A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic

Royaume du Maroc
Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah

Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et
Des Sciences Humaines, Dhar El Mehraz - FES
A GRAMMAR OF
MOROCCAN
ARABIC
Moha Ennaji
Ahmed Makhoukh
Hassan Es-saiydy
Mohamed Moubtassime
Souad Slaoui
Pars Lettres 25
A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic ***** 2004
A GRAMMAR OF
MOROCCAN
ARABIC
Moha Ennaji
Ahmed Makhoukh
Hassan Es-saiydy
Mohamed Moubtassime
Souad Slaoui
Pars Lettres 25
Publications of the Faculty of Letters Dhar El Mehraz, Fès

2004
Titre de l’ouvrage : A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
Série : Pars Lettres 25
Auteurs : Moha Ennaji, Ahmed Makhoukh, Hassan Es-saiydy,
Mohamed Moubtassime, Souad Slaoui
Editeur : Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines Dhar El Mehraz
– Fès
Tirage : Imprimerie Fédala, Mohammedia
Copyright : ©Réservé à la Faculté des Lettres Dhar El Mehraz, Fès
Dépôt légal : 0207/2004
ISBN : 9981-829-39-0
1ère édition : 2004
Ouvrage publié avec le

concours du
programme PARS –
Lettres 25
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Introduction iii
PHONOLOGY 1
Introduction 1
Consonants 2
Vowels 4
Diphthongs 5
The Syllable Structure 6
Juncture 7
The Stress 8
Intonation 11
Dialectal Variation 13
Prosodic Properties 15
Secondary Articulation 17
Phonological Processes 19
Conclusion 23
MORPHOLOGY 25
Introduction 25
Root vs Pattern 26
Verbal Inflection Morphology 29
Verbal Derivational Morphology 45
Nominal Inflection 53
Internal Plurals 63
Mixed Plurals 69
Conclusion 72
SYNTAX 73
Introduction 73
The Simple Sentence 73
The Basic Word Order 73
The Syntactic Structure of Simple Sentences 78
The Internal Structure of Simple Sentences 82
Conditional Sentences 87
ii
Simple Nominal Sentences 88

Prepositional and Adverbial Phrases 92
Aspect, Tense and Agreement 94
The Future Tense 96
Interrogative Sentences 101
The Complex Sentence 103
The Complement Clause 103
Adverbial Clauses 109
Relative Clauses 111
Small Clauses 116
Cleft Sentences 120
Conclusion 122
References 123
Index 127
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research work has been funded by the Ministry of Higher Education
and Scientific Research (PARS Lettres 25). We are grateful to Fatima
Sadiqi, the head of this project for her help and constructive remarks. Thanks
must also go to Ahmed Boukous (Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture) for
his encouragement, and to other colleagues and graduate students of
linguistics at Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University in Fès, for reading and
commenting on earlier drafts of this book.
Introduction
This book is a descriptive grammar of Moroccan Arabic from a

broad perspective of generative grammar. We have avoided as much as
possible the technicalities associated with theory, and attempted to simplify
the jargon and the description because we had in mind primarily
undergraduate and graduate students of linguistics, and the general reader
who is particularly interested in the structure of Moroccan Arabic.
In this book, we describe and analyse important phonological,
morphological and syntactic phenomena of the variety of Moroccan Arabic
spoken in the areas of Meknès and Fès. To satisfy this aim, the book covers a
wide range of empirical data. It does not attempt to offer an exhaustive
survey of the structures of Moroccan Arabic, however, as it would be the
case in the excellent tradition of Arab grammarians such as Sibawayhi or
Ibnu Jinni, to name but two. Our aim is to provide the reader with a coherent
and systematic approach to the structures of Moroccan Arabic. This aim
informs our discussion of basic structural phenomena, such as the sound
pattern, the morphology, and the syntax of the language.
The book is divided into three chapters. The first one deals with
phonology, the second is concerned with morphology, and the third one
deals with syntax. The chapter on phonology deals with the phonetic and
phonemic inventories of the language, and examines the ways the various
speech-sounds contrast and are distributed. We have provided a sound
description of the vowels, semi-vowels, diphthongs and consonants of
Moroccan Arabic taking into account the phonotactics of the language. A
brief description is given of the syllable structure and of the stress patterns.
Further, the different prosodic features of Moroccan Arabic are presented
including secondary articulation features. The chapter has equally described
and analysed basic phonological processes like assimilation, insertion and
deletion of consonants and vowels in continuous speech.
The main concern of the second chapter is to provide a systematic
description of the morphological system of Moroccan Arabic, more precisely
verbal and nominal morphological patterns. In connection with verbal
morphology, we have particularly dealt with verbal inflection and verbal
derivation, i.e., affixes that are attached to verbs, and derived forms such as
causatives, reflexives, reciprocals, etc. In the section on nominal
morphology, we have described especially the morphology of nouns and
adjectives. Both of these structures reflect the richness and regularities of
the verbal and nominal morphology in Moroccan Arabic.
The chapter is also concerned with the morphological idiosyncrasies
of Moroccan Arabic The aim is to delineate the idiosyncratic properties
underlying the morphology of the language under study in comparison with
other Chamito-semitic languages, mainly modern colloquial Arabic dialects
iv A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
and Berber. Our focus is on language facts with the aim to outline the
regularities, as well as the exceptions underlying the morphology of
Moroccan Arabic.The chapter shows that Moroccan Arabic has a typically
Semitic morphology in which morphological categories are represented not
only by prefixes and suffixes, but also by non-concatenative structures built
on non-concatenative stems.
The chapter of syntax provides a detailed description of the major
types of simple and complex sentences in this language. This chapter is
divided into two major separate sections. The first section is concerned with
the simple sentence, and the second section deals with the complex sentence.
Special attention has been paid to the inflectional morphology of the
language, which is closely linked to word order variation. Focus has also
been put on some functional categories like Tense, Agreement, Aspect,
Negation and Complementisers in view of the central role they play in the
process of building various construction types. In the section on complex
sentences, we have discussed the formation of complement clauses, relative
clauses, small clauses and cleft sentences.
The systematic description and analysis of the different linguistic
phenomena do not consider the data in isolation but rather as part of an
overall description of Moroccan Arabic. Similarly, we do not conceive of
Moroccan Arabic structures as a collection of individual constructions, each
with its specific properties; rather we have globally examined the different
structures in the tradition of generative grammar.
The individual constructions of Moroccan Arabic described in this
book result from the interaction of various components of the underlying
language system. We have tried to specify the underlying rules, and
attempted to formulate interesting generalisations, and a coherent grammar
of Moroccan Arabic in which the structures discussed are described and
analysed in the most economical way. We illustrate how a restricted number
of rules and principles can account for a wide range of phenomena of
Moroccan Arabic.
This book does not claim to offer an exhaustive description of
Moroccan Arabic, nor is it an introduction to a given linguistic theory. One
of our aims is to show the reader how Moroccan Arabic can be studied in a
systematic way. This kind of approach allows us not only to describe the
language scientifically, but also to analyse and discover new linguistic facts
that were hitherto ignored or neglected by linguists.
Phonology

Introduction

સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬ꮠ산䀸 릤ꮠ릤  산䬬䬬ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ
ꮠ릤 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ릤  산 䘐ꮠ 릤릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬牨䨸 ꮠ 䨸릤 릤
䀸 릤 릤릤 䬬䨸 산릤 牨 갬䀸 산 릤 ꮠ  ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 산 ꮠ갬䬬䬬ꮠ
릤산ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ 䘐ꮠ 산䬬䬬ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ 䬬릤  산䨸 ퟰ牐牐Ὠ௘  ꮠ릤 릤 산릤 ꮠ䬬
ꮠ갬 릤산䨸䬬릤ꮠꮠ䬬 릤산 갬䨸산갬릤 릤 䀸꒤䨸산 산 릤릤 ꮠ릤 산산갬릤
 䀸 ꮠ릤산䨸릤સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬䘐릤산䨸䬬릤ꮠꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 
䬬산 산 ꮠ 릤
સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ릤산䬬䬬ꮠ산苨산ꮠ릤 갬䬬 릤⟴릤牨ꮠꮠ
 릤 苨 ઈ苨䬬ꮠ산ꮠ 산 갬䨸산갬릤 산牨ꮠ䀸 સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 
牨산䬬䬬ꮠ산苨산ꮠ산䬬䘐릤산䬬 牨 릤산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬 릤સꮠ 릤魤산䬬
䬬릤릤⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ산 魤 산ꮠퟰ牐牐௘
 산䀸䘐ꮠ 릤 릤 산 䬬ꮠ  릤 䨸산ꮠ 산 릤 갬䘐  牨릤산 䬬 
牨牨䨸 ꮠ산ꮠ 산 릤 릤릤牨릤  䨸산 ꮠ 산ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬
릤牨릤 릤 산 갬䨸산갬릤  牨산䬬䬬 牨牨䨸 ꮠ산ꮠ 산 산ꮠ䀸 산ꮠꮠꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ 䘐䬬
산 ꮠꮠ릤䬬 સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬릤 䀸 산 સ산 䬬 릤 릤 ퟰⳈ 
牨 ꮠ 갬䨸산릤릤䬬 �䨸䬬䬬ꮠퟰ牐왌௘
산䬬䬬ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ 䘐산䬬 산ꮠ牨릤 릤  ꮠꮠ산 산 갬䨸산갬릤  릤 ⟴산릤
䀸 릤 䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ  ퟰ牐ퟰ산䬬䬬ꮠ산苨산ꮠ䘐 ꮠ 산䬬  산ꮠ릤䬬릤산릤䬬
ꮠ䬬릤산 릤 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸ꮠ 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤  䀸ꮠ 牨산 릤 䬬
䀸  산䬬 સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 䬬릤 牨 릤  갬䨸릤 ꮠ 릤
䨸䀸산 릤릤릤ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 ꮠ ꮠ 牨산䬬릤ꮠ 갬䬬  산ꮠ䀸 릤䬬산ꮠ 䬬산
산 䬬산ꮠ 䬬 릤 䨸산ꮠ  સ산 䬬䘐  䨸䬬릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬
릤䬬ꮠ牨산릤 산산䨸뀨Ⳉ산 ꮠ 갬�䨸䬬䬬ꮠ ퟰ牐왌ὨὨ௘
સ 䨸䬬릤䬬 산䬬䬬ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 릤  ꮠꮠ산 산 갬䨸산갬릤 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
䨸䬬릤 䨸갬 䨸 릤 苨산 䘐  䘐ꮠꮠ 갬 䨸䬬릤䬬  릤 릤릤䬬䬬  릤
산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬 산릤 䬬릤 ꮠ સ 산牨릤䀸 릤릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ 산
릤  સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬 산 牨ꮠ  苨산ꮠ릤릤 릤  산 ⟴산 ꮠ䬬
䬬릤 魤 산ꮠ ퟰ牐牐ퟰ 魤 산ꮠ  산릤산௘  ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸  䬬릤
䨸䬬릤䬬䘐 ꮠ릤산䬬䬬ꮠ산苨산ꮠꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤  䀸ꮠ 䘐ꮠꮠ 갬 સ 릤릤
산릤牨산 䀸 ꮠ산릤䬬 સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤牨䬬ꮠ牨산  䘐 ꮠ 산릤 릤
⟴ 산牨산ꮠ  릤 ௘ ꮠ산릤 릤鯈䨸 ꮠ ꮠ산릤 릤산䬬릤 릤갬ꮠ ௘ 릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ ꮠ산릤
 릤 릤갬ꮠ  䬬௘ 릤 산䬬산䘐ꮠ ꮠ산릤  산䬬산산 산௘ 릤 સ산산릤䬬 ꮠ
ꮠ산릤  સ산산릤䬬 산릤산௘산 산䬬䬬산 ꮠ산䬬릤 ꮠ 릤⟴산 산산
릤  갬ꮠ산䬬䀸䬬릤牨 સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬ꮠ릤 䀸 릤䬬ꮠ릤 ꮠ
ꮠ䬬  산릤 苨 ꮠ 갬  릤 산산牨 산 산 ꮠ ퟰ牐牐௘ 릤 산ꮠ릤䀸 
સ산 苨산ꮠ 䬬릤 ꮠ 릤 䨸산 산릤산䬬  산산 산 산䬬산산 산 ꮠ䬬
 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 산릤 릤릤 릤 ꮠ산릤산䬬䨸산산산ꮠ릤䀸晸ꮠꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸䨸䬬릤
ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ䬬릤牨릤 䬬  산 ꮠ 산 릤릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 晸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬  릤䬬ꮠ갬ꮠ䨸䬬 산
A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
䨸牨산릤 산 ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ  산 䀸 릤산䀸 릤갬ꮠ 산 릤산䨸릤䬬 릤 산산牨 산
산 ꮠ ꮠꮠ ௘ 릤 릤  ꮠ 산䬬苨릤산갬릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 સ산
苨산ꮠ 릤 릤릤 릤 산ꮠ릤䀸 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 릤릤 牨 릤 䨸산 ꮠ산릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산릤
 산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸 릤 ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤산䨸릤䬬  릤 䨸ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬 릤갬
ꮠ  갬䨸ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤䨸䬬릤 갬ꮠ 䬬릤산  ɬ산 릤산ꮠ산ꮠ 산ꮠ  䬬牨릤
 䬬 산 䬬
릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ  䬬 산 산 䬬䀸䬬릤牨  산ꮠ 䬬  䬬 산
 릤牨릤䬬 산 䨸 䘐릤  릤牨릤䬬 릤䀸산릤 릤䬬ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
䬬릤ꮠ 䬬

Consonants

산ꮠ산l릤 산산산산릤산쀔䨸산 산䀸 갬릤산산䀸 갬릤산

鯈䬬䨸릤 䬬
⟴䬬
ꮠ릤릤䬬䬬 ɬ/
ꮠ릤 갬

ꮠ산ꮠ릤䬬
ꮠ릤릤䬬䬬䬬⟴ ฀
ꮠ릤 γV

릤䬬 산 䬬
ꮠ
산릤산 ퟰ
산䬬산䬬牨સ
⟴릤牨ꮠઈ䘐릤䬬䘐

릤 산સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬산䬬릤갬牨릤 산  릤牨릤 릤牨 산䬬ꮠ䬬䘐 ꮠ ઈ
䨸䬬䘐ꮠ 릤  䬬 산 䬬 산 䬬릤산 䬬 릤 산 牨산ꮠ   릤 䬬䀸산릤
魤牨 산ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬 ꮠ ꮠ䬬  산릤 산릤䨸 릤ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 䨸 릤䬬산 ꮠ 갬
산릤牨 산䬬ꮠ䬬䬬릤산 䬬릤 릤䬬䀸산릤ꮠ ꮠꮠ산릤 䀸 릤릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산
릤릤산릤릤ꮠ갬 릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산 䬬સ ⟴  릤䬬릤䬬䨸䬬
산릤䘐릤ꮠ ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ  ઈ릤牨 산ꮠ䨸 릤산䬬 릤䀸산릤 䨸릤
릤 䨸䀸䘐ꮠ 牨䨸 牨䨸䬬䨸산릤 䬬ꮠ ꮠ 릤牨䨸 산 산산牨산 ꮠ릤
䘐ꮠ 산 산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬  릤 산 산   릤  갬䨸릤 䘐산 릤   릤
牨䨸 સ릤릤  ꮠ 릤䬬 牨䀸䘐릤ꮠ 산 릤 산ꮠ 
릤 산산 산䬬䀸릤ꮠ 갬릤릤산䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 䨸산 䀸 ꮠꮠ ꮠ䬬릤䘐 릤릤산䬬
ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸산ꮠ䨸산릤 䘐ꮠ 䬬牨릤 ꮠꮠ  산릤ퟰ牐뀨௘

