Metal forming processes, also known as mechanical working processes, are primary shaping

processes in which a mass of metal or alloy is subjected to mechanical forces. Under the action of
such forces, the shape and size of metal pieces undergo a change and optimum mechanical
properties are obtained with
⮚ Grain refinement

⮚ Reduction of voids/defects

⮚ Fibrous structure

⮚ Chemical homogeneity

⮚ Strain hardening

In metalworking, an initially simple part--a billet or a blanked sheet, for example--is

plastically deformed between tools (or dies) to obtain the desired final configuration. Metal-
forming processes are usually classified according to two broad categories:
 Bulk, or massive, forming operations
 Sheet forming operations
In both types of process, the surfaces of the deforming metal and the tools are in contact, and
friction between them may have a major influence on material flow. In bulk forming, the
input material is in billet, rod, or slab form, and the surfaceto-volume ratio in the formed part
increases considerably under the action of largely compressive loading. In sheet forming, on
the other hand, a piece of sheet metal is plastically deformed by tensile loads into a three-
dimensional shape, often without significant changes in sheet thickness or surface
characteristic.
In Bulk, or massive, forming process,
 The deforming material, or work piece, undergoes large plastic (permanent)
deformation, resulting in an appreciable change in shape or cross section ·
 The portion of the work piece undergoing plastic deformation is generally much
larger than the portion undergoing elastic deformation; therefore, elastic recovery
after deformation is negligible
ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL WORKING PROCESSES
⮚ Mechanical working improves the mechanical properties of material like ultimate tensile
strength, wear resistance, hardness and yield point while it lowers ductility. This
phenomenon is called “strain hardening”.
⮚ It results in grain flow lines being developed in the part being mechanically worked. The
grain flow improves the strength against fracture when the part is in actual use. This is
best explained by taking an illustration of a crankshaft. If the crankshaft is manufactured
by machining from a bar of large cross-section, the grain flow lines get cut at bends
whereas in a crankshaft which is shaped by forging (which is a mechanical working
process), the grain flow lines follow the full contour of the crankshaft making it stronger.
This is illustrated in Fig.

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
⮚ During mechanical working, the grains of the metal get deformed and lengthen in the
direction of metal flow. Hence they offer more resistance to fracture across them. Hence
mechanically worked components have better mechanical strength in a certain
orientation i.e., across the grain flow.

Metal forming is possible in metals or alloys which are sufficiently malleable and ductile.
Mechanical working requires that the material may undergo “plastic deformation” during its
processing. Frequently, work piece material is not sufficiently malleable or ductile at ordinary room
temperature, but may become so when heated. Thus we have both hot and cold metal forming
operations.

Cold working metal forming processes result in better shape, size and surface finish as
compared to hot working processes. Hot working results in oxidation and decarburisation of
the surface, formation of scales and lack of size control due to contraction of the work piece
while it cools to room temperature. The processes are classified on different basis like type of
forces applied, temperature, strain hardening etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOT AND COLD WORKING

Cold working (or cold forming, as it is sometimes called) may be defined as plastic
deformation of metals and alloys at a temperature below the crystallization temperature for
that metal or alloy. When this happens, then the strain hardening which occurs as a result of
mechanical working, does not get relieved. In fact as the metal or alloys gets progressively
strain hardened, more and more force is required to cause further plastic deformation. After
sometime, if the effect of strain hardening is not removed, the forces applied to cause plastic
deformation may in fact cause cracking and failure of material.
Hot working may be explained as plastic deformation of metals and alloys at such a
temperature at which recovery and recrystallization take place simultaneously with the strain
hardening. Such a temperature is above recrystallization temperature. Properly done hot
working will leave the metal or alloy in a fine grained recrystallized structure.
Recrystallization temperature is not a fixed temperature but is actually a temperature range.
Its value depends upon several factors. Some of the important factors are:
(i) Nature of metal or alloy: It is usually lower for pure metals and higher for alloys. For
pure metals, recrystallisation temperature is roughly one third of its melting point and for
alloys about half of the melting temperature.
(ii) Amount of cold work already done: The recrystallisation temperature is lowered as
the amount of strain-hardening done on the workpiece increases.
(iii) Strain-rate: Higher the rate of strain hardening, lower is the recrystallisation
temperature. For mild steel, recrystallisation temperature range may be taken as 550–650°C.

