Design principles of botanical gardens

M.W.M. van den Toorna

Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 134, 2628BL, Delft, The Netherlands.

Abstract
This paper focusses on design knowledge enabling to improve the design quality
of botanical gardens. Attention will be paid to specific design approaches for botanical
gardens that can be used in contemporary practice. The research method is partly
based on literature analysis, partly on analysis of plans and partly on fieldwork.
Overall, the principles of case study research are applied to research on design
knowledge for day-to-day practice. The design principles of some historical and
contemporary examples of botanical gardens will be analysed. It results in an
elaboration of a contemporary design approach on the structural level. It focusses on
continuity and development in which the structure enables continuity in the long run
and at the same time allows for changes, developments and interventions on the short
term. Botanical gardens offer a characteristic contribution to the rich diversity of the
palette of urban green spaces and to the urban landscape in general. Designers can
contribute by their ideas and realisation of those ideas in extending the diversity and
specific quality of those urban landscapes.

Keywords: landscape architecture, design means, design as transformation, new urban

landscapes

Introduction
So far, there is relatively few research done on the design history and design
knowledge of botanical gardens. Even though in some cases botanical gardens are
‘disappearing’, there are also examples of reconstruction, restoration of existing ones and
even of creating completely new botanical gardens like in Barcelona and Bordeaux. In this
paper we will focus on the design principles applied in the plans for botanical gardens, both
historical and contemporary examples. References specifically on the design history of
botanical gardens are sparse. For instance, Tomasi (1991) postulates that botanical gardens
might be the first step to modernisation of garden design because functional principles for
the growing of medical and rare plants formed the basis for the design instead of aesthetic
and stylistic principles. In an earlier paper (van den Toorn, 2010) on this subject the focus
was on the changing function and role of botanical gardens in contemporary urban
landscapes, this paper focusses on design knowledge enabling to improve the design quality
of botanical gardens. We will start with a short analysis of design approaches of some
classical examples of botanical gardens like Kew Gardens in London, Jardin des Plantes in
Paris and the botanical garden of Padua. In the second part we will investigate how the
traditional requirements of botanical gardens have been extended towards urban green
space and more general educational requirements and how they make up for a
contemporary program either for transformation of existing ones or the creation of new
ones. The research approach in this paper is based on the principles of case study research
(Zeisel, 2006). Source material comes from plan drawings, texts on plans and fieldwork.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF SOME CLASSICAL EXAMPLES

Origins and evolution of the botanical garden

After the start of domestication of plants in the eastern part of the Mediterranean

a
E-mail: mwmvandent@gmail.com

Acta Hortic. 1189. ISHS 2017. DOI 10.17660/ActaHortic.2017.1189.62 323

Proc. VI Int. Conf. on Landscape and Urban Horticulture
Eds.: M. Papafotiou et al.
basin some 10.000 years ago, the emergence of collecting plants from other regions started
in Mesopotamia and Egypt with the first gardens and zoos (Foster, 1999). Even though
nothing is left except some images, it is interesting to see that the trend of collecting (rare)
plants and animals was already set at an early time. The Lyceum in ancient Athens was in
fact the first major centre to collect exotic plants, animals, objects and to put forward the
modern scientific method. Throughout his conquests of various regions, Alexander the Great
collected plant and animal specimens for Aristotle’s research, allowing Aristotle to develop
the first zoo and botanical garden in existence. As head of the Lyceum, Theophrastus, a pupil
of Aristotle, continued Aristotle’s foci of observation, description, collaborative research and
documentation between 322‐266 B.C. His system of plant classification was based on the
causes associated to different plants; in fact related to medical use of plants. The first Hortus
medicus was established at the University of Pisa in 1543. Originally, the main purpose of
plant collections was for medical use. The basic ground plan of the gardens was in most
cases square or circular divided into four parts. Gradually also other functions emerged
(Tomasi, 2005). From the Renaissance on botanical gardens have played a role in the
scientific development by spreading and popularising botanical knowledge. From the 19th
century on botanical research focused increasingly on plant physiology and cell biology.
Consequently, the centres of botanical research moved from the botanical garden to the
laboratory. In the layout and design of botanical gardens, Robin (2008) states that three
categories should be taken into account: scientific, didactic, and aesthetic. After Darwin, the
phylogenetic systems emerged; they were based on the evolutionary history of a taxon or
group of plants. The identity of a botanical garden is characterised by specific elements such
as medicinal, systematic, aquatic areas, buildings for herbaria, teaching and research.

Design approaches and principles in three cases

Padua is together with Pisa, Montpellier and Leiden, one of the oldest botanical
gardens in Europe. In the beginning, the botanical garden of Padua got important material
from the Venetian traders who made overseas journeys (Rhodes, 1984). Later on material
was collected on special field trips financially supported by the Venetian Republic. By the
19th century, the collection comprised 16.000 specimen (Miola, 2012). Its design and layout
was based on practical as well as symbolic ideas. The circle (84 m in diameter) and an
enclosing square divided in four quadrants, provided ample space to divide into beds for
planting (Masson, 1989). At the same time, the circle symbolised the earth and all corners
where plants would come from. Terwen‐Dionisius (1994) used material from Leiden, Milan
and Pisa and analysed the form and patterns of the four quadrants in the circle. The
quadrants show intricate and rather complicated patterns that not immediately give an idea
of the most optimal form as planting beds. The circular form of the rampart may refer to
design principles from military architecture or a reference to theatre. Terwen‐Dionisius
(1994) states that mathematics seems to be an important background for the designer of
Padua botanical garden, Barbaro.
The Jardin des Plantes was established in the 17th century but originated from a
nearby monastery and medical garden; the ‘Jardin du Roi’ on the left bank of the Seine
(Chadych and Leborgne, 1999). Overall the grounds are oriented on the river Seine. The
buildings are both on the end and alongside of the axial system that is oriented to the river.
In the Jardin des Plantes organisation of plants is based on the system of Buffon (1739‐
1788), who became director of the garden and transformed it into a major centre of
research. The plants are organised by family, based on an evolutionary principle of
development, fitting into the original layout from the 17th century.
Kew gardens was established as botanical garden in 1840 and has now the world’s
largest collection of plants. It is located in Richmond bordering the river Thames. Before the
botanical garden, the site was part of a manor house ‘Richmond Palace’. In 1772 two royal
estates were merged into what is now the area of Kew gardens, all together 121 ha (Hepper,
1982). The overall structure of the layout of the former mansions is still visible at certain
places. Different architects and landscape architects were engaged in design and re‐design of
buildings, greenhouses and separate gardens; Bridgeman and Kent among them. New

