Lesson 3

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION

This section reviews the intellectual revolutions

that changed the way people perceive the influence of
science on society in general. It focuses on three of the
most important intellectual revolutions in history:
Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian. By discussing
these intellectual revolutions in the context of science,
technology, and society, the attentions of students are
drawn again toward the complex interplay of the various
social context and development of modern science. The
section also engages students in a critical analysis of
ongoing intellectual and scientific revolutions, which they
may find themselves to be part of.

COMPETENCY #3. Articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and

technology.

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Identify the intellectual revolutions that shaped society across time;

2. Explain how intellectual revolutions transformed the views of society about dominant
scientific thought; and
3. Research on other intellectual revolutions that advance modern science and scientific
thinking.

Definition of Terms

 Heliocentrism- Sun centered.

 Id- The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds directly
and immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires.
 Ego- conscious mind
 Superego- the ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by
which the ego operates
 CONTEXT

In the study of the history of science and technology, another important area of interest
involves the various intellectual revolutions across time. In this area, interest lies in how
intellectual revolutions emerged as a result of the interaction of science and technology and
society. It covers how intellectual revolutions altered the way modern science was understood
and approaches.

For this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be confused with the Greeks‟ pre
Socrates speculation about the behavior of the universe. In science and technology, intellectual
revolutions refers to the series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and
progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in history. Although there are many
intellectual revolutions, this section focuses on three of the most important ones that altered the
way human view science and its impacts on society : the Copernican , Darwinian, and Freudian
revolutions. In the words of French astronomer, mathematician , and freemason, Jean Sylvain
Bailley (1976 in cohen ,1976) , these scientific revolutions involved two stage process of
sweeping away the old and establishing the new.

In understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these revolutions are, in

themselves, paradigm shifts. These shifts resulted from a renewed and enlightened
understanding of how the universe behaves and functions. They challenged long held views
about the nature of the universe. Thus, these revolutions were often met with huge resistance and
controversy.

COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

The Copernican Revolutions refers to

th
the 16 century paradigm shift named after
the polish mathematician and astronomer,
Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus
formulated the heliocentric model of the
universe. At the time, the belief was that the
Earth was the center of the Solar System
based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy
(i.e.,Ptolemaic model).

Copernicus introduced the

heliocentric model in a 40 page outline entitled Commentarioslus. He formalized his model in
the publication of his treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolution of
Celestial Spheres) in 1543. In his model, Copernicus repositioned the earth rotates on its own
axis. the model illustrated the Earth , along with other heavenly bodies, to be rotating around the
Sun.

The idea that the Sun is at the center of the center universe instead of the earth proved to
be unsettling to many when Copernicus first introduced his model. In fact , the heliocentric
model was met with huge resistance, primarily from the Church , accusing Copernicus of
heresy. At the time, the idea that it was not Earth , and, by extension , not man , that was at the
center of all creation was unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from the Church because of
this.

Moreover , although far more sensible than the Ptolemaic model, which as early as the
th
13 century had been criticized for its shortcomings, the Copernican model also had multiple
inadequacies that were later filled in by astronomers who participated in the revolutions.
Nevertheless, despite problems with the model and the persecution of the Church , the
heliocentric model was soon accepted by other scientist of the time , most profoundly by Galileo
Galilei.

The contribution of the Copernican Revolutions is far reaching. It serve as catalyst to

sway scientific thinking away from age long views about the position of the earth relative to
enlightened understanding of the universe. This marked the beginning of modern astronomy.
Although very slowly, the heliocentric model eventually caught on among other astronomers
who furthers refined the model and contributed to the recognition of heliocentrism . This was
capped off by Isaac Newton‟s work a century later. Thus , the Copernican Revolutions marked a
turning point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it truly important intellectual
revolutions.

DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist,

Charles Darwin , is credited for stirring another important
intellectual revolution in the mid 19 th century. His treatise
on the science of evolutions , On The Origin of Species,
was published in1859 and began a revolution that brought
humanity to a new era of intellectual discovery.

The Darwinian Revolution benefitted from earlier

intellectual revolutions especially those in the 16th and 17th
centuries, such that it was guided by confidence in human reason‟s abilty to explain phenomena
in the universe. For his part , Darwin gathered evidence pointing to what is now known as
natural selection , an evolutionary process by which organism, including humans, inherit,
develop, and adapt traits that favored survival and reproduction. These traits are manifested in
offspring that are more fit and well suited to the challenges of survival and reproduction.
 Darwin‟s theory of evolution was, of course, met
with resistance and considered to be controversial. Critics
accused the theory of being either short in accounting for
the broad and complex evolutionary process or dismissive
of the idea that the functional design of organism was a
manifestation of an omniscient God. The Darwinian
revolution can be likened of the laws of nature in explaining
biological phenomena of survival and reproduction.

The place of the Darwinian revolution in modern

science cannot be underestimated. Through the Darwinian
revolution, the development of organism and the origin of
unique forms of life and humanity could be rationalized by
lawful system or an orderly process of change underpinned by laws or nature.

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is

credited for stirring a 20th century intellectual
revolution named after him, the Freudian revolution.
Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in psychology
is at the center of this revolution. Freud developed
psychoanalysis a scientific method of understanding
inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within
one‟s personality, springing from free associations,
dreams, and fantasies of the individual.

Psychoanalysis immediately shot into

controversy for it emphasized the existence of the
unconscious where feelings, thoughts, urges,
emotion, and memories are contained outside of
one‟s conscious mind. Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual, development, libido, and ego,
were met with both support and resistance from many scholars. Freud suggested that humans are
inherently pleasure seeking individuals. These notions were particularly caught in the crossfire of
whether Freud‟s psychoanalysis fit in the scientific study of the brain and mind.

Scientific working on a biological approach in studying human behavior criticized

psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and bordering on being unscientific as a theory. Particularly,
the notion that all humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes (i.e., sexual
desire towards the parents with the opposite sex and exclusion of the parent of the same sex) did
not seem to be supported by empirical data. In the same vein, it appeared to critics that
psychoanalysis, then, was more of an ideological stance than a scientific one.

Amidst controversy, Freud‟s psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating

psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century. Psychodynamic therapies that treat a myriad
of psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud‟s work on psychoanalysis

STUDENT ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

SAQ #1. What is the intellectual revolution all about? (10%)

SAQ #2. How did the revolution advance modern science and scientific thinking at the time?
(10%)
SAQ #3. What controversies met the revolution? (10%)

SUMMARY

The fundamental intellectual and humanitarian aim of inquiry would be to help humanity
acquire wisdom - wisdom being the capacity to realize (apprehend and create) what is of value in
life, for oneself and others, wisdom thus including knowledge and technological know-how but
much else besides.

EVALUATION

1. Using a venn diagram, state the similarities and differences of Copernican and Darwinian
revolution discussed in the module. (30%)
2. Explain how intellectual revolutions transformed the views of society about dominant
scientific thought. (10%)
3. Explain how you will respond to the scenario. Have the id respond first, the super ego
next, and the ego last. (30%)

Scenario : You are at a party and was offered a beer. You are curious, but you are ona
soccerteam, and you would be kicked off if you are caught drinking. What will you do?

REFERENCE

Science, Technology and Society book by Quinto, E.J., and Nieva, A. D.(2019).