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
Recrystallisation temperature of low melting point metals like lead, zinc and tin, may be taken
as room temperature. The effects of strain hardening can be removed by annealing above the
recrystallisation temperature.

Recovery is primarily a low-temperature process, and the property changes produced do not
cause appreciable change in the microstructure. The principal effect of recovery seems to be
the relief of internal stresses due to cold working.
Recrystallization as the upper temperature of the recovery range is reached, minute new
crystals appear in the microstructure. These new crystals have the same composition and
lattice structure as the original undeformed grains and are not elongated but are approximately
uniform in dimensions (equiaxed). The new crystals generally appear at the most drastically
deformed portions of the grain, usually the grain boundaries and slip planes. The cluster of
atoms from which the new grains are formed is called a nucleus. Recrystallization takes place
by a combination of nucleation of strain-free grains and the growth of these nuclei to absorb
the entire cold worked material.

Based on type of forces applied:

1. Direct compression type processes: Forging, rolling
2. Indirect compression type processes: Wire and tube drawing, extrusion, Deep
drawing
3. Tension type processes: Stretch forming
4. Bending processes: Bending of sheets
5. Shearing processes: In sheet metal forming applications

Direct Compression type processes

Force is applied to surface of workpiece and metal flow takes place at right angles to
direction of compression.

Indirect Compression type processes

Primary applied forces are frequently tensile, but indirect compressive forces are developed
because of the reaction of the workpiece with the die and reach very high values.

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
Tension type, Bending and shearing processes

FORGING
Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied
through various dies and tooling. forging operations produce discrete parts. Because the metal
flow in a die and the material’s grain structure can be controlled, forged parts have good
strength and toughness, and are very reliable for highly stressed and critical applications.
Simple forging operations can be performed with a heavy hammer and an anvil, Most
forgings require a set of dies and such equipment as press or powered hammers.

Open-die forging is the simplest forging operation. Although most open die forgings
generally weigh 15 to 500 kg, forgings as heavy as 275 metric tons have been made. Part
sizes may range from very small (such as pins, nails, and bolts) to very large [up to 23 m long
shafts for ship propellers]. Open-die forging can be simply described by a metal workpiece
(blank), placed between two flat dies, and reduced in height by compressing it,a process
called upsetting or flat-die forging. The die surfaces may have shallow cavities or features to
produce relatively simple shapes. The deformation of a workpiece under frictionless
conditions.Because constancy of volume is maintained, any reduction in height increases the
diameter of the forged part. Note in the figure that the workpiece is deformed uniformly; in
actual operations, however, there is friction at the die workpiece interfaces, and the part
develops a barrel shape deformation mode also called pancaking.

Advantages:-
Simple and inexpensive dies; wide range of part sizes; good strength characteristics;
generally for small quantities.

Limitations:-
Limited to simple shapes; difficult to hold close tolerances; machining to final shape
necessary; low production rate; relatively poor utilization of material; high degree of skill
required.

Forging classification:
 Open-die forging
 Closed-die forging with flash
 Closed-die forging without flash
 Coining
 Precision forging
 Upsetting
 Electro-upsetting
 Forward extrusion forging

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
  Backward extrusion forging
 Hobbing
 Isothermal forging
 Nosing
 Rotary (orbital) forging
 Metal powder forging
 Radial forging

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
Forging may be carried out at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated temperatures
(warm or hot forging), Cold forging requires higher forces, because of the higher strength of
the work piece material, which also must possess sufficient ductility at room temperature to
be able to undergo the required deformation without cracking. Cold-forged parts have good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Hot forging requires lower forces, but the
dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the parts are not as good as those in cold forging .

Forgings generally are subjected to additional finishing operations, such as heat treating to
modify properties and machining for accuracy in final dimensions and good surface finish.
The finishing operations can be minimized by precision forging, which is an important
example of net-shape or near-net-shape forming processes.