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elements referring to the botanical garden have been created since its establishment in the
18th century. The present situation can be seen as a ‘layering’ of different interventions,
creating a vast diversity of plants, water bodies, gardens, buildings and greenhouses.
Because of its function of botanical garden it remains a unity without becoming a chaotic
collection of different phenomena.

CONTEMPORARY DESIGBN PRINCIPLES

Contemporary changes in function and use of botanical gardens define today’s design
principles both for existing and new botanical gardens.
In the 16th century, the botanical garden of Leiden was established with Clusius, a
famous botanist, as first director (de Koning and van der Veen, 2001). Commissioned by
Leiden University in 1997, the office of MTD landscape architects developed a strategy for
the landscape development in the long run for the botanical garden as part of the Leiden
urban landscape (Harsema et al., 2000). The basic concept of the plan is to divide the
existing grounds in a part that is open to the public by providing free access and a part that
is open only with paid access. The public part comprises the ‘Clusius garden’ next to a newly
constructed glasshouse, the ‘winter garden’. The Clusius garden is the oldest part of the
botanical garden. Tjon Sie Fat (1990) gives a detailed description. It is not exactly square, for
which there is no apparent reason. The third part is the largest part and is called the
‘Curatoren tuin’; it is separated from the two other parts by a small canal. In this part new
plant groups have been organised in rectangles that represent species, genera of one family
to illustrate the phylogenetic aspects (van Uffelen, 2007).
The botanical garden of Barcelona is located at the top of Montjuïc and has a collection
of Mediterranean plants from all over the world. The site is magnificent with splendid views
on the city and the sea. The garden was created in 1930, re‐designed in 1999 and reopened
in 2003. It has a public function both for scientific research and for the general public with a
special mission of conserving and spreading knowledge about Catalunya’s natural history. In
1999 a new plan was developed with Bet Figueras as landscape architect in the team. The
architect, Ferrater, came up with the idea of dividing the surface into mathematically
calculated fragments as abstraction of the topography resulting in a network triangulation of
the surface (Ferrater et al., 2006). A network of paths, building and entrance was fit into the
basic network. Construction of retaining walls of clay, concrete or corten steel make the site
fit for planting. Grouping of plants is on a regional basis; phyto‐geographical units based on
similar climatic conditions (Weilacher, 2005). The design principle is typically the approach
of an architect; searching for static forms. Weilacher (2005) speaks of ‘nature in geometrical
fragments’ where nature will develop its own form.
The botanical garden in Bordeaux was ‘replaced’ from the city centre to the right bank.
The new botanical garden was completely redesigned in 2007 by Mosbach as landscape
architect and Jourda as architect. There were three main requirements in the program;
scientific research, informing the public, showing the regional natural landscape of the
Aquitaine region. Mosbach searched for a concept that could inform urban people on the
natural landscape right in the middle of the city (Fieldwork, 2006). The plan takes the
historical parcelling of the agricultural land of the site as a point of departure. The relation
between garden and city is important also in terms of physical borders in which the ‘water
garden’ forms a transition to the river (Mosbach, 2010). The garden is organised in three
main zones; the ‘urban garden’, the ‘field of crops’ and the ‘gallery of natural landscapes’. The
field of crops shows plants such as wheat, flax, oats; typically plants that people in the city
don’t recognise anymore. In the materialisation of form the sculptural aspects of plants and
groups of plants is also included. The gallery of natural landscapes shows different
landscapes of the Aquitaine region. In fact, the plan for the botanical garden is a search for
giving form to the relation between nature and culture in the city, an issue that has played a
role in landscape architectural projects since its long history (Thomas, 1983; Glacken, 1990).
Bullivant (2007) includes the plan in her series of plans on ‘activating nature’ in the city.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Botanical gardens are designed on the basis of a functional approach both in history
and nowadays. It seems that the rational principle of organising plants got more and more
mixed up with other types of use, resulting in a set of different design principles. A second
aspect in all design is the form and layout of the site. If we compare the contour and layout of
the three last examples, we see great differences. The site and its climatic context, its
geological material do also influence the collection and its organisation in space. Finally,
there may have been influences of style elements; in the case of Kew the framework of the
former mansions is still visible and used. By far the most important difference in design
approach of contemporary botanical gardens is their multi‐functional program of research,
urban green space, and resource for biodiversity. The main overall design principle is the
making use of a framework; either an existing one or newly designed. For the design
process, it means a different working out at each level of intervention. Bordeaux is the most
interesting plan from a viewpoint of giving form to the relation between nature and culture
in a contemporary urban environment.

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