (see Figure 4.2 ) include
reducing energy consumption, for instance by improving energy efficiency or by reducing demand
for energy-intensive goods and services; reducing emissions of GHGs from energy production and
use, industrial processes, agriculture, or other human activities; capturing CO 2 from power plants
and industrial processes, or directly from the atmosphere, and sequestering it in geological
formations; and increasing CO 2. Socioeconomic data are also critical for linking environmental
observations with assessments of climate-related risk, vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive capacity
in human systems. As with other types of observations, long time series are needed to monitor
changes in the drivers of climate change and trends in resilience and vulnerability. Thus, numerous
analyses have called for policies that establish coherent national and international goals and
incentives, and that promote strong U.S. engagement in international-level response efforts. There
was overwhelming agreement on human-caused global warming in every year since 1991. It is
essential to carefully examine the data to identify and adjust for such effects before the data can be
used to evaluate climate trends. A changing climate affects our lives in many more obvious ways, for
example, by increasing the risk of severe weather events such as heat waves, heavy precipitation
events, strong hurricanes, and many other aspects of climate discussed throughout this report.
Volcanic eruptions or other natural variations could temporarily counteract some of the human-
induced warming, slowing the rise in global temperature, but these effects would only last a few
years. SOURCE: Courtesy of Colorado Center for Astrodynamics Research, University of Colorado
at Boulder ( ). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82(7):1353-1367. A major effort is
needed both to develop appropriate local data collection efforts and to coordinate them into national
and global systems. Initial progress can be made by coordination across specific domains and sectors
(e.g., coastal vulnerabilities, health vulnerabilities) and across scales so that locally useful information
also contributes to larger-scale indicators and vice versa. In the nearest term possible, aging space-
and ground-based environmental sensors must be replaced with technologically improved
instruments. Although there is a natural cycle on the planet concerning global warming, this is not the
case regarding the information provided from scientific data on the effects of human-generated
global warming. Climate is one of the primary factor in determining the viability and suitability of
tourism activity, where shifting of weather regime and severe weather events directly impact on the.
White arrows indicate increases, and black arrows show decreases.
It would also inform, evaluate, and improve society’s responses to climate change, including actions
that are or could be taken to limit the magnitude of climate change, adapt to its impacts, or support
more effective climate-related decisions. Scientific research can, for example, help identify the
information that decision makers need, devise effective and broadly acceptable decision-making
processes and decision-support mechanisms, and enhance learning from experience. CICS-NC,
North Carolina State Univ., NOAA National Climatic Data Center Graeme Stephens. Fluctuations in
the pull of gravity over these major ice sheets reflect the loss of ice over time. Water, as a liquid, is a
foundation for life itself. Our analysis confirmed this prediction, finding most abstracts didn’t state a
position on whether humans were causing global warming. The constant change in plate tectonics
could result in more land moving to more northern or southern parts of the world, closer to the poles.
Greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide and water vapour make the atmosphere trap more
of this radiation, so it gradually warms up more than necessary. We know how climate has changed
in the recent past, and often we know why those changes have occurred. The observed rate of
warming over the last 50 years is about eight times faster than the average rate of warming from a
glacial maximum to a warm interglacial period. Climate System Atmosphere The atmosphere covers
the Earth. This will be the email address you entered when you set up your account. From this point
of view it is i ndispensable to consider the down-welling IR radiation reaching the Earth’s surface,
where most of it is absorbed. By the second half of the century, however, human choices, as
reflected in these scenarios, become the key determinant of future climate change. Efforts to rapidly
and significantly reduce emissions of heat-trapping gases can still limit the global temperature
increase to 3.6?F (2?C) relative to the 1901-1960 time period. OPEN ACCESS 991 991 different
temperatures must not intersect each other. Khagram, S., and S. Ali. 2006. Environment and security.
