Lecture 2

Part1: General principles of laser

Part 2: Principles of ultrafast lasers

 LASERS

http://www.laserfest.org/lasers/history/timeline.cfm
 Lasers*

Stimulated Emission
Fast decay
Gain

Inversion
Pump Laser
The Laser Transition Transition

Four-level System

Threshold

Some lasers Fast decay

* Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Stimulated emission leads to a chain
reaction and laser emission.
If a medium has many excited molecules, one photon can become
many.
Excited medium

This is the essence of the laser. The factor by which an input beam is
amplified by a medium is called the gain and is represented by G.
1. Absorption
Before During After
E2 E2 E2

E1 E1 E1

2. Spontaneous emission

E2 E2

E1 E1 E1

Spontaneous emission: An excited atom spontaneously relaxes

from the excited state to the ground state and emits a photon.
1. Absorption
Before During After
E2 E2 E2

E1 E1 E1

3. Stimulated emission

E2 E2

E1 E1 E1

Stimulated emission: An incoming photon stimulates an excited atom

to undergo a transition from the excited state to the ground state and two
mutually coherent (= same phase and energy) photons are emitted.
The Laser
A laser is a medium that stores energy, surrounded by two mirrors.
A partially reflecting output mirror lets some light out.

I0 I1

I3 Laser medium I2
R = 100% with gain, G R < 100%

A laser will lase if the beam increases in intensity during a round trip:
that is, if I3  I 0

Usually, additional losses in intensity occur, such as absorption, scat-

tering, and reflections. In general, the laser will lase if, in a round trip:

Gain > Loss This called achieving Threshold.

 2
Calculating the gain:
Einstein A and B coefficients 1

In 1916, Einstein considered the various transition rates between

molecular states (say, 1 and 2) involving light of irradiance, I:

Absorption rate = B N1 I

Spontaneous emission rate = A N2

Stimulated emission rate = B N2 I

where Ni is the number density of molecules in the ith state,

and I is the irradiance.
 Laser medium
Laser gain I(0) I(L)
Neglecting spontaneous emission: z
0 L
dI dI
= c  BN 2 I - BN1 I [Stimulated emission minus absorption]
dt dz
 B  N 2 - N1  I
Proportionality constant is the
The solution is:
absorption/gain cross-section, 

I ( z ) = I (0) exp   N 2 − N1  z

There can be exponential gain or loss in irradiance.

Normally, N2 < N1, and there is loss (absorption).
But if N2 > N1, there’s gain, and we define the gain, G:

If N2 > N1: g   N 2 − N1 
G  exp   N 2 − N1  L
If N2 < N1 :    N1 − N 2 
Inversion
In order to achieve G > 1, stimulated emission must exceed
absorption:

B N2 I > B N1 I Inversion

Or, equivalently,

“Negative

Energy
N2 > N1 temperature”

This condition is called inversion.

It does not occur naturally. It is Molecules
inherently a non-equilibrium state.

In order to achieve inversion, we must hit the laser medium very

hard in some way and choose our medium correctly.
Achieving inversion:
Pumping the laser medium
Now let I be the intensity of (flash lamp) light used to pump energy
into the laser medium:

I
I0 I1

I3 Laser medium I2
R = 100% R < 100%

Will this intensity be sufficient to achieve inversion, N2 > N1?

It’ll depend on the laser medium’s energy level system.
Rate equations for a 2 N2
two-level system Pump Laser

1 N1
Rate equations for the densities of the two states:

Stimulated emission Spontaneous

Absorption
emission
dN 2
= BI ( N1 − N 2 ) − AN 2 If the total number
dt of molecules is N:
Pump intensity
dN1 N  N1 + N2
= BI ( N 2 − N1 ) + AN 2
dt N  N1 − N2
d N 2 N 2 = ( N1 + N 2 ) − ( N1 − N 2 )
 = −2 BI N + 2 AN 2
dt = N − N
d N
 = −2 BI N + AN − AN
dt
Why inversion is impossible 2 N2
in a two-level system Laser

d N 1 N1
= −2 BI N + AN − AN
dt
In steady-state: 0 = −2BI N + AN − AN
 ( A + 2 BI )N = AN
 N = AN /( A + 2BI )
 N = N /(1 + 2 BI / A)

N where: I sat = A / B
 N =
1 + 2 I / I sat Isat is the saturation intensity.

N is always positive, no matter how high I is!