Phonology 왌
릤 릤牨 산ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬  ⟴ 산릤  릤牨릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 牨산䀸 릤
䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 䘐 䬬 산릤ꮠ 릤 산릤산 릤릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산 䬬ꮠ릤䘐ꮠ䬬릤
산䬬ꮠ䬬ɬ䨸ꮠ릤牨牨 ꮠ 䘐 䬬䘐 ꮠ  산ꮠ 릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산 䬬䨸
ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ䀸䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 䘐릤䬬 릤 산 산 䨸 릤䬬䬬 산     䬬 산䬬
산릤산䬬 ꮠ 릤 䘐 䀸  산䬬 릤 릤牨 산ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬  સ 
산릤산䨸䬬䨸산䀸ꮠ 릤릤䬬릤 릤 릤牨牨 䀸䨸䬬릤 릤牨 산ꮠ䬬 ⟴ 
䘐릤릤 산ꮠ   牨 산  䨸 ꮠ 산 䘐 ꮠ  릤  릤 릤牨 산ꮠ
 䬬 산 䬬ꮠ䬬릤䬬릤
⟴ꮠ牨ꮠ산  릤સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 산䬬 ꮠ䬬산ꮠ䨸산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤
ꮠ 릤 갬䨸릤산ꮠ䬬릤 산갬산ꮠ 䬬 릤䨸릤  릤릤 સ산 릤牨 산ꮠ
ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠꮠ䬬魤 갬ꮠ䬬 산䘐 릤릤산䬬 릤સ산  ઈ릤牨 산ꮠ
ꮠ䬬ꮠ릤 릤 牨산 릤산䬬ꮠꮠ䬬 䨸릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 갬䨸릤산ꮠ䬬릤 䘐산 ꮠ
릤 牨䨸䘐ꮠ 䨸 산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 릤 산  릤  갬䨸릤 䘐산 릤   릤
牨䨸
릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ 산ꮠ  ꮠ䬬 산 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤䬬릤牨릤䬬 릤  ꮠ
⟴산 ꮠ䬬䘐 䬬ꮠ릤madre 牨 릤௘䬬릤牨 산ꮠ䨸 릤산 ꮠ䬬릤산릤
  ꮠ 릤 䬬산牨릤 䘐산䀸 산  릤 산ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬 산릤 릤산릤  릤ꮠ
릤䬬 ꮠ 갬릤牨 산ꮠ䬬
릤  䬬 산 ɬ ꮠ䬬  䨸 릤 ꮠ릤  䨸䘐ꮠ 릤   릤
 갬䨸릤릤산릤 䨸 릤 산ꮠ 릤牨䨸 ꮠ䬬 䨸 ꮠ 䘐 䬬 ꮠ릤 산ɬꮠ
௘ɬꮠ牨牨산 䬬䨸牨牨ꮠ௘ 䘐산ɬ 릤산ꮠ ௘
 산 γ산릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤䬬 䨸릤 릤산䀸ꮠ 릤䬬산牨릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산䬬ɬ
䨸 릤䀸산릤 䨸 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤산 릤 갬䨸릤산ꮠ䬬릤 䘐산 릤
 릤牨䨸 ꮠ 릤䨸䨸산 릤 산牨릤 牨ꮠ산 䀸릤산䬬௘牨䨸  산ꮠ ௘ 산
릤  䬬 산 䬬 ฀ V 산릤  䨸릤 䀸 산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 릤 산䀸 산

릤䘐䬬௘γ 산 릤산䀸산௘γ䨸 牨 䬬릤௘牨䬬䨸γ 산ꮠ 릤 ௘
릤산ꮠ 갬 릤   릤  갬䨸릤 䘐산 릤 산  릤 산 સ산

苨산ꮠ฀ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 릤릤 牨魤 갬ꮠ䬬  晸ꮠꮠ䬬산ꮠ릤릤䬬䬬산䀸 갬릤산 ꮠ산ꮠ릤
ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 䘐 䬬 ꮠ릤牨ꮠ฀ 갬 ௘฀牨ꮠ  릤䀸䬬௘ 산฀ 산릤䬬௘ 鯈
릤 릤 산 V䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬산䬬 ꮠ 릤릤 牨산 䀸魤 갬ꮠ䬬  䬬 산 ꮠ䬬산
ꮠ릤 산䀸 갬릤산 ꮠ산ꮠ릤산릤산䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤V牨산牨산 䨸산 ௘ɬ산牨V
릤䬬䬬ꮠ ௘«V 산䀸௘ 릤ꮠ릤 산䀸 갬릤산 ꮠ산ꮠ릤 䬬 산   ꮠ䬬
䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산  魤 갬ꮠ䬬  晸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 䨸 ꮠ 䘐 䬬 ꮠ릤  산 산 ꮠ䬬  릤௘  䨸䘐산
ꮠ牨௘⟴«  릤산௘
릤갬산䬬/ꮠ䬬ɬ䨸ꮠ릤산릤䀸䨸䬬릤 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬산
ꮠ릤릤䬬䬬 산䀸 갬릤산 䬬  䨸䬬 ꮠ 䘐 䬬 ꮠ릤 /산牨  릤௘ /ꮠ 산산
산 牨ꮠ ꮠ䬬산ꮠ ௘산/ꮠ牨牨산䘐산/ꮠ牨牨산 릤ꮠ 릤⦜௘
릤牨ꮠ 산릤䬬 산릤 䨸릤  䬬 산 䬬䘐 ꮠ 牨牨 䀸 䨸 ꮠ
સ산 苨산ꮠ晸 릤䀸 산릤 릤릤䬬릤 릤 䀸 䨸ꮠ 갬 릤  䬬 산 䬬 
릤 산牨릤䨸  ௘牨牨ꮠ 牨䀸牨 릤௘฀䨸ꮠ 牨䀸릤௘

䨸䬬릤䬬  䘐  䬬 산 䬬 산릤 ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 牨牨 晸 릤䀸牨산䀸 䨸
ꮠ ꮠꮠ산䀸牨릤 ꮠ산䀸  ꮠ 산䀸 ꮠ 산 䘐 산䬬 ꮠ 산䬬 릤 갬산䬬䬬௘ 牨산산
 ௘« 갬௘
ꮠ릤 䬬 산 䬬䨸䨸산릤릤산ꮠ릤䀸산릤晸 릤䀸산릤산ꮠ 䘐 䬬
ꮠ릤 牨䨸 릤 갬산릤 ꮠ牨 갬  ௘ 牨 산 릤 䘐ꮠ䬬 릤䬬௘ 䬬牨  䨸릤௘
䬬牨산 䬬 릤ꮠ䬬 산௘산 «  䬬 릤ꮠ䬬산산ꮠ릤௘
 릤䬬릤ꮠ 릤䘐䘐릤 䘐ꮠ 산 릤 ꮠ 릤릤 䀸릤䬬  䘐릤䬬
산 릤ꮠ 릤산䨸릤䬬

Vowels

릤 산산牨산 산 ꮠ ꮠ 릤牨௘산갬䨸릤 산苨릤산갬릤સ산 苨산ꮠ
산䬬 䨸䘐릤䬬
ꮠ䨸
릤

산

릤 산䬬䬬䨸牨릤 산 䘐릤 릤 갬 릤䬬  릤 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산 산
릤䬬 䘐산ꮠ䬬  릤牨ꮠ 䬬릤릤릤 산산牨산 산 ꮠꮠ 릤牨௘
苨 릤  릤ꮠ릤릤સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬䬬릤릤 䬬 䘐릤䬬䨸
  갬 䘐릤䬬 산 ꮠ 䨸 릤  «   릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐௘  릤 산산牨
ퟰ牐牐௘ 릤릤릤 ꮠ䬬  䀸 䨸䘐릤䬬ꮠ, 䨸산  릤 산 䨸 ퟰ牐௘ꮠ䬬 릤
 䀸 સ산 ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬䘐  산 ꮠ牨䬬 산  갬 䘐릤䬬 릤 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ સ산
苨산ꮠ䘐ꮠ 䨸ꮠ ꮠ 갬산 䀸산 갬ꮠ릤릤ꮠ 릤 릤 릤릤ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ䬬 䘐릤䬬
䘐릤 산릤

ퟰ௘
ꮠ 䬬  䬬릤  䨸 䨸 릤 산䬬 ꮠ ꮠ 䘐릤௘  ꮠ 릤릤 산 ௘ 䬬牨ꮠ산
산牨릤௘
䨸ꮠ䬬䬬 䬬릤산䨸 릤 晸ꮠꮠ䬬 䨸 ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 䨸 릤산 䬬௘䬬䨸牨

ꮠ릤௘䨸 䬬௘
릤ꮠ䬬䬬  산 ઈ䬬릤  䨸 䨸 릤 晸ꮠꮠ䬬 䨸 ꮠ 牨䬬ꮠ릤 릤 ꮠ ௘
牨릤 산 ꮠ릤௘릤 릤 ꮠ 갬 䬬 산릤௘
ꮠ䬬䬬  산 ઈ䬬릤산䨸 릤 晸ꮠ䨸䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 산 산௘
 V산 䘐릤䬬௘  릤산 산䬬௘䬬   ௘

Phonology 뀨
䬬ꮠ 䘐 ௘䬬산 « 릤산䬬䀸௘䬬«䨸 ꮠ䬬릤 ௘

«ꮠ䬬䬬 䬬릤릤 산䨸 䨸 릤 산릤산䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤갬«䬬
산ꮠ䬬䬬 릤 산䨸 䨸 릤 晸ꮠꮠ䬬릤 䨸 릤릤 ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ ꮠ 갬
릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산 䬬ꮠ릤ɬ산牨산 牨 ௘산산 牨산 ꮠ ௘ 산
산௘
 䨸䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤V  䬬 산牨릤௘苨   ௘ 䬬 릤산 ௘ꮠ䬬

 䨸 릤 산 䘐산䀸릤䘐릤릤 릤 魤 갬ꮠ䬬牨산 산 릤A
魤 갬ꮠ䬬 산 릤ꮠ䬬산䘐산䀸䬬䬬 릤 산 산䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤  갬릤 산  
⟴릤릤산릤ퟰ牐뀨산 릤 산 䨸ퟰ牐牐௘
䘐릤䬬牨산䀸 산 갬릤ꮠ 릤ꮠꮠ릤ɬ䨸산ꮠ䀸䘐 릤 릤䀸산릤산 산릤 

릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산 䬬䘐릤䬬䨸ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ ฀산 Ö산릤䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산 릤
䘐릤䬬산릤산ꮠ 갬䬬릤산 릤牨 산ꮠ 䬬 산 릤 산牨릤V 산 
ꮠ릤 ௘ 䘐ꮠ 䬬 릤릤௘ 릤  갬산䘐산䀸௘V  䘐산ꮠ௘
 산 ꮠꮠ 䘐릤䬬  䨸䬬릤 릤䀸牨산䀸릤릤ꮠ릤ꮠ牨산䀸
䬬릤 산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬산䬬䘐릤䬬 산䬬릤릤䬬 䀸

Diphthongs

릤릤산릤䘐牨산 ꮠ  갬䬬ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ산ꮠ산 산䘐
䘐 ꮠ 산릤䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산魤 갬ꮠ䬬 ꮠ  갬䬬 릤䀸䨸ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤牨⟴산ꮠ
ꮠ䬬산䬬릤௘⟴ 산ꮠV 䬬ꮠ䬬䬬௘산ꮠ⟴ 산릤䬬௘V산䘐䨸 릤릤 ꮠ ꮠ௘ퟰ산䘐 
릤䀸䬬ꮠ௘牨V산䘐  릤௘
산릤 ퟰ牐뀨௘ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤䬬릤䘐릤릤  ꮠ 䘐䘐 ꮠ 산릤산산 릤฀
V산 산산䘐䘐 ꮠ 䨸䘐ꮠ  릤 䬬 산 䬬

௘
 ꮠ 䘐
฀ 䘐ꮠ 䬬 릤릤௘
฀ ꮠ 䘐산௘
฀ 䘐« 䀸௘
V ꮠ 䘐산ꮠ௘

왌௘
산산䘐

산 䘐 릤릤௘
산 릤산௘
ɬ산䘐牨 릤릤௘
산 릤산 ௘
γ산䘐 䀸௘
The syllable structure

릤䘐릤ꮠ䬬 릤 䨸릤䨸䬬 릤䬬䀸산릤 릤릤ꮠ䬬산릤산ꮠ
릤䘐릤릤 릤 䨸牨릤 䘐릤䬬산 릤 䨸牨릤 䬬䀸산릤䬬ꮠ 릤
સ산 苨산ꮠ䬬䀸산릤䬬 산릤 릤릤산䬬ꮠ 牨䬬 릤
산릤䨸䬬 䀸릤 릤䨸 䨸릤 릤 牨牨산䀸산릤 산릤䘐ꮠ 
䘐 릤 릤ꮠ ꮠꮠ산 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬산갬산䬬䨸䬬ꮠ 䬬䨸 䨸산
䬬ꮠꮠ 산 릤릤ꮠ릤䬬䘐릤산䬬릤䬬䬬
સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬䘐 산䬬ꮠ 䬬䀸산릤 䀸릤䬬  산 
릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘산갬䨸릤䬬 산સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬䨸䘐릤䬬 산牨릤䀸ꮠ
산 䨸 산 산릤 䨸 릤䀸ꮠ 갬  릤牨릤䬬 산 릤 䬬 䘐산 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤릤 릤ꮠ
䨸䬬 સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 산䬬ꮠ 䬬䀸산릤 䬬䨸䨸릤  ௘
릤 ꮠ 산ꮠ䀸  릤 䘐릤 릤䘐릤릤 산릤䬬 ꮠ ꮠ산릤䬬 릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ
릤䘐릤릤 산 䨸䘐릤䘐 ꮠ 䨸䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ산릤릤䬬릤 산ꮠ 산 산䬬 䘐산
䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬ꮠ  䨸릤  䀸䨸ꮠ 갬䬬䀸산ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬릤 릤䘐ꮠ ꮠ䬬ઈ  릤
 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산䬬릤䬬 䨸䘐릤䬬䀸산ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ
௘
ꮠ牨산 릤 ௘
䨸산 䬬௘
산䬬 갬산䬬䬬௘

苨䬬䨸䨸릤 산䬬  릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 릤  릤산  䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤 䀸 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
䬬䀸산릤
뀨௘
σ

鯈


ഐ 䨸릤䨸䬬鯈ഐ 䬬릤 ഐ 䀸牨릤

릤 산 䨸릤산ꮠ릤䬬䘐 릤 릤릤산릤䬬산ꮠ갬 䘐산  䬬 산 䬬 䘐ꮠ 갬
䬬䀸산릤䬬
⟴ 䘐산 䬬䀸산ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산䬬  䨸ꮠ릤 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ
 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬

௘
« 䘐ꮠ릤௘
䬬« 산ꮠ௘
Phonology Ὠ
« « 䬬산䘐䀸䨸௘
« «฀« 䬬 릤䘐ꮠ릤 산䀸 䀸䨸௘

릤 산 릤䬬 䘐산산릤산䬬릤䘐릤릤 릤릤䀸䘐 䬬 산 䬬䘐 ꮠ ꮠ牨ꮠ릤䬬
산 릤 䬬 䘐산 ꮠ䬬 릤릤 릤ꮠ  릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘ ⟴ 䘐산 릤릤 릤䬬ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬 산
䨸릤䘐 ꮠ 산䘐䬬 릤갬릤 릤산릤䬬䀸산릤䬬산ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 릤산  ꮠ산䬬䨸䨸릤
䬬䨸 산릤䬬䀸산릤䬬ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ

Juncture

릤릤릤 ꮠ䬬 䨸䬬䬬ꮠ릤䨸 䨸릤䬬ꮠ 릤䬬䨸 산릤  સ산
苨산ꮠ 鮼│║㇀  ㇀  산 ║ 산릤 산  산䬬ꮠ릤 䨸 ꮠ 릤䀸牨산䀸
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤䘐릤릤 산䬬산릤牨릤 산 산 릤 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 릤 산牨릤

Ὠ௘
ꮠ산㇀ ꮠ갬  䬬산릤牨릤 ௘
ꮠ산║ ꮠ갬 Ꮰ 릤 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ ௘

║산 鮼牨산䀸 산䬬릤䘐릤릤 산 ꮠ릤䘐 ઈɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 산 산 릤 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ

௘
Ö산鮼牨산│䘐䀸 ꮠ 릤갬Ꮰ ꮠ릤䘐 ઈɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ ௘
Ö산鮼牨산║ 逄䘐䀸 ꮠ 릤갬Ꮰ 릤 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ ௘

㇀산 │牨산䀸 산䬬산䬬릤䘐릤릤 산䬬산릤牨릤 산 산 ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤
牨

牐௘
 䨸䘐산㇀逄 ꮠ牨
 䨸䘐산│逄 ꮠ牨Ꮰ
㇀ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 산ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤 릤䨸릤산 릤
║ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 산산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ꮠ  릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤 릤䨸릤산 릤

│ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 䘐 릤 릤릤ꮠ䬬산䬬䨸䬬산ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤갬ꮠ 䬬릤 릤산 산ꮠ릤䬬
릤 릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤 릤䨸릤산 릤

㇀║│산릤릤牨ꮠ 산䨸 䨸릤䬬│산 䨸ꮠ 릤 산䀸ꮠ 산䬬릤 릤 릤晸ꮠ
牨산䀸산릤산산䬬산 ꮠ 릤 산䨸 䨸릤 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤

ퟰ௘
ɬ산鮼牨산 ꮠ 릤鮼฀산䨸㇀릤 릤산ꮠ릤 릤 릤 牨릤

릤 릤릤릤牨ꮠ 산䨸 䨸릤䬬산릤牨산䀸 릤릤 ꮠ산릤 牨 릤
ꮠ 牨䬬릤산䨸䬬릤릤산  릤牨산䀸ઈ䨸䘐ꮠ ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ 牨 릤牨릤䬬
⟴ꮠ牨ꮠ산䀸 릤 䨸䬬릤   ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 릤 산 䬬릤 릤 릤 산  릤 릤 ꮠ릤 牨 릤
䬬릤갬牨릤 산䬬䨸산䬬릤갬牨릤 산 릤산䨸릤䬬
鮼
산릤산䬬 ꮠ 릤 산䀸 릤䘐릤릤 䘐 䘐 䬬䘐 䬬릤 䘐 산 산릤
䬬䀸산릤䬬 산릤  䨸 릤 牨산 䬬릤䬬䬬  ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ  릤䬬䀸산릤산릤䬬牨산
䬬릤䬬䬬산 릤 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ牨산䬬릤䬬䬬䀸䘐산䀸 릤 산牨릤 䬬ꮠ 릤
ꮠ 산鮼산䀸 « 牨䨸 䘐  릤䀸䘐Ꮰ

ퟰퟰ௘
산鮼牨ꮠ ㇀䀸䨸 산 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ

牨 산䬬䨸鮼ɬꮠ산㇀ ꮠ䬬䬬 ꮠ䬬䬬릤

䨸䬬 鮼 산릤산䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 산 산䨸 ꮠ䀸 산䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 산
䘐䨸 ꮠ 산 산  갬릤 릤산 릤 䨸 䨸릤 鮼 ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬䘐ꮠ 릤
갬산牨牨산ꮠ산䨸 산䀸산䬬牨산䀸릤 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤릤 산牨릤䬬산릤
ꮠ ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 릤릤 䬬 산릤䬬 ꮠ갬 牨ꮠ 산 䘐
릤릤ꮠ䬬산산ꮠ산ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 ꮠ 산 䬬릤䬬䬬 릤 릤 산 산 ꮠ
산 䨸 䨸릤 릤  릤 산  갬릤 릤산릤牨䬬 ꮠ갬 ꮠ 산牨산 ꮠ릤䬬
ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬산䬬䘐릤䬬 산䬬릤릤ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬릤ꮠ

The stress
⟴릤䬬䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 릤릤ꮠ릤 ꮠ릤 산릤 ꮠ 牨

સ산 산 ꮠ 릤 산ꮠ 산 ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬䬬 릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ릤䬬 산 산릤 릤산 䘐ꮠ 릤
ꮠ 산릤 릤ꮠ 릤 ꮠ牨릤䬬䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬ꮠ  릤牨ꮠꮠꮠ산  릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐 산
릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘ 릤ꮠ䨸䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ릤䬬䀸苨 릤牨산䬬䬬ꮠ ퟰ牐Ὠ왌௘ 릤 ꮠ산 릤
ퟰ牐௘릤 산 䨸 ퟰ牐௘�䨸䬬䬬ꮠ ퟰ牐௘산 릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘ 산릤 릤산
䘐ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 䬬릤䬬䬬 ꮠ 산 䬬릤 䀸䘐산䀸 સ䬬  릤䬬릤 䘐䬬䬬산릤
산䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤䬬䀸산릤
릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐௘ 산 릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘ 산䬬릤 릤ꮠ 䬬䨸 ꮠ릤䬬 
릤 릤ꮠ牨릤 䬬 산 릤 ꮠ 䨸ꮠꮠ 䬬  갬䨸䬬  સ산 苨산ꮠ 산ꮠ릤
䬬릤산릤䬬릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘ 릤䬬 산 릤 ꮠ 산䬬䀸산릤ꮠ䬬 릤릤䬬릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ
牨䨸ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ 䘐 䬬  ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ 䘐 䬬䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬  릤 릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤
䬬䀸산릤   릤 산 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤  릤  ɬ䨸산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ 䘐 䬬 릤ꮠ산䀸
䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬  릤 ꮠ䬬䬬릤 산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬  릤 ꮠ 산 䬬䀸산릤 산 ꮠ牨산䀸
䬬릤䬬䬬 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤䬬䀸산릤䬬산䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 릤䘐䨸 릤ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 
릤산䬬릤 ꮠ䬬䨸 릤䘐 산ꮠ䨸牨䬬산 릤䬬  산ꮠ릤䬬릤산릤䬬 䬬릤 릤ꮠ牨산䀸
䬬䀸산릤䬬ꮠ 牨䨸ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 䬬Ꮰ

Word stress
苨 ꮠ 갬  산 䨸 ퟰ牐௘ સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸

Phonology 牐
䘐 䬬릤䬬䬬䨸릤䬬晸 릤 ꮠ䬬 산ꮠ릤䬬  릤산䀸 ꮠ 산  䬬䀸산릤䬬 산 릤
䬬릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 䬬䬬릤䬬䬬  릤 릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤 䬬䀸산릤 ꮠ 릤 산䬬릤 릤  산 ꮠ 산
 䬬䀸산릤  릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐牐௘ 䘐  산 산䀸䬬릤䬬 산 ꮠ 산  䬬 산 산䬬 산
ꮠ牨릤릤䬬䬬 ꮠ 산 䬬䀸산릤 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 릤산ꮠ䀸  䀸  릤 䬬릤䬬䬬䨸릤 릤 䬬릤䬬䬬
산䘐산䀸䬬 산䬬 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤䬬䀸산릤산䬬ꮠ

ퟰ௘
䨸ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ릤牨산 ௘
牨 산䬬산 䬬 ௘
산ꮠ 牨䀸 릤ꮠ갬 䨸௘
牨ꮠꮠ산 苨牨ꮠ산௘
牨ꮠꮠ산 ꮠ 苨牨릤ꮠ산 ௘

ꮠ릤 산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 릤 산牨릤䬬 릤 䨸 산牨릤 산 릤ɬ䨸릤 䀸릤릤산  릤䬬릤
릤 산牨릤䬬 산䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ઈ 산ꮠ 갬산릤
䨸䬬 릤 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤  ௘ ꮠ䬬 릤 牨산ꮠ  䬬릤䬬䬬 ꮠ સ산
苨산ꮠ  릤 䬬ꮠ䀸 ꮠ䬬  릤  릤 牨산 산䨸䬬ꮠ 산䬬릤䬬䘐 ꮠ  ꮠ䨸릤
䬬릤䬬䬬릤산䨸䬬릤산ꮠ 산릤 ꮠ䬬 牨산䀸산牨산  䘐 산릤 산 
䬬릤 릤 릤산릤 릤릤 릤䬬릤산 산䬬䬬 䘐 산 䨸산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤 릤牨䬬
牨ꮠ 릤 䨸릤䬬  릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 䬬릤䬬䬬릤 산 䨸䬬릤䬬䬬릤 䬬䀸산릤䬬
 산牨 䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 릤䬬䀸산릤릤릤ꮠ릤䬬 릤ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬
牨䨸ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ 䘐 䬬 ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬  릤 릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤 䬬䀸산릤 산
䬬릤 산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬 릤 ꮠ 산䬬䀸산릤릤䘐ꮠ䨸䬬릤ퟰꮠ ꮠ산릤ꮠ牨산䀸
䬬릤䬬䬬牨산䬬릤 산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬산 왌ꮠ ꮠ산릤릤ꮠ산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬

ퟰ왌௘
산ퟰꮠ 牨䀸௘
牨산 왌갬산ퟰ 산 䘐산 ௘
산ퟰ牨산 䘐릤䬬௘
산ퟰ䀸릤 산䬬௘

릤 산산牨 ퟰ牐牐௘ 䨸䬬 䘐산 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬 ⟴릤䬬䬬
산䬬 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤䬬ꮠꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산䬬릤䬬

ઈꮠ 릤䘐 릤갬ꮠ 䬬䘐ꮠ 산䬬䀸산릤 릤 릤ꮠ ꮠꮠ산䬬ꮠꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬릤䬬䬬릤 산䬬
ꮠ

ퟰ௘
ꮠퟰ 산 䨸牨䘐릤산릤 릤牨௘
䨸ퟰ ꮠ 䨸牨 산릤 릤牨௘
ퟰ䘐䘐산ɬ 산 갬ꮠ릤 릤산ꮠ릤௘

ퟰ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 산䬬릤 䬬䀸산릤산릤䬬ꮠꮠ䀸릤산 릤  릤
牨䨸ퟰ 䨸V ꮠ 산䨸산릤 ௘

ꮠ 산䬬릤 릤 릤 䬬䀸산릤 ꮠ䬬  릤 䬬릤牨 릤 䘐  릤 릤 릤갬
«갬ퟰ«䬬 䬬 릤䬬산䀸䬬௘
ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 ꮠ ꮠ 갬䘐䬬 䘐산䬬 릤䬬릤牨ꮠ䬬䬬릤䬬䬬릤 릤갬
ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬䘐릤ꮠ䬬산䬬 䘐산산 릤䬬릤  릤

산 䨸䘐릤䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬 릤산릤릤갬 «ퟰꮠ  䀸䨸 ꮠ ꮠ牨௘
ઈꮠ 산䬬릤 릤 ꮠ 산䬬䀸산릤ꮠ䬬산 릤ꮠꮠ䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬 릤䬬䀸산릤
릤릤 ꮠ 갬 릤ꮠꮠ릤갬 «γퟰ䨸 산 䘐릤릤갬 릤௘«Öퟰ 산 산 䘐릤䬬
ꮠ௘ 릤릤산릤牨릤 산  릤ꮠꮠ䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤䬬䀸산릤
䘐ꮠ 갬 릤 ꮠ 산ꮠꮠ산䬬ꮠ  «γ䨸ퟰ 산䨸牨 䘐릤릤갬 릤 䀸䨸௘
«Ö 산ퟰ 산䨸牨 䘐릤䬬 ꮠ 䀸䨸௘
䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤갬릤 릤산ꮠ䬬산ꮠ 䬬산릤  릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤산 산䬬䨸릤산䬬
릤릤 산릤 산䘐산䀸䬬 릤 릤ꮠ 䬬晸 릤䘐 산산 牨산䀸䬬 䘐 산 릤릤 산릤
䨸 릤릤 산牨릤䬬산 릤䘐ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 릤䬬릤䨸릤䬬 산ꮠ䬬䘐䀸ꮠ ꮠ䬬
릤 릤산릤산 릤牨릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬  릤 산산牨ퟰ牐牐௘
릤 산䬬릤산䬬䘐릤牨䨸䬬 산릤 릤ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬산 牨산䀸ꮠ 䨸 릤
䬬릤 산䀸산 릤ꮠ산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬

ퟰ뀨௘
산ퟰ牨䨸왌 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ릤䬬
䬬 산牨산ퟰꮠ왌 산 릤牨산 ꮠ 릤䘐릤 䨸  릤
왌
«Vퟰꮠ฀牨«牨䀸 산ꮠꮠ䬬릤 

䬬ꮠ牨Vퟰ산 갬䘐ꮠ ꮠ牨

䨸䬬䘐 릤릤산䬬 릤 䘐 ꮠ 릤䬬  릤 ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬 릤 산䬬릤
 산ꮠ 䬬 릤ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬산 산릤산䬬산䬬릤 산䀸 릤ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤䬬䬬 산䬬
 산 牨산 䬬릤䬬䬬릤 䬬䀸산릤  릤 산 릤 산䬬 ꮠ 릤 산䬬릤 䘐릤릤
 산䬬ꮠ릤 䬬릤䬬䬬牨산䀸 산  릤 牨산 䬬䀸산릤   릤 산䬬䬬䀸산릤 
릤 릤䬬䬬 산䬬ꮠ릤릤牨 산䬬ꮠ䬬

ퟰ௘
牨ꮠꮠퟰ牨 산ퟰ䬬산Ꮰ ꮠ 䀸䨸갬䬬 Ꮰ
ퟰꮠ 䨸 산릤릤산 

릤 산 릤 산䬬릤牨산䀸 릤ꮠ 릤䨸릤 䀸鮼 릤䨸 䨸릤鮼 릤䬬 
산 릤 릤䬬릤䬬䬬산릤  릤 산䬬릤
Sentence stress

⟴릤 릤 릤䬬릤䬬䬬ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬갬릤 릤산䀸䨸 릤ꮠ갬 牨䬬
䘐  산䬬릤 산 䨸릤산 릤산䬬ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬

Phonology ퟰퟰ
ퟰὨ௘
牨ꮠ 산牨ꮠ 산 સꮠ 산ꮠ䬬ꮠ௘
산 산ɬ산牨ꮠ산 릤䨸갬 릤산䬬 ꮠ௘
牨산ɬ산 릤릤ꮠ䬬  ꮠ 갬릤 ௘
牨산산 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 牨릤௘
산V䨸ꮠ 릤䬬 ꮠ ꮠ牨௘

苨䬬 산 릤 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬䬬릤䬬䬬 산릤산䬬  릤 릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤
䬬䀸산릤ꮠ릤 릤䬬릤䬬䬬릤 䬬䀸산릤 릤 ꮠ 산䘐