FORGING EQUIPMENTS can be classified into three types: ·

1. Force-restricted machines (hydraulic presses) ·
2. Stroke-restricted machines (mechanical presses) ·
3. Energy-restricted machines (hammers and screw presses)
Hammers and high-energy-rate forging machines deform the work piece by the kinetic energy
of the hammer they are therefore classed as energy restricted machines. The ability of
mechanical presses to deform the work material is determined by the length of the press
stroke and the available force at various stroke positions. Mechanical presses are therefore
classified as stroke restricted machines. Hydraulic presses are termed force-restricted
machines because their ability to deform the material depends on the maximum force rating
of the press.
Hammers have been the most widely used type of equipment for forging. They are the least
expensive and most flexible type of forging equipment. Hammers are capable of developing
large forces and have short die contact times. The main components of a hammer are a ram,
frame assembly, anvil, and anvil cap. The anvil is directly connected to the frame assembly,
the upper die is attached to the ram, and lower die is attached to the anvil cap.

Gravity-Drop Hammers
Gravity-drop hammers consist of an anvil or base, supporting columns that contain the ram
guides, and a device that returns the ram to its starting position. The energy that deforms the
work piece is derived from the downward drop of the ram; the height of the fall and the
weight of the ram determine the force of the blow.
Board-drop hammers are widely used, especially for producing forgings weighing no more
than a few kilograms. In the board-drop hammer, the ram is lifted by one or more boards
keyed to it and passing between two friction rolls at the top of the hammer. The boards are
rolled upward and are then mechanically released, permitting the ram to drop from the desired
height. Power for lifting the ram is supplied by one or more motors. The height of fall, and
therefore the striking force, of the hammer is approximately constant for a given setting and
cannot be altered without stopping the machine and adjusting the length of stroke. Anvils on
board-drop hammers are 20 to 25 times as heavy as the rams.

The air-lift gravity-drop hammer is similar to the board-drop hammer in that the forging
force is derived from the weight of the falling ram assembly and upper die. It differs in that

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
the ram in the air-lift hammer is raised by air or steam power. Stroke-control dogs, preset on a
rocker and actuated by the ram, control power to the ram cylinder. With the hammer shut
down, the dogs can be reset on the rocker to adjust stroke length. A device is available that
allows both a long stroke and a short stroke in a variable sequence. The ram is held in the
raised position by a piston-rod clamp, which is operated by its own cylinder using a separate
compressed-air supply. When the clamp is oblique, the piston rod is clamped. When the
operator's treadle is depressed, air enters the cylinder and raises the clamp horizontally, and
the ram cycles. Cycling will continue until the treadle is released, causing the rod clamp to
drop obliquely and grip the rod. The treadle should not be released on the down stroke of the
ram, because this will produce excessive strain in the rod and clamp parts.
Presses
All mechanical presses employ flywheel energy, which is transferred to the work piece by a
network of gears, cranks, eccentrics, or levers. Driven by an electric motor and controlled by
means of an air clutch, mechanical presses have a full eccentric type of drive shaft that
imparts a constant-length stroke to a vertically operating ram. The ram carries the top, or
moving, die, while the bottom, or stationary, die is clamped to the die seat of the main frame.
The ram stroke is shorter than that of a forging hammer or a hydraulic press. Ram speed is
greatest at the center of the stroke, but force is greatest at the bottom of the stroke.

Hydraulic presses are used for both open- and closed-die forging. The ram of a hydraulic
press is driven by hydraulic cylinders and pistons, which are part of a high-pressure hydraulic
or hydro pneumatic system. After a rapid approach speed, the ram (with upper die attached)
moves at a slow speed while exerting a squeezing force on the work metal. Pressing speeds
can be accurately controlled to permit control of metal-flow velocities; this is particularly
advantageous in producing close-tolerance forgings.

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Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
[Type here]
Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
[Type here]
Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT
[Type here]
Chandrashekar M, Associate professor, Department of Mechanical Engg. Dr AIT