It’s impossible to achieve an inversion in a two-level system!
Rate equations for a 3
Fast decay
three-level system 2

Pump Laser
Assume we pump to a state 3 that
Transition Transition
rapidly decays to level 2. No pump
stimulated emission! 1
Spontaneous
emission
dN 2
= BIN1 − AN 2
dt The total number Level 3
Absorption of molecules is N: decays
fast and
dN1 N  N1 + N2
= − BIN1 + AN 2 so is zero.
dt N  N1 − N2
d N
= −2 BIN1 + 2 AN 2 2N2 = N − N
dt
2N1 = N + N
d N
 = − BIN − BI N + AN − AN
dt
 3
Why inversion is possible 2
Fast decay

in a three-level system
Pump Laser
Transition Transition
d N
= − BIN − BI N + AN − AN 1
dt
In steady-state: 0 = − BIN − BI N + AN − AN

 ( A + BI )N = ( A − BI ) N

 N = N ( A − BI ) /( A + BI )

1 − I / I sat
 N = N
1 + I / I sat

Now if I > Isat, N is negative!

Rate equations for a 3
Fast decay
four-level system 2

Now assume the lower laser level 1 Pump Laser

also rapidly decays to a ground level 0. Transition Transition
So N1  0 ! And N  − N2
1
Fast decay
dN 2 0
As before: = BIN0 − AN 2
dt
dN 2 The total number
= BI ( N − N 2 ) − AN 2 of molecules is N :
dt
N  N0 + N 2
Because N  − N2
N0 = N − N 2
d N
− = BIN + BI N + AN
dt
At steady state: 0 = BIN + BI N + AN
 3
Fast decay
Why inversion is easy 2
in a four-level system Pump Laser
Transition Transition

0 = BIN + BI N + AN 1
Fast decay
0
 ( A + BI )N = − BIN

 N = − BIN /( A + BI )

 N = −( BIN / A) /(1 + BI / A)

I / I sat
 N = − N
1 + I / I sat

Now, N is negative—always!
 3
What about the Fast decay
2
saturation intensity?
Pump Laser
Transition Transition
I sat = A / B
1
Fast decay
A is the excited-state relaxation rate: 1/t 0
B is the absorption cross-section, , divided by
the energy per photon, ħw:  / ħw
ħw ~10-19 J for visible/near IR light
Both  and t
depend on the w t ~10-12 to 10-8 s for most molecules
molecule, the I sat = 10-9 to 10-3 s for laser molecules
frequency, and t  ~10-20 to 10-16 cm2 for molecules (on
the various resonance)
states involved. 1 to 1013 W/cm2

The saturation intensity plays a key role in laser theory.

 Two-, three-, and four-level systems
It took laser physicists a while to realize that four-level systems are
best.

Two-level Three-level Four-level

system system system

Fast decay
Fast decay
Pump
Pump Laser Transition Laser
Transition Transition Transition
Laser
Pump
Transition
Transition
Fast decay

At best, you get

If you hit it hard,
equal populations. Lasing is easy!
you get lasing.
No lasing.
Achieving Laser Threshold
An inversion isn’t enough. The laser output and additional losses in
intensity due to absorption, scattering, and reflections, occur.
I0 I1
Laser medium
I3 Gain, G = exp(gL), and I2
R = 100% Absorption, A = exp(-L) R < 100%

The laser will lase if the beam increases

in intensity during a round trip, that is, if: Gain > Loss

This called achieving Threshold. It means: I3 > I0. Here, it means:

I3 = I 0 exp( gL) exp(− L) R exp( gL) exp(− L)  I 0

 2( g −  ) L  ln(1/ R)
Types of Lasers
Solid-state lasers have lasing material distributed in a solid matrix (such as
ruby or neodymium:yttrium-aluminum garnet "YAG"). Flash lamps are the
most common power source. The Nd:YAG laser emits infrared light at
1.064 nm.
Semiconductor lasers, sometimes called diode lasers, are pn junctions.
Current is the pump source. Applications: laser printers or CD players.
Dye lasers use complex organic dyes, such as rhodamine 6G, in liquid solution
or suspension as lasing media. They are tunable over a broad range of
wavelengths.
Gas lasers are pumped by current. Helium-Neon lases in the visible and IR.
Argon lases in the visible and UV. CO2 lasers emit light in the far-infrared
(10.6 mm), and are used for cutting hard materials.
Excimer lasers (from the terms excited and dimers) use reactive gases, such
as chlorine and fluorine, mixed with inert gases such as argon, krypton, or
xenon. When electrically stimulated, a pseudo molecule (dimer) is
produced. Excimers lase in the UV.
The Ruby Laser

Invented in 1960 by Ted Maiman

at Hughes Research Labs, it was
the first laser.

Ruby is a three-level system, so

you have to hit it hard.
The Helium-
Neon Laser
Energetic electrons in a
glow discharge collide with
and excite He atoms,
which then collide with and
transfer the excitation to
Ne atoms, an ideal 4-level
system.
Carbon Dioxide Laser
The CO2 laser operates analogously. N2 is pumped, transferring
the energy to CO2.
CO2 laser in the
Martian atmosphere

The atmosphere is thin

and the sun is dim, but
the gain per molecule is
high, and the
pathlength is long.
Detuning from line center (MHz)
The Helium Cadmium Laser
The population inversion scheme in HeCd is similar to that in
HeNe’s except that the active medium is
Cd+ ions.