Intonation

 ꮠ릤 릤릤산릤牨산 䀸䬬䨸 ꮠ릤䬬 릤䬬릤갬牨릤 산  갬䀸 苨산ꮠ
릤䀸 릤䘐䘐䬬 산릤 릤산 䘐ꮠ 릤 䬬䨸산䬬릤갬牨릤 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬  苨산ꮠ
 갬䀸
  산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산 䬬䨸산䬬릤갬牨릤 산 릤산䨸릤晸 ꮠ 牨산䀸 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤 산䬬 산
䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤 릤䀸ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䨸갬 䨸 릤ꮠ  산ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ산 ꮠ牨산䀸
릤䬬산릤 산산 ꮠ  산ꮠ  䨸ꮠ䬬릤릤ꮠ릤 산䬬산 ꮠ 릤산ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤
릤䬬릤ꮠ 䬬산䬬릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐牐௘䬬산릤䬬䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤릤䀸ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ 릤
牨산 갬䨸산갬릤산 갬䨸산갬릤 릤릤 ꮠ 갬  릤䬬릤䬬䬬䨸릤䬬  릤산 산 갬䨸산갬릤
 સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 牨산ꮠ ꮠ 牨릤牨릤  릤 ꮠ  산ꮠ  䨸
䨸䬬 릤 ꮠ산 䬬ઈ ꮠ䬬䀸산릤䬬
산䬬릤  릤 산 산䀸䬬ꮠ䬬  산 산갬릤 䨸䬬  䬬릤 릤 릤䬬䀸 સ산
산ꮠ릤 䬬릤산릤䬬 ꮠ 산 릤 ꮠ  산牨릤 릤 ꮠ산 릤䬬 ퟰ牐牐௘ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 
ꮠ  산ꮠ ꮠ䬬릤릤산  릤산산ꮠ릤산 ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤䬬릤 릤 릤䬬
Intonation of declarative sentences

릤산산ꮠ릤 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산릤  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸 산
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬산 산ꮠ 갬ꮠ  산ꮠ 晸 릤 산牨릤 䬬ꮠ 릤
ퟰ௘

산ɬꮠ 산 ɬ« 䘐산
릤牨릤ꮠ 릤산 䨬

ꮠ䬬䬬릤 릤 릤 ꮠ 䨸 릤䬬䘐 ꮠ  산ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ䬬 릤 ꮠ䬬 산  릤
䨸릤산 릤산ɬꮠ 산ꮠ䬬䬬릤산산릤 牨 릤䬬릤 산 ɬ« 䘐산䀸산산䨸䬬릤
릤 ꮠ䬬산릤 䬬 산 ꮠ갬 ꮠ 䘐 릤릤산䬬 릤䬬릤 릤 䬬 산䘐ꮠ
ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 산ꮠ䀸 릤 䬬릤 릤 릤 䬬릤䬬䬬 ꮠ䬬牨산릤 䀸 산 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ
 산산릤ꮠ 릤䬬 릤릤 䨸ꮠ牨산릤䬬䀸산릤ɬ«
䨸䬬 ꮠ 갬릤 릤산 릤산산ꮠ릤 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬  䬬ꮠ䬬  산 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ઈ 산ꮠ 갬
ꮠ 䘐ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 산 산릤산ꮠ 갬  릤 䬬䀸산릤 산䀸ꮠ 갬 릤 䬬릤 릤 릤
䬬릤䬬䬬 䘐릤 䀸산 산 ꮠ  산ꮠ
 산䬬릤䬬릤 릤 릤䬬릤䬬䬬ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 릤 산䘐  릤 牨 릤
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ઈ 산ꮠ 갬ꮠ 牨릤牨릤  릤 산릤산䬬 릤䘐릤 릤 ꮠ산 릤ퟰ牐牐௘
산䬬ꮠ
ퟰ牐௘
산 산 ꮠ 산
鯈䨸 䨸䬬릤ꮠ䬬 ꮠ릤

䨸䬬산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ઈ 산ꮠ 갬ꮠ  䨸산릤산䬬 릤산䬬䘐䬬䀸산릤䬬
 산 ꮠ 산 ꮠ  산ꮠ 산 䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬릤ꮠ산䀸䘐 䬬䘐ꮠ 릤  ௘ 䬬 ꮠ
䬬䨸䨸릤 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ઈ 산ꮠ 갬ꮠ 牨릤牨릤 산 릤 릤  릤䨸릤산 릤 ꮠ䬬
산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤䨸산  ઈ릤牨 산ꮠ 릤산산ꮠ릤 䨸릤산 릤䬬 ꮠ સ산
苨산ꮠ

Intonation of interrogative sentences

苨䬬ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤䬬 릤䀸산릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ  牨 릤산산ꮠ릤䬬릤 릤 릤䬬䬬
산 산䬬 릤 ꮠ  산ꮠ 산릤 ꮠ䬬  릤 릤 ꒤䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬 산릤 산 ꮠ갬 릤  䬬릤
산 릤산산ꮠ릤 䨸릤산 릤䬬 산 릤 ꮠ 牨릤牨릤 릤 䬬  䨸  릤
ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 䘐 ઈɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬䘐 ꮠ릤 䀸릤䬬  ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ ꮠ䬬  산 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬
ꮠ
 ઈɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산릤 산 릤산 산릤산ꮠ 갬  릤
ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䘐 䘐릤 䀸산 산䨸 산ꮠ 갬ꮠ
௘산ઈ

ꮠ 牨ꮠꮠ산฀Ꮰ
逄 릤릤 ꮠ 䀸䨸갬䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸
ઈ

䨸 산산ꮠᏠ
 牨䀸Ꮰ

릤 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ䬬 牨ꮠ 릤 릤산䨸䬬릤  릤 ꮠ갬 릤산 산 䨸䬬  ꮠ
䘐릤 䀸산산ꮠ 산ꮠꮠ 갬ꮠ
苨 ꮠ 갬릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐牐ퟰ௘ 릤ꮠ  산ꮠ  䨸 䘐 ઈ
ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산 산 ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤䨸릤산 릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산䬬릤 ꮠꮠ산 ꮠ갬
산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 䬬릤 䘐릤 䀸산 산䨸 산 ꮠ  산ꮠ
苨䬬䀸릤䬬 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬 릤ꮠ ꮠ  산ꮠ 산릤 ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산  산
 ઈ릤牨 산ꮠ 릤산산ꮠ릤 䨸릤산 릤䬬  산릤  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸 산 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ઈ
산ꮠ 갬산릤 䘐릤릤ꮠ 䀸릤䬬 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬 릤릤ꮠ䬬산갬릤 릤산산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 릤
ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ 갬 릤 䬬릤䘐ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 산 산ꮠ 갬ꮠ 릤ꮠ 갬䬬 갬릤 산 산
 릤산산ꮠ릤䨸릤산 릤䬬
ퟰ௘산ઈ

苨牨릤 牨산 산 ퟰɬ« 䘐산Ꮰ
Phonology ퟰ왌
䬬苨牨릤 䬬ꮠꮠ 릤산 릤Ꮰ
ઈ

䘐산ɬꮠꮠ 산산Ꮰ
꺸산릤䀸䨸릤산 산Ꮰ

ꮠ릤 산 릤 산 ꮠ  산ꮠ 䨸䬬산 릤릤  릤ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ

䨸䬬 릤 牨산 ꮠ 릤릤 릤 릤䘐릤릤 릤산산ꮠ릤䬬 산 ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ䬬
릤산릤  릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤릤䘐릤릤 䘐䀸릤䬬  산 牨산산 䬬 갬 
 䨸 릤સ산 苨산ꮠ산䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬牨산 릤산䨸릤䬬

ઈ왌ퟰ 䬬 산 䬬ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬릤牨 산ꮠ 릤䬬
ઈὨ䘐릤䬬
ઈ䨸 䨸릤䬬
ઈ왌ꮠ 릤䬬 ꮠ갬 牨ꮠ 산 䘐
ઈ왌䬬릤䬬䬬릤䬬ꮠ牨산䀸䬬릤 산䀸산 릤ꮠ산䀸

Dialectal variation

ꮠ산릤산 산ꮠ산ꮠ 牨산䀸 릤 산 릤 䬬릤갬牨릤 산 릤릤  릤ꮠ
 릤牨ꮠ  산ꮠ릤 ꮠ산௘산 릤䬬䨸산䬬릤갬牨릤 산릤릤 ꮠ릤ɬ䨸산ꮠ䀸
䀸牨௘ 산 ꮠ䬬 ퟰ牐왌௘릤䬬 ퟰ牐௘산 릤 산산牨산 산 ꮠ ퟰ牐牐௘
સ산 ꮠ산릤䬬 苨산ꮠ ꮠ 릤 산 ꮠ 갬갬릤갬산 ꮠ산 ꮠ갬ꮠ  䘐ꮠ
릤 ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬  ꮠ 䨸릤䬬  릤 릤릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ  સ산 苨산ꮠ
산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬 산  릤ꮠ 牨산ꮠ䬬 䘐ꮠ સ산갬 릤ꮠ 산 સꮠ 릤 魤산䬬릤
산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬苨 ꮠ 갬산릤릤 산ꮠ릤䀸산산 ퟰ௘산䬬릤  릤릤䨸산
릤 릤ꮠ牨릤 䬬 સ산갬 릤ꮠ 산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬 산릤 릤 산 산ꮠ 䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬 ꮠ  산䬬
䘐ꮠ સꮠ 릤 魤산䬬릤  릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 릤 릤 릤ꮠ 릤산 䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬晸 산 ꮠꮠ 산䀸
સꮠ 릤 魤산䬬릤 산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬 산릤 산 ꮠ갬 릤 산ꮠ  갬䬬  䘐릤 산 릤ꮠ
સ산갬 릤ꮠ䨸 릤산䬬
 릤ꮠ 산ꮠ산ꮠ 牨산䀸 䨸 산 릤 릤릤   䨸 ꮠ산ꮠ 晸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
갬릤 릤산䀸 산  ꮠ ꮠ 산䨸릤  릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ산ꮠ 산 릤䬬 릤 䨸牨릤 
 릤牨릤䬬ꮠ 산산ꮠ릤䀸䨸䬬 릤 䨸牨릤  릤牨릤䬬牨산䀸산䀸산 ꮠ 갬
 릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ산릤  릤 릤  산ꮠ 산ꮠ산ꮠ  릤
 릤 산 산 릤䬬 릤 ꮠ   䬬산ꮠ 䬬   릤牨릤 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤䬬 산
릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬 릤ꮠ 䨸릤 릤 ꮠ 산  릤ꮠ  릤 ꮠ䬬牨산䀸 산䬬 산릤 산
 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤  䬬䀸산릤 䬬䨸䨸릤 苨䬬  릤 ꮠ산 산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬
 릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬 산 ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ산릤䬬䬬릤릤  릤릤䬬릤 산 갬ꮠ릤
牨 릤牨릤  䘐 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ  산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산䬬 산릤 릤 ꮠ산
ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ 䀸牨ꮠ 산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬 ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬 산 릤 릤릤 
䨸 䨸릤䬬릤䬬䬬산 ꮠ  산ꮠ 릤䘐ꮠ릤 䀸牨ꮠ산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ䬬
 산릤

-phonetic variation

 릤 ꮠ 갬  䬬 산 䬬 ꮠ 릤 䨬䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ산릤 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 산 산 ꮠ산ꮠ 
산산산산 ꮠ 산  릤䬬릤ꮠ릤䀸

Reference Tétouani

௘
䨸 산 산䘐 산 릤산䬬௘
䨸산 䨸산 䬬ꮠ௘
산산산 산 산산 䘐ꮠ 䘐௘
« ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 䀸䨸䬬산䘐 ꮠ牨௘
ɬꮠ산 ɬꮠ산 산릤䬬௘

ꮠ䬬 산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬  릤ꮠ 릤산䨸䬬릤 릤 산산산䬬 S 산 Z 산릤
산산ꮠ산릤ꮠ 릤 䨬䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ산릤

왌௘
산 䬬 릤산牨릤௘
ꮠ฀산 산 䬬牨릤 ꮠ 갬௘

ꮠ䬬牨릤산 䬬 산 산 ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬  䬬䀸䬬릤牨산ꮠ  릤 릤릤䬬䬬 릤
산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䬬릤산 산 ꮠ 릤䬬 䬬릤릤牨릤릤 ꮠ산䀸 릤릤 릤 
牨릤 ꮠ산릤ꮠ산산ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬릤릤릤 산산牨산 산 ꮠ ꮠꮠ ௘
苨䬬  릤 䬬 䘐릤䬬䘐릤산 䬬산릤 산 릤 산 갬릤䬬 산릤릤牨산산릤
 릤 䨬䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ산릤  릤 산牨릤 릤 䬬 䘐산䬬 䨸 ꮠ 릤 릤릤 릤
સ산 苨산ꮠ산릤䨸 릤 ꮠ  䨸䘐릤䬬 산牨릤䀸산䨸

Reference Tétouani
䘐 «⟴⟴
௘
䘐䨸⟴⟴ 산 산 산 ௘
«฀ 산 산฀ 산 䘐릤䘐릤릤 산䀸௘
산䘐䘐« 산䘐䘐산 릤牨산릤䬬 갬௘

 릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산䬬 ꮠ牨산 산䬬 산 산䬬  䬬 산 䬬 산릤
 릤 릤 䘐릤릤 䘐릤䬬 산릤  산 릤릤 산䬬 릤 릤릤ꮠ릤  䘐릤
 릤牨릤䬬 릤䬬  산 갬릤
 릤 ꮠ 갬  䬬 산 䬬 ꮠ 릤 䨬 ꮠ સ릤산 魤 산 ꮠ 산 산
산䬬산산 산 ꮠ산릤䬬 릤 䬬 산 ɬ牨산䀸릤 산 갬릤 갬산䬬ꮠ

뀨௘
ɬ산 갬산 䬬산䀸௘
฀«ɬ ฀«갬
ɬ« 갬산 릤산௘
䨸 ௘
Phonology ퟰ뀨
䨸ɬ 䨸갬  ௘

䘐릤릤 릤릤 산릤 牨산 䀸䘐 䬬䘐 릤릤 ɬ 산 갬  䨸 ꮠ 릤
산릤ઈ牨릤 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ산릤䬬

௘
갬«V산 갬䨸갬릤릤௘ ɬ산䬬산 䬬牨산산갬௘
ퟰઈ갬« 산 산ꮠ  갬䘐 ௘ɬ산牨ꮠZ산 䬬 ꮠ௘
갬산䘐ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬 릤௘฀산ɬꮠɬ산 䨸 ௘
䨸갬산 牨䨸 ௘ 산ɬꮠ 릤牨산ꮠ ௘

ꮠ䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ릤䬬 산 릤䨸릤 릤 갬산 ɬꮠ䬬릤 ꮠ산䀸 릤릤 릤
 릤 䨬䨸산 ꮠ산 산䬬䬬ꮠ ꮠ산릤䬬 릤릤릤䬬릤릤䬬䬬ꮠ䬬산산ꮠ산릤ɬꮠ䬬
䨸 릤 ꮠ  / ꮠ 牨산 䀸  릤ꮠ  릤 䬬 릤 릤 ꮠ 牨릤 䬬 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 갬
산 ɬ 산릤산 산릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬 牨  릤 산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬  산릤 䬬ꮠ牨䀸 릤 ꮠ산䀸
릤릤 릤