Finally, because some data have the potential for violating personal privacy norms and legal
guarantees, proper safeguards must be in place to protect confidentiality. An examination of the
research needs identified in the technical chapters of Part II of the report reveals that there is indeed
still much to learn. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in
the book. A changing climate affects our lives in many more obvious ways, for example, by
increasing the risk of severe weather events such as heat waves, heavy precipitation events, strong
hurricanes, and many other aspects of climate discussed throughout this report. While much is
known about some of these strategies, others are not well understood, and there are many scientific
research needs related to the development, improvement, implementation, and evaluation of virtually
all technologies, policies, and other approaches for limiting climate change. How do we know that
human activities are the primary cause of recent climate change? Paleoclimate studies indicate that
temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have been higher in the distant past, millions of
years ago, when the world was very different than it is today. But see also “ The Problem With The
New York Times ’ Big Story on Climate Change “, which says that Rich’s article lets Republicans
and the fossil-fuel industry off the hook. On the contrary, the North Pole tilted to- wards the Sun at
Perihelion (northern summer) 11,000 years ago. Carbon Dioxide is emitted into the air as humans
exhale, burn fossil fuels for energy, and deforests the planet. Since climate change is already
occurring, adaptation in some form is inevitable. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter
to go directly to that page in the book. An important step towards stronger public support for
meaningful climate action is closing the consensus gap.
While noting that there is always more to learn and that the scientific process is never closed, the
book shows that hypotheses about climate change are supported by multiple lines of evidence and
have stood firm in the face of serious debate and careful evaluation of alternative explanations.
Continued and improved observations, field campaigns, process studies, and experiments with
smaller-domain, high-resolution models are needed to improve scientific understanding of cloud and
aerosol processes, and improved parameterizations will be needed to incorporate this improved
understanding into global climate models. The downloadable PDF is the official version of the 2014
National Climate Assessment. Sheridan, S. C., and L. S. Kalkstein. 1998. Heat watch warning
systems in urban areas. Typical climate periods are 1901-1930, 1931-1960 and 1961-1990. The
devastating turn of events from environmental factors to scientific one. ACIA (Arctic Climate
Impact Assessment). 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Publishing your article Open Access
(OA) means your research is permanently free to read, and to reuse via Emerald’s global platform.
Developing improved understanding and projections of hydrological and water resource changes will
require new multiscale modeling approaches, such as nesting cloud-resolving climate models into
regional weather models and then coupling these models to land surface models that are capable of
simulating the hydrologic cycle, vegetation, multiple soil layers, groundwater, and stream flow.
Castro Thursdays 6 PM - 8 PM (AZ Time) March 18, 25, April 1, 8, 15, and 22, 2021. You should
never include people who have not contributed to the paper or who don’t want to be associated with
the research. Some periods in the distant past were even warmer than what is expected to occur from
human-induced global warming. Niasse, M. 2005. Climate-induced water conflict risks in West
Africa: Recognizing and coping with increasing climate. Sacramento, CA: California Department of
Water Resources. Easterling, W. E., P. K. Aggarwal, P. Batima, K. M. Brander, L. Erda, S. M.
Howden, A. Kirilenko, J. Morton, J.-F. Soussana, J. Precipitation patterns are also expected to
continue to change throughout this century and beyond. These actions and plans, in turn, place new
demands on climate change research. This will be the email address you entered when you set up
your account. Folke, C. 2006. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological
systems analyses. Carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane molecules all absorb this heat, and
whilst they linger in the atmosphere, they continue to increase the temperature of the Earth. When
burning all of these fuels, harmful chemicals get released into the air, and one of these is carbon
dioxide. Ocean acidification lowers the availability of carbonate ions in many parts of the ocean,
affecting the ability of some marine life to produce and maintain their shells. This probability density
function (PDF) of the n th climate period is characterized by the mean value n ? Figure 12.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment. Climate is primarily the result of the
effects of local geography, such as distance from the equator, distance from the ocean, and local
topography and elevation, combined with larger scale climate factors that can change over time.
However, the ice on the continent slowly flows down the mountains and through the valleys toward
the ocean. They claimed that they showed that Gerlich and Tscheuschner’s meth- ods, logic and
conclusions are in error. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment. No.