The laser transitions occur in the blue and the ultraviolet at 442
nm, 354 nm and 325 nm.

The UV lines are useful for applications that require short

wavelength lasers, such as high precision
printing on photosensitive materials. Examples include lithography
of electronic circuitry and making
master copies of compact disks.
The Argon Ion Laser

Argon ion laser lines:

Wavelength Relative Power Absolute Power

454.6 nm .03 .8 W
457.9 nm .06 1.5 W The Argon
465.8 nm .03 .8 W ion laser
472.7 nm .05 1.3 W also has
476.5 nm .12 3.0 W some laser
488.0 nm .32 8.0 W lines in the
496.5 nm .12 3.0 W UV.
501.7 nm .07 1.8 W
514.5 nm .40 10.0 W But it’s very
528.7 nm .07 W inefficient.
The Krypton Ion Laser

Krypton ion laser lines:

Wavelength Power
406.7 nm .9 W
413.1 nm 1.8 W
415.4 nm .28 W
468.0 nm .5 W
476.2 nm .4 W
482.5 nm .4 W
520.8 nm .7 W
530.9 nm 1.5 W
568.2 nm 1.1 W
647.1 nm 3.5 W
676.4 nm 1.2 W
Dye lasers

Dye lasers are an ideal four-level system, and a given dye will lase
over a range of ~100 nm.
A dye’s energy levels

The lower laser level can be almost any level in the S0 manifold.

S1: 1st excited

electronic state
manifold

Pump Transition Laser Transitions

S0: Ground
electronic state
manifold

Dyes are so ideal that it’s often difficult to stop them from lasing in all
directions!
Dyes cover the visible, near-IR, and
near-UV ranges.
 Titanium: Sapphire (Ti:Sapphire) laser
(P. E. Moulton, 1986)
Absorption and emission
spectra of Ti:Sapphire

Upper level lifetime: 3.2 ms

Ti:Sapphire lases from

~650 nm to ~1180 nm.
SHG wavelengths:
~325 nm to ~590 nm.
Al2O3 lattice oxygen THG wavelengths:
aluminum ~250 nm to ~270 nm.
P. F. Moulton, JOSA B 3 (1), 125 (1986)
doi:10.1364/JOSAB.3.000125
Titanium: Sapphire (Ti:Sapphire) laser, properties
• Sapphire (monocrystalline Al2O3) has an excellent thermal conductivity
 no serious thermal effects
 enables high laser powers and intensities
• Ti3+ ion has a very large gain bandwidth
 (1) wide wavelength tunability,
(2) enables the generation of ultra-short laser pulses
• the maximum gain and laser efficiency around 800 nm
• most practical tunability between about 700 nm and 900 nm
(SHG between 350 nm and 450 nm)
• The upper-state lifetime of Ti:sapphire is short (3.2 μs), and the
saturation power is very high
 the pump intensity needs to be high
 strongly focused pump beam and, thus,
a pump source with high beam quality is required.
• relatively high cost laser
Example: A modern femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser
Diode Lasers
Some everyday applications of diode
lasers

A CD burner Laser Printer

Fiber Lasers
- Optical fiber doped with some rare-earth ion (e.g. Er3+ or Yb3+ )

Fig. 1 Er-doped fiber laser

Fig. 3 Energy diagram of Er3+ in silica

Fig. 2 Er-doped fiber laser with

non-linear fiber for supercontinuum
generation
A laser in space
Triply ionized carbon at 1548.2 Å

Wavelength (nm)

Hubble Space Telescope image of unstable star Eta Carinae,

The double lobed structure is the expanding stellar atmosphere.

This bipolar structure is similar to that of other laser stars.
Laser Safety Classifications
Class I - These lasers are not hazardous.
Class IA - A special designation that applies only to lasers that are
"not intended for viewing," such as a supermarket laser scanner. The
upper power limit of Class IA is 4 mW.
Class II - Low-power visible lasers that emit above Class I levels but at
a radiant power not above 1 mW. The concept is that the human
aversion reaction to bright light will protect a person.
Class IIIA - Intermediate-power lasers (cw: 1-5 mW), which are
hazardous only for intrabeam viewing. Most pen-like pointing lasers
are in this class.
Class IIIB - Moderate-power lasers (~ tens of mW).
Class IV - High-power lasers (cw: 500 mW, pulsed: 10 J/cm2 or the
diffuse reflection limit), which are hazardous to view under any
condition (directly or diffusely scattered), and are a potential fire
hazard and a skin hazard. Significant controls are required of Class IV
laser facilities.