General prosodic properties of Moroccan Arabic

સ산 苨산ꮠ릤 ꮠꮠ䬬 릤갬릤산릤䬬 릤갬릤릤 䘐릤릤 䨸ꮠ ꮠ
牨산ꮠ䬬 䘐ꮠ 산䬬䬬ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ 苨 ꮠ 갬  릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐௘ 릤
䬬ꮠꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 䬬 산  갬䘐릤䬬 산䬬 ꮠ䬬산릤산릤 牨સ산
苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬䬬산ꮠ牨릤䬬ꮠ 갬䬬산䨸 䬬 산 䨸䬬릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산 ꮠ 갬
 �䨸䬬䬬ꮠ ퟰ牐왌௘ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤䬬 સ산 苨산ꮠ 牨 릤 સꮠ 릤魤산䬬릤
산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬  ꮠ䬬 산䬬릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산  릤릤 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산䬬
산䨸 산 䘐ꮠ  䬬 산 䨸䬬릤䬬䘐릤릤ꮠ 산䬬䬬ꮠ산苨산ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䨸릤
 릤䬬䀸산릤ꮠ䬬산䘐산䀸䬬

Ὠ௘
Classical Arabic Moroccan ArabicGloss
฀ꮠ 산산牨䨸 산 ฀ 산牨 산

릤릤௘
䬬ꮠ䘐산산䨸䨸䬬䘐산䨸 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤䬬௘
ꮠ산산 산 릤 ௘
䬬산牨산산/ 䬬牨산 䬬䀸௘
/산산䨸
산牨산산 牨산 ꮠ牨릤௘
산牨산V䨸牨«V
ꮠ 산릤௘
갬산 릤릤 ௘
牨䨸䬬산ɬꮠ牨䬬산ɬ« ꮠ 릤릤 릤 ௘

 સ산 苨산ꮠ산䬬䀸산릤䘐ꮠ 산 䨸䘐릤ꮠ䬬牨릤牨ꮠ 릤
산 산 䬬䀸산릤 䘐ꮠ 산 䬬 䘐산 « 䘐 ꮠ 산 릤  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 산䬬 릤릤 릤ꮠ

䬬ꮠ 릤ꮠꮠ䬬䬬䬬ꮠ릤릤 ꮠꮠ䬬䨸릤 릤 릤䬬 䘐산«ꮠ䬬  릤ꮠ산䀸산
릤䀸䬬  䘐릤 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸 䘐릤 䀸 산  䬬 산 ꮠ 릤 䬬산牨릤
䬬䀸산릤

While the presence of a consonant in the syllable
onset isobligatory in Moroccan Arabic, the number
of consonants preceding the syllable nucleus does
not contribute to the prominence of the syllable
which is rather determined by the intrasyllabic
relation between the vowel and the subsequent
consonants. 릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐牐௘

 릤 릤릤ꮠ䬬산 䨸䘐릤䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤䬬䘐ꮠ 산䬬䨸䨸릤 산릤산
릤䀸䨸ꮠ산릤ꮠ 릤䬬䨸 산릤  સ산 苨산ꮠ

CVC structure

 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤䬬 갬릤 릤산䀸 䨸䘐 ઈ ꮠ 산䀸䬬릤릤 릤 산 䨸
ퟰ牐௘ 릤䀸산릤䬬산ꮠ  牨산䬬䀸산릤䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤산ꮠ릤 산 릤산䬬ꮠ
䬬䨸䨸릤 릤 ꮠ산 릤 ퟰ牐ퟰ牐牐௘ 릤䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐ꮠ
릤 산䬬  䬬 산 릤ꮠ 갬 릤  䬬릤  산 䬬䀸산릤 䘐ꮠ 산 릤牨䀸 ꮠ牨릤 
릤 산牨릤산䘐 ꮠ릤 䨸산 릤 䨸 릤 䘐ꮠ 산 ꮠ 산䬬 䘐산 䨸«
䘐ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ릤 䨸 릤릤산䬬릤 ꮠ 산  䬬 산  䨸  릤 䘐
 䨸 ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 산ꮠ牨  䬬릤산산릤 릤  䬬 산 牨 릤 릤릤 ꮠ 갬 䬬䀸산릤
સ릤 릤ꮠ 릤 릤  ꮠ䬬 산 산䀸䬬ꮠ䬬 牨릤䬬 牨 릤 산 산 䘐릤䬬 ꮠ ꮠ 산
䬬ꮠꮠ 산릤 䨸 릤 산 릤릤ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬 䘐릤䬬䬬릤릤산릤ퟰ牐산
릤 ꮠ산 릤ퟰ牐牐௘
䘐릤릤ꮠ ꮠ 산䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤 릤䬬산릤䘐릤䬬산릤릤䀸
 갬 릤 산牨릤ꮠ 릤산ꮠ
௘
䬬牨산 䬬䀸௘
䬬牨산V ꮠ䬬릤 ௘
릤䘐릤ꮠ 䬬牨산Vꮠ䬬  릤ꮠ산䀸 갬릤 산 ꮠ 䬬牨산
릤 릤 갬 릤 ꮠ 갬  䘐릤䬬 릤 릤 ꮠ 산  䬬 산 䬬 ꮠ䬬 䨸ꮠ산 
릤ꮠ牨ꮠꮠ 갬䘐 䨸 산ꮠ릤䬬
牐௘
산산㇀산䬬䨸 릤䨸갬 ꮠ䬬갬산䬬䬬௘
산㇀산䬬䨸 릤산牨릤䘐ꮠ ꮠ䬬갬산䬬䬬௘
산㇀ꮠ산 릤산ꮠ갬ꮠ䬬 산 릤௘
산산㇀ꮠ산 䬬 릤ꮠ릤௘
Phonology ퟰὨ

릤 산ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ산 ꮠ 산䘐릤牨산䀸릤 릤 산䬬ꮠ

왌௘
฀ 산 ฀ 산산
牨ꮠ 牨ꮠ산 산௘
릤산牨릤௘
牨V산 牨V산산 䘐ꮠ 牨릤௘

 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 䬬릤ꮠ 䘐릤 䘐ꮠ  산 䬬릤 산䀸 산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 산䬬 산
 갬ꮠ산 릤 牨릤 

Secondary articulation

ꮠ䬬산 산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤ꮠ牨䬬릤  릤ꮠ牨산䀸 릤 
릤 산牨릤ꮠ䬬  릤ꮠ산䀸 릤䬬ꮠ릤 산䬬ꮠ릤릤䬬䬬산릤산䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬
ꮠ牨산䀸산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 䨸ꮠ ꮠꮠ䬬 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤   릤 䘐릤산 릤 릤산䨸릤
산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬산䬬릤 산䀸산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 산ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤ꮠ牨䬬릤  ꮠ

Pharyngealization

ꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤 䘐 릤 릤릤ꮠ䬬산릤䬬ꮠꮠ  릤산ꮠ산 릤릤릤 릤
산䀸  ꮠ䬬  릤ꮠ ꮠ 魤 갬ꮠ䬬䨸 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ䬬 
 릤ꮠ산  릤牨ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬

ઈ  릤ꮠ 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ

왌ퟰ௘
/산산 䨸산산 ꮠ䬬갬릤산

ꮠ산 ꮠ 산䬬산Vꮠ 릤䬬릤릤 䬬 릤

 릤 ꮠ䬬릤 산牨릤 릤ꮠ䬬  산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤 릤산䨸䬬릤ꮠꮠ䬬
䘐릤 䀸ꮠꮠ  산䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䬬릤 ꮠ 䬬산 릤䘐 릤릤 릤
산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤  䨸䬬
ઈ  릤牨ꮠ 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ

왌௘
䬬«V산牨산 산 ꮠ䬬릤
⟴«V산산 릤산

ꮠ릤 산 릤䘐䘐 䬬산릤산릤 ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬릤산䨸䬬릤 릤 릤산䨸릤
 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ䬬산䬬릤ꮠ䬬  릤牨ꮠ

Labialization

산ꮠ산ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ䬬산  릤䀸릤 䬬릤 산䀸산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ ꮠ䬬산
산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ  䬬릤릤 䬬䨸䬬산牨산 ꮠ릤 䘐ꮠ 릤䨸 ꮠ 갬 릤
ꮠ䬬산 릤릤 릤 䬬ꮠ  릤산산ꮠ䀸산ꮠ산ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ산릤 䀸
산䬬牨산䨸 릤 䬬릤릤 릤 䬬 산 䬬ꮠ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 산릤 ퟰ牐
牐௘ 릤 산牨릤
왌왌௘
䘐䘐산산 릤䬬
䘐䘐산牨䘐ꮠ 䬬
牨䘐䘐산䬬  ꮠ릤䬬

Palatalization

 ꮠ䬬  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸牨ꮠ 갬 릤  갬䨸릤 䘐산 䬬 릤 산 산산릤
䘐 릤  䨸ꮠ 갬 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 산 릤릤 산牨릤䬬릤䘐

왌௘

䬬䨸䬬䘐 䬬

산ꮠ牨ꮠ 릤

산 ꮠ릤䬬
Nasalization

ꮠ䬬산  릤䀸릤 䬬릤 산䀸산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 산ꮠ䬬
䬬䨸릤ꮠ牨䬬릤  릤䘐릤䬬릤릤 ꮠ 갬 산䬬산 䬬 산 䬬 릤
산䬬산 䬬 산 산 릤 산䬬산ꮠ 릤 䘐릤䬬 䨸 릤산䨸䬬䀸산ꮠꮠ릤
릤䀸䬬 䨸 릤 갬 릤䬬산牨릤䬬䀸산릤 릤 ꮠ산ꮠꮠ산릤 릤
䘐릤ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬ꮠ ꮠ산릤䬬 ꮠ䬬산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ
왌뀨௘
/ꮠ 䬬
ꮠ 산 䨸갬릤 ꮠ릤
“산 䨸牨산 릤ꮠ 갬
䬬산レ ꮠꮠ 갬牨
ꮠ 逄䨸 릤산릤

Phonological processes

릤ꮠ 릤산ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤갬牨릤 䬬 䬬릤릤 䬬牨릤ꮠ牨릤䬬릤䬬䨸䬬ꮠ
䬬牨릤  갬ꮠ산 산 갬릤䬬 릤䬬릤 산 갬릤䬬   산릤 릤䬬산牨릤䬬산䨸䬬 릤
Phonology ퟰ牐
䬬산牨릤 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤  릤䬬산牨릤 牨릤 산 ꮠ䬬牨苨䬬릤갬牨릤 䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 산 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤
  릤 䬬릤릤 䬬䨸䬬 릤䬬  산릤 릤䬬산牨릤 䨸 ꮠ산ꮠ 산䬬䘐 릤 ꮠꮠ䬬
 䨸릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬산ꮠ 苨牨 갬 릤  산 갬릤䬬 산 牨산䀸 䨸䘐릤 산릤
산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 릤릤ꮠ ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤 릤䬬릤  산 갬릤䬬 산릤
 갬ꮠ산릤䬬䬬릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산 산릤산 䘐ꮠ ꮠ 䘐 䬬  ꮠ 산 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤
䘐 䬬  갬ꮠ산  산 갬릤䬬 산 릤䬬䬬릤䬬 산릤 ꮠ릤산릤 ꮠ  ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬
䬬릤릤 산 산䀸    䬬 산 䬬 산 䘐릤䬬 릤 䨸䬬 䨸䬬 
산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤릤ꮠ 산 ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ

Assimilation

苨䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬산  갬ꮠ산릤䬬䬬䘐 릤릤䀸䘐䬬릤릤 䬬䨸䬬
릤牨릤ꮠ 릤 ꮠ산䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산䨸 릤 릤ꮠ 䨸릤 릤  릤䨸 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬
릤䬬䬬䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 䨸 릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ산䀸 ꮠ 산ꮠ 䬬릤릤 牨䬬䀸 䨸䬬 릤䘐릤릤
䘐䘐 䬬 ꮠ䬬릤䬬릤산䬬䬬 ퟰ牐ퟰὨퟰ௘䬬산릤䬬 산

In assimilation one segment becomes more like (or
identical to)another (or two become more like each
other).

⟴ꮠ牨ꮠ산䀸⟴ 산 릤 ퟰ牐Ὠ왌牐௘ꮠ 䬬䨸ꮠ ꮠ䬬릤갬산 산

In assimilatory processes a segment takes on
features from aneighbouring segment. A consonant
may pick up features froma vowel, a vowel may take
on features of a consonant, one consonant may
influence another, or one vowel may have aneffect
on another,

릤䬬릤ɬ䨸릤䬬䨸 䨸릤 䀸ꮠ 牨䨸䬬 산산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 산 릤릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ 릤 ꮠ산
 䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산 ꮠ릤 䘐릤 산릤 산 산 산ꮠ산 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 릤릤 산릤 䬬牨릤
릤 산牨릤䬬 牨  䀸릤䬬 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ
산ઈ « 䨸à « 䨸릤ꮠ 牨릤 ꮠ牨

왌௘
ઈ⟴산฀ à⟴산฀ 牨 ꮠ 갬

ઈ 산à산갬산䬬䬬
ઈ산䬬산«à산산«산갬릤䀸ઈ 산ꮠઈ 릤산
릤ઈ« 䨸à«䨸릤䬬䨸릤 ꮠ牨

 산௘ 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 산ꮠ산 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 䀸 릤 ꮠ 䨸릤 릤  릤
산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤  䬬 산 ⟴ 릤 䬬 산 䬬  ௘ 릤䬬릤갬牨릤 
산䬬릤牨릤䬬 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤 릤산䨸䬬릤 릤ꮠ 䨸릤 릤 릤 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤
䬬䨸 䬬 䨸䬬ꮠ 산௘산 ௘ 릤산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ䬬릤산䀸산산ꮠ산 릤䬬ꮠ 릤
 䀸 릤 릤산䨸릤 산䬬릤릤 산 릤  산 갬릤 鯈 릤 릤 산 ꮠ ௘산
௘ 릤 䬬릤갬牨릤 䬬   산 䬬 릤牨릤  산  ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬 산 산䬬릤  산
산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䀸䬬ꮠ산 牨 릤䬬릤갬牨릤 䬬 산 갬릤䬬산䀸 릤௘
䘐릤 산릤산䬬산산䬬릤 산산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 릤산䨸䬬릤䘐 ꮠ 릤릤  䬬 산 䬬 
산 릤牨릤ꮠ 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ 릤䬬릤 䬬릤 산 산릤䬬 릤 릤산䨸릤ꮠ릤릤䬬䬬
산  산 갬릤䬬ꮠ 
 산 ꮠꮠ  䘐 산 산䬬 릤릤 䬬산릤 산릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 산 릤
갬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤  릤갬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤  갬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 릤 䬬릤갬牨릤 산
䨸 릤갬릤䬬 릤 산 갬릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 䨸릤 릤 䀸산릤릤 ꮠ 갬䬬릤릤 ઈ䬬䨸䀸䘐산䀸
ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤

왌Ὠ௘
䬬à
산ઈ릤牨䬬à릤牨逄䬬䨸逄
 à

ઈ䬬 à䬬逄 릤䬬

산à 
䬬牨산牨à䬬સ 牨牨ꮠ 䬬䨸牨牨릤

릤䬬릤릤 산牨릤䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 산 䬬 산 䬬산 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산릤 릤 릤산䨸릤䬬  릤
 䬬 산 䬬䨸䬬 ꮠ 갬릤 릤산 산  䬬 산 산갬릤릤䬬䘐ꮠ 산  릤 산 산릤
 䬬 산 ꮠ ꮠꮠ 갬산 䘐 䬬 산 䬬䨸ꮠ 갬ꮠ 릤䬬산牨릤  릤ꮠ