Since accurate satellite-based measurements of solar output began in 1978, the amount of the sun’s
energy reaching Earth has slightly decreased, which should, on its own, result in slightly lower
temperatures; but the Earth’s temperature has continued to rise. Equity and distributional weighting
issues, including issues related to weighting the interests of present versus future generations, are
areas of particular interest.
Land Land covers 27 percent of Earth's surface, and land topography influences weather patterns.
Carbon Dioxide is emitted into the air as humans exhale, burn fossil fuels for energy, and deforests
the planet. There is also great potential in the use of mobile communications technology, such as cell
and smart phones, as a vehicle for social science research that has fine temporal and spatial scales
(Eagle et al., 2009; Raento et al., 2009; Zuwallack, 2009). After you’ve agreed a fee, they will work
with you to enhance your manuscript and get it submission-ready. As the temperature increase in the
atmosphere, people experience more frequent and hotter days. These cloud microphysical processes
also affect the radiation transfer of both solar and IR radiation as well as the surface properties like
the integral values of the shortwave albedo and the relative emissivity. After the industrial revolution
of the 1700’s the greenhouse effect was enhanced by greenhouse gas emissions of CO 2 and CH 4
(methane). The key processes that control the abundance of tropospheric ozone and its interactions
with climate change also need to be better understood, including but not limited to stratospheric
influx; natural and anthropogenic emissions of precursor species such as NO x, CO, and volatile
organic carbon; the net export of ozone produced in biomass burning and urban plumes; the loss of
ozone at the surface, and the dependence of all these processes on climate change. The dashed lines
are results from the previous generation of climate models and scenarios, while solid lines show the
most recent generation of climate model simulations and scenarios. Thus, to determine the
monochro- matic intensity of solar radiat ion with respect to the TOA, Planck’s radiation formula has
to be scaled by ?? 2 S rr. Our Moon, for instance, nearly satisfies the requirements of a planet in the
absence of an atmosphere. The structure of the climate action plan encompasses actions that
concentrate on aspects of paramount need and impact, which consist of building energy, road
transportation, and waste. Climate change perception and adaptation among farmers in coastal
communities of Bayelsa State, Nigeria: a photovoice study. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency).
2009. Climate Ready Estuaries: 2009 Progress Report. Any climate change always represents the net
effect of multiple global and local factors, both human-related and natural (see FAQ E ). Hinzman,
L. D., N. D. Bettez, W. R. Bolton, F. S. Chapin, M. B. Dyurgerov, C. L. Fastie, B. Griffith, R. D.
Hollister, A. Hope, H. P. Adapting to the Impacts of Climate Change, part of the congressionally
requested America's Climate Choices suite of studies, calls for a new paradigm-one that considers a
range of possible future climate conditions and impacts that may be well outside the realm of past
experience. Equity and distributional weighting issues, including issues related to weighting the
interests of present versus future generations, are areas of particular interest. Schoennagel, T., T. T.
Veblen, and W. H. Romme. 2004. The interaction of fire, fuels, and climate across rocky mountain
forests. Rather than focusing on precise projections of key system variables, integrated assessment
models are typically used to compare the relative effectiveness and implications of different policy
measures (see Chapter 17 ). But an absence of certainty does not indicate an absence of risk.
Certification schemes are increasingly being used to address climate change issues. How do we know
that human activities are the primary cause of recent climate change? Since in case of the real Earth-
atmosphere system the global average of air temperat ures observed in the close vicinity of the
Earth’s surface corresponds to ns T ? 288 K, the difference between this mean global tem- perature
and the temperature of the planetary radiative equilibriumgiven by Eq.3.4 amounts to ns e TT T ??? ?