 릤 릤 산갬릤릤ꮠ 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ  산 ꮠꮠ 산䘐릤牨산䀸산릤 릤
릤산䨸릤䬬  산 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤  䬬 산 산䬬 ꮠ 䬬牨산牨 산릤 䘐 릤릤 산
릤牨릤䬬䬬牨릤䘐 산산 䨸 릤 릤ꮠ 䨸릤 릤 릤 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤 સ
릤䬬릤릤 산牨릤䬬릤 릤릤갬ꮠ 산 ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬ꮠ  䨸 ꮠ산ꮠ 산䬬 릤䀸ꮠ 䨸 릤
릤갬ꮠ 산 릤릤산ꮠ산 䬬

Regressive assimilation

쀔 ꮠ릤 갬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 릤갬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 갬릤䬬
산䘐산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 䬬릤 산 릤䬬릤갬牨릤 䘐 ꮠ 䨸 릤갬릤䬬 릤 산 갬릤ꮠ䬬
ꮠ 䨸릤 릤 䀸산 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬릤릤 䬬䨸 릤릤산릤䬬牨릤릤 산牨릤䬬

왌௘
à 
산ઈ䘐«䬬산à䘐«䬬산 릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬릤

Phonology ퟰ
 à

ઈ 릤䘐䘐릤à릤䘐䘐릤 릤갬牨산ꮠ릤
산䘐à산䘐산ꮠ  ꮠ

牨 릤䬬릤릤 산牨릤䬬䘐릤산  䨸 릤 산 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ સ산
苨산ꮠ 릤산 䬬  산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䬬릤 䬬릤 산 릤ꮠ갬 䨸ꮠ 갬 䬬릤갬牨릤 䬬 산릤
䨸䬬䨸산䀸산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산릤  산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 릤 䬬䨸䬬
Gemination

ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬산  릤  갬ꮠ산릤䬬䬬䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸릤 릤릤 
산䬬 䬬 산 릤 갬 릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ䬬 릤䨸 릤산 䘐릤릤 갬 릤 ꮠ 갬
䨸䬬䘐 릤 릤䬬산牨릤ꮠ  산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 䬬ꮠꮠ ꮠ䬬牨산ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤 ꮠ
릤 䨸ꮠ   䬬 산 䬬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬산 䨸ꮠ 갬 릤
䬬산牨릤 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬산 산ꮠ䨸산䀸 릤 牨릤  쀔 ꮠ릤 릤
 갬ꮠ산릤䬬䬬릤䬬갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ䬬릤䬬ꮠ릤  䬬 산 䬬䀸
䘐산䀸 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤
왌牐௘
산ઈ « 산
릤 산 산
ઈ «««
逄䨸䀸䨸릤갬

ઈ산 산䬬
릤䬬산䘐䬬

ઈ산牨산
逄䬬산

릤ઈ牨 산산
䬬갬릤산

 산ઈ௘ 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 䨸ꮠ 갬  릤  䬬 산 䬬   산   산 䘐
䨸 산ꮠ릤䬬䘐 ꮠ릤ꮠ ઈ릤௘갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 䨸䬬ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 릤䘐 䬬산 릤릤릤  ,
  䨸䬬 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 䬬  䨸 ꮠ 䘐
䨸 산ꮠ릤䬬䘐ꮠ ꮠ 䘐 䬬 릤산릤산䬬릤갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 牨산䀸산릤산릤ꮠ 릤
ꮠ ꮠꮠ산䀸牨릤 ꮠ산䀸

Deletion

릤릤ꮠ  릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ ௘ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 릤 䘐 릤 산 䬬릤갬牨릤 산  䬬 산  산
䘐릤௘ ꮠ䬬 牨ꮠ릤 䘐ꮠ ꮠ 䘐 䬬  산 䘐 䨸 산ꮠ릤䬬 릤릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬牨䬬
牨牨 ꮠ 산ꮠ  ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬䬬릤릤 산 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬

௘
산ઈ ꮠ 䨸 ꮠᏠà ꮠ䨸 ꮠᏠ䘐 릤릤 산릤䀸䨸릤릤 Ꮰ

ઈ ฀산ꮠ산牨ꮠ à฀산산牨ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤ꮠ

ઈ 산 䬬䬬산V산à 산䬬䬬산V산逄산 ꮠ䬬 䨸

à䨸逄
ઈ 䨸

 산௘ 䘐릤 ꮠ릤 릤 릤릤ꮠ  릤 䬬 산  산 ꮠ ௘ 릤 릤릤ꮠ 
릤䘐릤ꮠ晸ꮠ ௘산 ௘ 릤 䬬 산 䬬 산  산릤牨ꮠ릤 릤
䘐릤릤 산 릤牨릤산 ꮠ 갬릤牨산ꮠ 䬬 릤䬬산牨릤ꮠ 산산䬬릤䬬 릤릤ꮠ

Insertion

 䬬릤ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䀸䨸䬬릤 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤 䘐 릤
산  䬬 산  산 䘐릤 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䬬릤릤 ꮠ 산䘐 䬬  ꮠ 릤䘐 䬬䨸ꮠ 갬
 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬䬬릤릤 릤 ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  산䬬 䘐산« ꮠ䬬牨䬬 牨牨 릤산ꮠ牨
 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬릤산산䨸䬬릤 䘐 릤릤 䬬 산 䬬ꮠ 릤ꮠ ꮠꮠ산 ꮠ 산
䬬ꮠꮠ  산䘐 䀸䘐산䀸 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ

ퟰ௘
산ઈ산 ઈઈઈઈ산« 릤ꮠ䬬䬬
ઈ 산฀ ઈઈઈઈ 산«฀ 릤ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤䬬䬬䨸
ઈ 산䬬 ઈઈઈઈ 산䬬« 릤 산ꮠ릤
ઈ 산 牨ઈઈઈઈ 산 «牨䨸牨산 릤ꮠ 갬
릤ઈ䨸฀ઈઈઈઈ䨸฀« 릤䀸산릤산

릤ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ   릤䘐릤䬬䬬䨸 산䬬䨸ꮠ䬬산䘐릤 牨 갬ꮠ산
䨸䬬릤䬬산䬬ꮠ

௘
Phonology 왌
฀산 ઈઈઈઈ䨸฀« 릤䀸산릤산
산 ઈઈઈઈ䨸« 릤䀸산릤䘐 ꮠ릤
산ઈઈઈઈ 䨸« 릤䀸산릤갬릤릤

릤 ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  릤 䘐릤 䨸 릤릤 䨸䬬 산 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬  䬬 산 ꮠ 릤
䨸산 牨  산 릤ꮠ릤䬬  䨸䀸  산䬬 ꮠ 魤 갬ꮠ䬬 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 
ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 산 릤 䨸산 牨 릤산䨸䬬릤 릤䀸 산릤
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤 䀸 릤 䨸䬬 릤䀸牨 ꮠ 䀸 산 ꮠ䬬 산 ꮠ 갬䘐 릤 릤 릤䬬릤
䨸䬬산릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䨸산
릤  갬ꮠ산릤䬬䬬릤䬬 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬릤ꮠ 산릤산牨 갬 릤
牨䬬 ꮠ牨산 릤산ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ  갬䀸   릤 릤牨䬬
산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤릤ꮠ 산 ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 산릤牨牨 ꮠ 산ꮠ 䬬릤릤
ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ

Conclusion

ꮠ䬬  산릤 䘐산䬬  릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤  갬䀸  સ산
苨산ꮠ 릤 릤산 䘐ꮠ 릤  릤ꮠ 산  릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 ꮠ릤䬬  릤
산 갬䨸산갬릤 산 릤 산 릤 䘐산䀸䬬 릤 산ꮠ䨸䬬䬬릤릤 ઈ䬬䨸䬬 산릤 산산 갬릤
산  산䬬릤ꮠ 릤 산 䬬䨸 릤䬬ꮠꮠ  릤䘐릤䬬䬬릤牨ꮠઈ䘐릤䬬
ꮠ  갬䬬 산  䬬 산 䬬  સ산 苨산ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 ꮠ  산䨸 릤
 산ꮠ䬬  릤 산 갬䨸산갬릤 苨 ꮠ릤 산䨸䘐산䬬 갬ꮠ릤  릤 䬬䀸산릤
䬬䨸䨸릤산  릤䬬릤䬬䬬산릤 䬬 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤릤 䬬 ꮠ 릤산䨸릤䬬 
સ산 苨산ꮠ 䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤 릤 ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬 䬬릤 산䀸 산ꮠ䨸산ꮠ 릤산䨸릤䬬
ꮠ 산䀸 릤  산릤  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 릤 牨䬬 牨ꮠ 릤  갬ꮠ산 릤䬬䬬릤䬬
ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 산 릤릤ꮠ   䬬 산 䬬 산 䘐릤䬬 ꮠ
 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬䬬릤릤

Morphology
Introduction

릤 牨산ꮠ  릤  ꮠ䬬  산릤 ꮠ䬬  ꮠ 릤 산 䬬䀸䬬릤牨산ꮠ
릤䬬ꮠꮠ  릤 牨 갬ꮠ산 䬬䀸䬬릤牨  સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤릤산 릤
સ苨௘牨릤릤ꮠ䬬릤䀸릤산산 牨ꮠ 산산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬 릤산ꮠ牨ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ 릤산릤
릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䀸 산ꮠ 릤ꮠ릤䬬䨸 릤䀸ꮠ 갬 릤 牨 갬䀸  릤 산 갬䨸산갬릤
䨸 릤䬬䨸䀸䘐ꮠ 릤 릤릤 릤䬬牨릤 릤 산牨ꮠઈ䬬릤牨ꮠꮠ산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬牨산ꮠ 䀸
牨 릤 ɬ䨸ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ산릤䬬 릤릤 산 릤릤䘐鯈䨸 䨸䬬 ꮠ䬬 
산 갬䨸산갬릤 산䬬䘐ꮠ 릤 산ꮠ牨  䨸ꮠ 릤 릤 릤갬䨸산ꮠꮠ릤䬬 산䬬䘐릤 산䬬 릤
릤 릤ꮠ 䬬䨸 릤䀸ꮠ 갬 릤牨 갬䀸 સ苨 릤䘐ꮠ 갬산䬬䬬䨸牨ꮠ 
ꮠ䬬  산릤 ꮠ䬬 산 릤 ꮠ   ꮠ 릤 산 갬䨸산갬릤 䨸 릤 䬬䨸ꮠ 䀸 ꮠ䬬 
䨸릤䀸  䬬 산 산 산䬬 ꮠ 릤 䨸 ꮠ 릤ꮠ䨸䬬䘐䬬 릤갬 ꮠ갬 ퟰ牐
魤 산ꮠퟰ牐뀨산䨸릤ퟰ牐牐왌⟴산 ꮠɬꮠퟰ牐牐牐ꮠ릤䨸산 릤䘐௘સ릤ꮠ牨산 䀸
릤  ꮠ䬬 산䬬䬬䨸牨릤   릤 산䘐산䀸䬬 ꮠ 䬬 산 산 산䬬 릤릤 릤 ꮠ䬬
ꮠ 䬬 산 산䬬산䬬䘐릤 苨  牨산䀸  산ꮠ  산ꮠ 산
 䬬 산 산 䬬䨸䬬  牨릤릤䀸  䬬 산 산 䬬릤갬牨릤 䬬 સ䬬 ꮠ牨산 䀸
산 ꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬 䘐  산䀸 산 䨸 산牨릤 산䀸 䨸ꮠ산 릤 ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤 
릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산산 ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산릤䬬䬬릤䬬 릤갬산䨸䬬산ꮠꮠ 산ꮠ 䨸산 牨산ꮠ
릤௘ 릤  산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤산 䘐ꮠ 릤산 牨 갬䀸 산ꮠ䨸산䀸 릤산
ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산 릤산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ릤 산 ꮠ 릤䬬 산 산릤 산산 릤  릤䬬 산
릤ꮠ릤 牨䬬䬬䨸 산䬬산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬릤ꮠ산䬬릤 䨸䬬䘐ꮠ산䬬
릤  牨ꮠ 산 牨 갬䀸 릤䬬릤ꮠ산䀸 릤 牨 갬䀸  䨸䬬 산
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬
સ苨 산䬬 산 䀸ꮠ산䀸 ⟴릤牨ꮠꮠ 牨 갬䀸 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 牨 갬ꮠ산
산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬산릤릤릤䬬릤 릤  䀸䀸릤 ꮠ 릤䬬산 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬䨸산䬬䀸  ઈ
 산릤 산ꮠ릤䬬䨸䨸릤䬬䨸ꮠ  ઈ 산릤 산ꮠ릤䬬릤牨䬬 릤산  䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
릤ꮠ 갬牨䬬릤  산산 ꮠ산牨산 릤䨸  ઈ䬬䀸산ꮠ䬬  䬬 산 䬬산 䬬릤牨ꮠઈ
䘐릤䬬௘ 䘐릤牨릤 䀸산 䬬 䀸 ꮠ릤 䬬䨸산䬬릤갬牨릤 산 릤산䨸릤䬬௘ 䨸䬬 산
⟴릤牨ꮠꮠ 산 갬䨸산갬릤 ꮠ릤 સ苨 산䬬䘐 䬬  䬬릤릤산 산䬬䬬릤䬬 릤산릤  
ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ 릤䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬 산산릤산릤 䀸䘐 䬬 릤 ꮠ 릤릤
산䬬䬬릤䬬䨸  ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬 ꮠ 릤 산  ꮠ산 䬬䀸산ꮠ 䬬 산릤  릤 䬬릤牨䬬 산䬬
䘐릤산䬬 ꮠ 릤䘐릤牨릤 ꮠ릤䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 릤  릤牨 䘐릤릤 릤산䬬䬬릤䬬 산릤
릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산 ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 산 산릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䀸 산ꮠ 산䬬릤  산 䬬䀸䬬릤牨 산릤
逄ꮠ 산  산릤 䬬 릤 산릤 ꮠ䬬 릤䀸䬬䀸䬬릤牨산ꮠ 산 䨸䬬 릤산 산릤ퟰ
릤릤 릤સ苨ꮠ 릤䬬산 릤 ꮠ릤  䀸 산산䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬산䀸 릤 牨산

ퟰ
ꮠ䬬牨릤산 䬬 산䘐 䬬ꮠ 갬릤 릤산산릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 릤  릤산릤 산  릤䀸
산ꮠ산䀸牨산ꮠ 갬ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ 산 릤䘐 산 릤䘐 릤 산릤䬬 산 릤牨 䬬산릤ꮠ䬬
산䘐 산 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬 릤산릤 산 릤 릤 릤 䨸䬬릤 牨䬬ꮠ䬬 릤  갬ꮠ산
산 䨸갬 ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬릤牨릤䬬 릤산䬬䬬䨸牨ꮠ 䬬䬬릤ꮠ 릤䘐䬬 સ산산
ퟰ牐牐௘䘐 릤릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸릤 牨 갬䀸ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬릤
苨산牨牨산 સ산 苨산ꮠ
牨 갬ꮠ산 릤ꮠ릤䬬  䬬䨸 산 䬬䀸䬬릤牨  牨산산ꮠ릤 산 산䀸䬬릤䬬䘐ꮠ
릤릤䘐산  릤⟴릤牨ꮠꮠ산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬䬬릤릤릤牨산 ퟰ牐牐௘릤 릤산ꮠ 갬
릤릤 릤牨산릤산ꮠ  릤 ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 䬬ꮠ릤䬬릤牨산 산릤
ꮠ䬬ꮠ  릤