33 K. All of these natural factors, and their interactions with each other, have altered global average
temperature over periods ranging from months to thousands of years. AGU (American Geophysical
Union). 2006. Hurricanes and the U.S. Gulf Coast: Science and Sustainable Rebuilding. Wash-. Such
observational data are most useful when geocoded (linked to specific locations) and matched
(aggregated or downscaled) to scales of interest to researchers and decision makers, and when
human and environmental data are collected and archived in ways that facilitate linkages between
these data. How factors influence the energy change when metals are added to a metal sa. Parry, M.,
N. Arnell, P. Berry, D. Dodman, S. Fankhauser, C. Hope, S. Kovats, R. Nicholls, D. Satterthwaite, R.
Tiffin, T. Wheeler. There are a wide variety of potential risks of geoengineering schemes, which are
very poorly understood (see FAQ Z ).
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 89(1):75-85. First, because of the inherent
uncertainties, projections of future climate change are often presented in terms of probabilities. Thus,
to determine the monochro- matic intensity of solar radiat ion with respect to the TOA, Planck’s
radiation formula has to be scaled by ?? 2 S rr. This heat warms the Earth, and without it, life would
not exist on Earth, because water would be frozen. For example, while uncertainties in climate
sensitivity and future human energy production and consumption are widely appreciated, improved
methods for characterizing the uncertainty in other socioeconomic drivers of environmental change
are needed. There have been substantial losses in sea ice in the Arctic Ocean, particularly at the end
of summer when sea ice extent is at a minimum (see FAQ L for discussion of Antarctic sea ice).
However gases like carbon dioxide and methane can absorb some of the infra-red radiation and then
begins to warm the troposphere. Stutz, B. 2009. Adaptation emerges as key part of any climate
change plan. Most climate studies have considered only relatively gradual, continuous changes in the
Earth’s climate system. Projecting the future influence of climate change on these events can also be
complicated by the fact that some of the risk factors for these events may increase with climate
change, while others may decrease. They simply need to be inventoried, archived, and made broadly
accessible to enable the kinds of integrative analyses that are necessary for the new climate change
research. I: Erbe obs ervations of the entropy production of the Earth. In the following sections, the
seven integrative, crosscutting research themes identified by the panel are discussed in detail.
However, nobody can deny that it is happening and since scientists concluded that it was very likely
that as a human race were having some cause towards it we have to act fast. The popular press,
including Time, Newsweek, and The New York Times, carried a number of articles about cooling at
that time. The actual rise is not large, but the Earth's ecosystem is delicate, and small changes can
have large effects. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere behave much like the glass panes in a
greenhouse. California Energy Commission. 2009. California Climate Change Programs. Online.
Available at. Given that new scientific understanding emerges from this exhaustive process, the
widespread agreement in the scientific community regarding the reality of climate change and the
leading role of human activities in driving this change is striking. As it reaches the Earth's surface,
land, water, and biosphere absorb the sunlight's energy. The point is that when the heat reaches the
Earth and then is reflected back to the atmosphere, the certain amount of it is stopped by the so
called greenhouse gases. Items were either explicitly nominated for inclusion in the EOT archive or
have been extracted from the EOT Archive for inclusion in this collection. When such simplified
models are used, however, it is important to ensure that the simplified representations of complex
processes are backed up, supported, and verified by more comprehensive models that can simulate
the full range of critical processes in both the Earth system and human systems. Heuristic models and
exercises have also been developed that engage decision makers, scientists, and others in planning
exercises and gaming to explore futures. We can predict that on average, a smoker will not live as
long as a non-smoker. At least three different research teams have examined how this might affect
U.S. temperature trends. All have found that this effect is adequately accounted for by the data
corrections. Jacobs, K., G. Garfin, and M. Lenart. 2005. More than just talk: Connecting science and
decisionmaking. While scientific research alone cannot determine what actions should be taken in
response to climate change, it can inform, assist, and support those who must make these important
decisions. Kalkstein, L. S., P. F. Jamason, J. S. Greene, J. Libby, and L. Robinson. 1996. The
Philadelphia hot weather-health watch. Oceans Oceans cover about 70 percent of Earth's surface. In
the nearest term possible, aging space- and ground-based environmental sensors must be replaced
with technologically improved instruments.