Root vs pattern

릤ꮠ牨산 릤 ꮠ䬬䬬릤ꮠ 䬬릤牨䬬 牨 릤牨 릤산릤䬬산 ઈꮠ
䘐릤 산릤 산 ꮠ 갬 산 䘐 릤릤 䘐릤 릤 ꮠ릤 릤 ઈ산䬬릤 산산 산䬬 ꮠ
산牨릤ퟰ牐Ὠ산䨸릤ퟰ牐牐왌⟴산 ꮠɬꮠퟰ牐牐 릤산䀸ꮠퟰ牐牐산  릤 ퟰ牐牐
ꮠ릤䨸산 릤䘐௘䘐ꮠ 릤산릤 ઈ산䬬릤 산산 산䬬 릤 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤산ꮠ릤산
산 ꮠꮠ 산산䨸䬬산䬬䘐릤산䬬ꮠ 䘐䬬䀸산릤 ퟰ牐௘산ꮠ䬬 ퟰ牐Ὠ௘산
苨 릤ઈસ산䬬䬬ꮠ ퟰ牐Ὠ௘산牨 갬 릤䬬௘
릤산䬬䬬䨸牨릤 산牨䬬સ산 苨산ꮠ䘐 䬬산릤䨸ꮠ䨸 산산䬬ꮠ
 䬬 산 산䬬릤릤 산릤 逄 릤산릤䨸䬬䨸산䀸 산䬬䬬牨릤 䨸 산牨릤 산
릤 릤牨릤산 ꮠ 갬릤 산 릤 䀸 릤산릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬릤산䨸䬬릤䬬산릤ꮠ 산릤 䬬
䘐ꮠ 산ꮠ䨸䬬䘐릤䬬산 산 ꮠꮠ 산  ઈ௘ 䬬 산 䬬 릤䬬릤䘐 ꮠ 䬬
산릤 䨸 산牨릤 산 릤䬬䨸䨸릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ䘐 䬬 ꮠ 䬬산 릤 릤
릤릤  䬬 산 산 䬬  산 牨산䀸 릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
산릤 䬬
 䘐ꮠ릤௘ ꮠ ௘
¶ 릤䘐릤௘ ¶ 릤 산 ௘
¶䨸 릤䀸䘐릤௘ ¶䨸 릤䀸 산 ௘
ꮠ¶䨸 릤䀸䘐ꮠ릤௘ 산¶ 산ꮠ 갬 䨸 ௘
산¶ 산ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ릤 ௘ 산 䘐ꮠ 릤௘
산ꮠ 산䘐ꮠ릤௘ 牨¶䨸 산 ꮠ ௘
산 산௘ ¶¶ 牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤 ꮠ ௘
䨸 䬬௘
牨¶산산 산ꮠ산䀸௘
牨¶¶ 산 릤䬬산  ꮠ릤௘
䀸릤䬬 

릤릤 산릤 䨸 산䬬ꮠ  䀸릤䬬 ꮠꮠ릤산 ꮠꮠ릤산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산 산
산䀸ꮠ산 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산릤䬬䨸牨牨산ꮠ 릤䬬산 릤 ꮠ 릤릤 䀸릤䬬

苨 ꮠ 릤릤 릤릤 ꮠ䬬䬬릤䘐릤릤 䬬 갬산 䘐릤산䬬⟴ 갬䬬산릤牨䬬릤
릤 ꮠ릤䀸  䬬 산 䬬산䬬ꮠ ɬ산 牨牨릤산 ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ릤ꮠ산 
산䬬ꮠ 牨산 䘐산릤௘산 牨릤௘ ¶ ꮠ ௘릤⟴ 갬䬬䘐ꮠ 릤 릤릤 䬬 산 䬬릤

산 䬬산릤릤䬬릤ꮠ릤䀸䘐릤릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산릤䘐릤릤릤牨릤 䬬산릤산릤 䘐릤산
ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ산릤 산릤산릤 逄䬬䨸 산䬬ꮠ 릤릤௘䨸릤䬬 갬䬬산릤 䬬릤

સ 갬䀸 Ὠ

䀸릤䬬魤 산牨릤䬬
ퟰ ꮠꮠ릤산
산௘ ⟴ 갬
ꮠ ⟴䨸逄 ꮠ ௘ 산 逄
௘
ꮠꮠ 䨸릤  ઈ릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬
ꮠ牨䬬䬬ꮠ릤
௘릤산

ꮠ ꮠ 산ઈ䘐릤산 逄 산 牨릤௘ 산
逄牨산 䘐산릤௘
ꮠꮠ 牨ꮠ 릤ઈ䘐릤산  ઈ릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬
ꮠ牨䬬䬬ꮠ릤
ꮠꮠ릤산
산௘ ⟴ 갬
ꮠ ⟴䨸逄 䘐ꮠ릤௘ 산
逄 릤산 ௘
ꮠꮠ 䨸릤 逄Ⱈ牨牨䬬牨릤௘
산
逄䨸
산௘
௘ 릤산

ꮠ ꮠ 산ઈ䘐릤산 逄牨산 䘐ꮠ 릤௘ 산
“ 산 릤산௘
ꮠꮠ 牨ꮠ 릤ઈ䘐릤산 逄 산 ꮠ갬 릤 릤 ௘
산 逄산 릤䨸 ௘
왌 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산
산௘ ⟴ 갬
ꮠ ⟴䨸逄牨
산 䬬산릤௘ 산
逄䬬산牨௘
ꮠꮠ 䨸릤 逄 산갬௘
௘ 䘐릤산
逄䬬ꮠ ¶ 릤䬬릤 ௘

ꮠ 릤릤牨릤 䘐릤산

䘐 릤릤ꮠ 릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬산릤ꮠ 릤 ꮠ산산䬬ꮠ 릤 릤䘐௘ 릤산䬬
릤 䨸ꮠ산ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ  ¶¶ 릤 산갬갬릤 ௘

䘐 䬬 산 䬬산릤산릤릤ꮠꮠ  릤 ꮠ䬬䘐䘐릤 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤䬬릤릤산산䬬릤
ꮠꮠ 릤릤牨릤 䘐릤산 逄䬬릤ɬ䬬산 릤
산䬬릤 ௘
䀸릤䬬 산릤
릤릤산릤䘐䀸릤䬬 산릤 䬬ꮠ牨릤산 牨릤 산릤 䬬
산௘ 苨䬬ꮠ牨릤산릤 ꮠ䬬 릤 산산 䬬 릤 릤䘐䘐릤䬬苨
산릤 䀸 릤 䘐산䀸 ꮠ䬬 릤 ꮠ 릤 䀸䬬릤ꮠ 䀸ꮠ 갬 䘐 ꮠ 䘐릤 䬬௘
ꮠ 䬬산 릤 릤산릤  ¶ 릤䘐릤௘ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤 

䨸䬬௘ 산 릤䘐릤릤 䘐 ꮠ 䘐  䬬 산 䬬 릤䀸 䨸 
ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬 산 䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ 䘐릤 ¶ 릤䘐릤릤 릤 䬬릤 산 릤 ꮠ

 䬬 산 䬬
牨¶산산 ꮠ산䀸௘䘐 릤릤 릤산릤 산산䨸䬬ꮠ  䨸 ꮠ 䘐ꮠ

௘ 苨 牨릤 ઈ산릤 ꮠ 䬬  ꮠ䬬 산릤 산 산 ꮠ  릤  산䬬 ꮠ
릤릤 ꮠ 牨ઈ 산 릤 䘐릤 ¶  산䬬 릤릤 䨸牨릤 릤 ꮠ 산릤

ퟰ牐ퟰ牐왌௘ 산 릤산 ꮠ 릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 牨ꮠ 릤䘐ꮠ 산릤 䬬 牨
牨릤 ઈ산릤 䬬산릤릤䀸ꮠ牨ꮠ릤 ꮠ 䨸牨릤산릤 ퟰ牐ퟰ牐왌௘
௘ꮠઈꮠ䬬ꮠ 䬬릤릤 산 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 䬬 산 산䬬ꮠ ฀산 릤 릤릤 릤 ௘

산䬬牨릤 ꮠ 릤  䀸䘐ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬산䬬ꮠ
ꮠꮠઈ 릤 䨸ꮠ 갬  릤 牨ꮠ 릤  䬬 산 산䬬 ꮠ ɬ ¶牨 릤

릤䬬릤 릤 ௘ ¶¶ 릤 䨸갬 ௘

苨䬬산산䀸 릤릤ꮠ䬬 䀸 릤릤 ꮠ 산 䘐䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 䨸
ꮠ 牨릤 ઈ산릤 䬬 산산ꮠ산䨸䬬릤䬬
뀨௘ ꮠઈ 릤릤 ꮠ 牨ઈ 䘐릤 䀸산ꮠ䨸䬬䘐릤䬬산䬬ꮠ 牨¶ 䨸 ꮠ 산
䨸䀸௘산 牨¶䨸䘐ꮠ릤 산릤௘
ꮠꮠઈ 릤䘐䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬산릤ઈ산 산 ઈ산산䬬ꮠ 牨¶ 산 갬 ௘
¶산 䨸䀸ꮠ 갬௘산 䘐¶ 산 䨸릤䬬牨릤䬬ꮠ䨸산ꮠ ௘
ઈ䬬䨸䨸릤산 䘐 ઈ 릤ꮠ산ꮠ

 સ苨 릤 릤산ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 䘐 ઈ산䬬䬬릤䬬 산 ઈ䀸릤䬬 ꮠ䬬 릤䀸
䬬릤 릤䬬산릤산牨䬬 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸ꮠꮠ릤산산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산  릤산䀸ꮠ
ퟰ牐牐௘晸 릤䘐 䘐릤릤산릤ꮠꮠ릤산산䀸ꮠ산苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬산릤산䬬산牨䬬
ꮠꮠ릤산  ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산 䬬  ꮠ 䬬산 릤 逄䘐¶ 䀸௘ 牨逄䘐
릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸ꮠꮠ릤산산䬬ꮠ 逄ꮠ ꮠ갬௘ 牨逄䨸䬬갬릤 릤산䀸 산릤
逄䬬¶䬬䨸 䨸䬬䨸䬬௘ 牨逄䬬䬬䘐릤릤 䨸䬬䘐ꮠ ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산

산䀸ꮠ산  릤䬬 산릤  䨸 牨牨 산䬬 ꮠ 逄䬬ꮠ䬬릤௘ 逄V¶ 䨸䬬ꮠ 릤ઈ
牨牨 䀸 䨸  릤 산䬬 ꮠ 逄¶V 䬬牨릤௘ 逄¶V 산 릤௘ 逄䨸 산௘

䘐릤௘  䬬牨릤 산ꮠ릤䬬 산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬 릤 ꮠꮠ릤산 牨 ꮠ䬬 릤 牨䬬
릤 릤 릤산䬬 䬬릤릤 산릤䬬 릤䘐릤 산 릤릤 䬬 산 䬬산䬬ꮠ

逄 ꮠ ௘逄 ௘逄 릤௘逄䘐ꮠ ௘릤
સ 갬䀸牐

⟴릤牨䬬산 산 ꮠ 릤䬬

산 苨䬬릤牨 ꮠ䬬 산  산 ꮠ䬬 牨ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 산 산릤  산 牨릤 ઈ
산릤 ⟴릤牨䬬산릤䨸䬬䨸산䀸䘐 ઈ산䬬䬬 牨䬬 릤䀸산릤릤산릤 
䘐 ઈ산䬬䬬릤䬬산 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산산䬬䬬릤䬬릤 릤䘐릤䬬산䀸ઈ䬬릤牨
ઈ䬬릤牨苨 ઈ䬬릤牨苨 ઈ䬬릤牨릤
苨 ꮠ 릤䬬산릤릤릤牨릤 䬬 산산릤산산 릤 䬬산릤 ઈ 牨䬬
 릤䀸산릤 ꮠ산산갬산牨牨산ꮠ산牨릤산 ꮠ 갬 સ苨 릤 䨸牨릤
 산 ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ䬬ɬ䨸ꮠ릤ꮠ牨ꮠ릤 릤牨䬬릤 䨸 릤릤  릤䬬산릤
산ઈ 릤릤䬬 산릤 ꮠ 릤䬬산 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤산䬬
릤逄 산 逄 䨸 산 䨸 䀸䨸䬬릤릤௘왌
ઈ 릤릤䬬 산䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬 릤릤 릤ꮠ릤산䬬逄ઈ¶산
 逄산 ¶ 䬬 릤䘐산䬬௘산 逄산 䨸 릤䀸䘐릤릤௘
逄ઈ
릤ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 산䬬 ꮠ 逄牨¶산산 뀨 릤䬬䨸௘ 逄牨 ¶¶ 갬산 ꮠ䬬 릤 ௘

ઈ 릤 릤 ꮠ 㽌牨ઈ㧌  산ꮠ䨸䬬 䨸䬬 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산 릤산
逄牨g¶ ꮠ 릤ꮠ 갬 릤릤 ௘ 산 逄牨䬬¶牨牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 릤릤

산牨릤 ௘
ઈ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ ઈ산Ὠ 䨸갬 산䘐산䀸䬬산䬬ꮠ 逄ꮠ산
ꮠ갬 릤牨௘
릤ઈ 릤䨸산릤 ꮠ 갬䬬䨸 ꮠ ઈꮠ 산䬬ꮠ 逄 ¶ 산 ꮠ 산䀸௘
ઈ 릤䨸산릤 ꮠ 갬ઈ 산௘산䬬ꮠ 逄 산䀸산 䬬ꮠ릤䬬௘
갬ઈ 릤 ꮠ䬬산릤 䬬산䬬ꮠ 逄牨¶ 산䬬ꮠ 牨સ릤 䬬௘逄 산䬬ꮠ
牨䬬௘릤
ઈ  牨V산 䘐ꮠ
ꮠ牨௘산 牨V산 䘐ꮠ 䀸䨸௘릤䬬릤ꮠ릤䀸
ઈ 릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤  䨸䬬 산䬬 릤 ઈ 산
 릤䬬산릤 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 䘐릤䬬 산 ꮠ䬬 릤산䘐ꮠ ꮠ 릤ꮠ 䬬 산산릤
牨산릤  릤䬬
Verbal inflectional morphology
릤릤ઈ 릤ꮠ

왌
સ릤 릤산ꮠ䬬산릤갬ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤䬬릤ꮠ 릤산ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤ઈ 牨䬬

સ릤 릤산ꮠ䬬산릤갬ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤䬬릤ꮠ 릤산ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ 릤릤 릤ꮠ릤ઈ 牨䬬
뀨
산ꮠ䬬산 牨 릤산ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤

산ꮠ䬬산 牨 릤산䬬䬬ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤
Ὠ
⟴릤릤 릤䬬릤ꮠ  릤 릤
왌 苨산牨牨산 સ산 苨산ꮠ
산ઈ 릤릤산릤䘐ꮠ 䬬 ઈ 牨䬬ꮠ સ苨 ꮠ ꮠ릤산  ઈ ꮠ ꮠ릤 릤릤산릤
䨸 릤牨릤䘐  ઈ ꮠ ꮠ릤 牨䬬 릤산ꮠ릤산 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤䬬 릤릤
산릤 䘐 䀸릤䬬  ꮠ ꮠ릤 牨䬬䘐ꮠ 릤 ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤 산牨릤䀸 릤 릤 릤 산
ꮠ牨릤 릤 牨䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬 릤牨산䬬 䘐䬬䬬䨸 산 ꮠꮠ䬬ꮠ

௘
릤 릤
ꮠ ꮠ릤 牨릤 릤
ઈ 牨䬬 牨릤산ꮠ릤
苨ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤
 ઈ ꮠ ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤

릤 릤 릤 산 릤 ꮠ牨릤 릤 䬬 산릤  릤 릤䀸  릤ꮠ 갬 릤䀸
䬬릤 䬬ꮠꮠ릤 릤䀸릤 䬬䨸릤ꮠ 릤 릤䀸산갬릤릤ꮠ 䨸牨릤릤䬬 산
갬릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤ꮠ 릤䬬릤ꮠ릤 䬬䨸릤䬬 릤 릤䀸 릤 ꮠ산   牨ꮠ 산 
牨릤 릤산ꮠ䬬䬬릤릤 릤 릤  산릤  릤 䬬䀸 산  સ苨௘ ꮠ릤䘐ꮠ䬬릤 릤䀸
䬬 䘐牨 ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ 산 갬ꮠ 갬릤 릤ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ릤산 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤

 릤ꮠ 산 牨䬬

苨 릤ઈ 牨 ꮠ સ苨  䬬ꮠ䬬䬬  산 ઈ䬬릤牨 牨ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 산
ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산산 ꮠ 산䨸 릤산릤 ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ 산 䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 䬬산 릤 릤
ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ䬬 牨릤 䀸산䬬릤 릤 ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산산 䀸 릤䬬산牨릤䬬릤
릤 ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬산䬬릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 릤䨸산 릤릤 릤ꮠ䬬 牨릤 䀸산䬬릤
䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬

릤릤ઈ䬬릤牨

䘐 릤ꮠ릤䬬牨산 릤 ઈ 牨䬬  સ苨 릤 ꮠ䬬  릤 ꮠ䬬 릤
䬬ꮠ牨릤䬬 牨䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 갬릤 릤산䀸 산䬬䬬䨸牨릤  릤 릤 ꮠ 릤䬬 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤릤 릤릤 䬬릤릤갬逄 ¶ 릤 䨸ꮠ릤 ௘ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬 牨䘐 ꮠ
ꮠ䬬䬬산 산 䀸 릤 ꮠ 릤 산䬬 릤ઈ䬬릤牨산 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산릤 산䬬 릤산䬬ꮠ 牨
릤 릤 牨䘐 ꮠ  릤 ꮠ 릤릤 牨䬬 산릤 릤ꮠ릤  ꮠ䬬 릤 牨 산
산릤산䬬ꮠ ꮠꮠ 산䀸릤 ꮠ릤䬬 릤䬬릤 릤䀸ꮠ䬬 산 릤ઈ䬬릤牨䨸
릤 릤䬬䬬 산 䬬릤 릤 ꮠ산 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬   릤 䘐 䬬  릤 ઈ䬬릤牨 䨸 릤 릤䬬䬬 산
䬬릤 릤 ꮠ산 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬 릤 산ꮠꮠ 갬 ꮠ 牨산ꮠ  릤 䬬䨸릤 릤 산 릤

릤릤산 릤산ꮠꮠ릤䬬산䬬산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산 릤 산 릤䬬 સ苨산 릤릤산릤 
산릤䨸릤䀸  ઈ ꮠ ꮠ릤ઈ 牨䬬
સ 갬䀸 왌ퟰ
산갬䨸牨릤 䬬௘ 릤릤산䘐 릤䀸산牨릤௘䬬산 ¶ 산 산 릤䬬릤 ꮠ䨸䬬௘

ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬 릤산䨸䬬릤  릤 ઈ 牨  산ꮠ 䬬 ꮠ 릤릤 산 ꮠ 릤䬬 산 릤 릤䬬䬬 산 릤

릤릤 릤릤 䬬릤
ઈ 릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬

릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 산릤 䬬 䘐䬬 릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬 산 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬  릤
릤 릤

Ὠ௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸산
䨸牨릤
릤䬬
ꮠ䬬릤䬬 ઈ ௘ ઈ 산 䘐릤௘
⟴릤 릤䬬 ઈꮠ 䀸䨸௘ ઈꮠ䘐ઈ䨸䀸䨸௘
ꮠ 릤䬬 ઈઈ䬬릤牨산 릤 릤௘ ઈ䨸䘐 릤䀸௘
ઈ¶ઈ산ઈ 䬬 릤௘

ઈઈ䬬릤牨산䬬䬬릤䬬

릤산ꮠ 릤갬䨸산 䬬릤牨  산 갬릤䬬 산릤 산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 산 ꮠꮠ  릤
䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬 릤릤 릤릤 䬬릤 릤릤산릤 䨸牨산ꮠ 䬬 䬬릤牨䬬䬬ꮠ 갬릤
䨸 릤산䬬ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 릤릤 䬬릤牨 산 갬릤䬬ꮠ갬갬릤릤 䀸 릤산 ꮠꮠ  릤
ꮠ 릤릤 릤 ꮠ 갬䬬릤릤 산牨ꮠ 릤릤산 산릤 산 릤 산 갬릤䬬산 릤ꮠ 갬ꮠ
ઈ⟴릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 逄¶

릤䬬릤䬬릤牨䬬산릤 산 릤릤 䀸 릤릤 ꮠ 갬䬬 릤 ꮠ䬬산 䬬릤
릤䬬 䬬ꮠ 릤ઈ산산 䨸䬬䨸 䬬䬬 䘐산 ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ  릤逄릤䘐 ꮠ릤
 릤䬬릤牨䬬䬬 䘐산 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ  ꮠ산䬬ꮠ

௘산ઈ¶ 䘐릤௘ ¶ 산 䘐릤䘐릤௘
¶ꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘䘐릤௘ ¶ꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘䘐릤௘
¶ 릤䘐릤௘ ¶䨸 릤䀸䘐릤௘
¶¶ 䬬 릤䘐릤௘
ઈ䬬ꮠ¶  릤䘐௘ 䬬ꮠ¶ 산 䘐릤 릤䘐௘
䬬ꮠ¶ꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘ 릤䘐௘ 䬬ꮠ¶ꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘ 릤䘐௘

䬬ꮠ¶ 릤 릤䘐௘ 䬬ꮠ䨸 릤䀸릤䘐௘

ઈ䬬릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산
릤䬬릤 릤䬬 릤산릤 릤 逄산 릤갬䨸산䀸䘐ꮠ 逄릤 릤 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 산
䬬릤 릤䬬 릤 ꮠ 갬䬬
牐௘¶V 䬬 ௘ ¶V 산 䘐릤䬬 ௘
¶Vꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘䬬 ௘¶Vꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘䬬 ௘
산V 릤䬬 ௘ 산V䨸 릤䀸䬬 ௘
산¶V 䬬 릤䬬 ௘
䘐 릤䬬    牨  ꮠ䬬䨸릤 산牨릤䀸逄산  릤௘ 산
逄ɬ산 䬬산䀸௘䬬ꮠ 릤  릤牨䬬䨸䬬ꮠ䨸릤逄산ꮠ 䬬릤산  逄릤  릤牨릤 ꮠ산
逄산ꮠ 릤ퟰ䬬산 릤䬬 䬬

ퟰ௘산ઈ䨸 䘐산䬬௘ 䨸 산 䘐릤䘐릤릤௘
䨸
ꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘䘐릤릤௘ 䨸 ꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘䘐릤릤௘
산 ¶ 䬬 릤䘐산䬬௘

산 릤䘐산䬬௘ 산 䨸 릤䀸䘐릤릤௘
ઈɬ
䬬산ꮠ ௘ ɬ 䘐릤䬬산ꮠ ௘
ɬꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘䬬산ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘䬬산ꮠ ௘
ɬ산 릤䬬산ꮠ ௘ ɬ산䨸 릤䀸䬬산ꮠ ௘
ɬ산¶ 䬬 릤䬬산ꮠ

릤ઈ䀸릤䬬 䘐 릤릤 ꮠ 릤릤 산릤 䬬 릤릤 ꮠ 갬 릤 ꮠ산릤
산  ꮠ ꮠꮠ 䨸산 䬬릤산릤䬬 ⟴牨릤 䬬릤산릤䬬 ꮠ 䬬릤 逄ꮠ晸  릤䬬逄릤晸䘐 ꮠ릤
 릤䬬ꮠ 䬬릤逄산산䬬ꮠ
산䬬¶릤䬬산䬬䬬牨릤 릤ꮠ䬬䬬릤 릤௘
산¶ ¶ 산 牨산 릤산 ꮠ릤௘

ઈ䬬릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산 䨸릤  䬬 산

 릤䬬릤䬬릤牨䬬산 逄ꮠꮠ䬬ꮠ 䬬릤릤 릤䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤牨산 릤릤 ꮠ 갬䬬
 릤 ꮠ䬬산 䬬릤 릤䬬 䬬

ퟰퟰ௘릤牨牨ꮠ 䬬牨릤௘ 릤牨牨ꮠ 산 䘐릤䬬牨릤௘
릤牨牨ꮠꮠ
䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘䬬牨릤௘ 릤牨牨ꮠꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘䬬牨릤௘
릤牨牨 릤䬬牨릤௘ 릤牨牨䨸 릤䀸䬬牨릤௘
릤牨牨¶ 䬬 릤䬬牨릤௘

ઈ䬬릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산

 릤䬬릤䬬릤牨䬬 릤 ꮠ 산逄ઈ산ꮠ䬬 산 갬릤 逄ꮠ릤 릤 릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산
릤 ꮠ 갬䬬 릤ퟰ䬬산 릤䬬 䬬

સ 갬䀸 왌왌
ퟰ௘ ꮠ 릤갬산 ௘
ꮠ 산 䘐릤릤갬산 ௘
ꮠꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘릤갬산 ௘ ꮠꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘릤갬산 ௘
산 릤릤갬산 ௘ 산䘐 릤䀸릤갬산 ௘
산 䬬 릤릤갬산 ௘
릤䬬산牨릤 ꮠ 갬 逄산 릤산牨릤௘산 逄 산 릤䬬牨릤 ꮠ 갬௘

 릤ꮠ 산 牨䬬 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤
릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 산릤 䬬 䘐䬬 릤 갬릤 릤산  산산릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬  릤
ꮠ牨릤 릤릤䬬

ퟰ왌௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸산
䬬
ퟰ 릤௘ઈ ௘ 릤 릤௘ઈ鮼ઈ䨸ઈ䘐䘐릤௘
릤௘ઈ䀸䨸牨산䬬௘ 릤௘ઈ 鮼 ઈ䨸 ઈ䘐䀸䨸
릤௘ઈ鮼ઈꮠઈ 릤䀸௘ ௘௘
왌 ꮠઈ 릤௘ઈ 릤௘ ꮠઈ 릤௘ઈ鮼ઈ䨸ઈ䘐 릤䀸
릤௘ઈ 䬬 릤௘

苨䬬릤릤 산牨ꮠ 산ꮠ  ꮠ䬬산릤䬬 䘐䬬 산 릤䨸산ꮠ䬬 牨릤
䀸 릤산 ꮠꮠ  산 䘐 ꮠ䬬산릤 산ꮠ릤 산 갬릤䬬릤牨䬬 牨 릤 산
산 릤 ꮠ䬬산 릤 䬬릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 䬬산 릤䘐䬬릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ
䘐릤䬬산䬬ꮠ
ퟰ௘¶ ¶ઈ䨸

릤䀸산릤릤 ꮠ 갬௘
릤牨ꮠ䘐䘐릤산릤䬬牨ꮠ 갬௘
릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬 ꮠ䬬牨산릤 䀸산 릤 ꮠ 릤  릤䬬릤牨산䬬ꮠ 䬬¶ 

䬬릤௘ 䬬¶ 䨸䘐릤 䬬릤௘ 산䘐䘐릤 릤갬ꮠ ௘ ⟴릤 릤䬬 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸 릤䨸산ꮠ 릤 ꮠ   䀸 릤 䬬릤 릤䬬 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 牨 릤 릤 릤릤 릤ꮠ 䨸ꮠ 갬릤 릤산 릤䬬릤 릤䬬
릤 ꮠ 산䬬 릤 牨㽌ઈ㮴릤 릤䬬릤牨䬬릤갬ꮠ ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ 산鮼산䘐릤산 릤
䬬릤릤௘¶ 산 䀸䨸牨산䬬䬬ꮠ 갬௘릤갬ꮠ ௘鯈 릤릤 릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬䘐 릤 릤䬬릤牨릤갬ꮠ 䬬

牨㽌릤ઈ㧌릤 릤䬬릤牨䬬릤갬ꮠ ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ 산ઈ䨸䬬릤䨸䀸䨸牨산䬬䬬ꮠ 갬௘
䘐ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ

ퟰ뀨௘¶¶牨 ¶¶牨牐䀸䨸䬬릤산௘
¶ ¶
¶ ¶ 䀸䨸릤ɬ䨸릤䬬௘
䀸䨸䨸䀸௘

牐
 䬬牨릤સ苨 ꮠ산릤䬬䘐릤산 산鮼
릤왌 릤䬬 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤 ꮠ산 산  릤 릤䬬 릤
릤 ꮠ 逄 릤산 逄 릤䀸ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸㽌ꮠઈ㧌
ퟰ௘산ꮠ ꮠ 릤ꮠ䬬산ꮠ 갬௘
산
ꮠ䘐 릤䀸산릤산ꮠ 갬௘
산䨸 릤ꮠ䬬䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬௘
산䨸
䨸 릤䀸산릤䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬௘
䘐릤릤 릤 릤 䬬릤牨䬬 릤갬ꮠ ꮠ 갬 䘐ꮠ 䘐 V  䨸䬬 산  릤

릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸릤산ꮠ 릤 산䬬¶ઈ

ퟰὨ௘¶䘐⟴¶ 릤산ꮠ릤䬬௘
¶ ¶ 릤산䬬௘
¶ ꮠ䘐 릤䀸갬ꮠ릤௘
¶ 牨¶ 릤산ꮠ릤䬬௘
¶V¶ 릤牨릤산䬬䨸릤䬬௘

ઈ䬬릤牨산䬬䬬릤䬬산 ꮠ 릤ꮠ 䬬 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤

릤䬬릤牨 산 갬릤䬬 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤산릤 ꮠ 릤릤 牨 䬬릤 릤
릤 릤 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤릤 䬬릤牨䀸릤䬬牨산䀸릤䬬ꮠ 갬릤 䨸ꮠ 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤

ઈ䬬릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 릤

릤䬬릤 산릤 䬬䨸릤  산릤 䬬  ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 䘐ꮠ 릤
산 ꮠꮠ  릤릤 ꮠ 갬䬬㽌ઈ䨸㧌산 㽌ઈ¶㧌
ퟰὨ௘ ¶¶ ꮠ릤௘

¶ 䨸䘐릤ꮠ릤௘
¶¶ 䀸䨸牨산䬬௘ꮠ릤௘ ¶ 䨸䀸䨸ꮠ릤௘
¶ ꮠ 䀸䨸 릤牨௘ꮠ릤௘
ꮠ¶ 릤ꮠ릤䬬௘
¶¶ 䬬 릤ꮠ릤䬬௘
ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬 릤산䬬릤 ¶䬬¶ 䬬¶䬬 ¶ ¶

苨ꮠ牨ꮠ릤 䨸牨릤 릤䬬䬬䨸䬬ꮠ䨸릤逄  릤逄릤 릤ઈ䬬릤牨
¶ 䨸

䨸䀸䨸牨산䬬௘릤 릤௘ ¶ 䨸ퟰ

ퟰ௘ 䨸 릤 릤௘ 䘐릤릤 릤௘
릤 ꮠ 䀸䨸 릤牨௘릤 릤௘ꮠ ¶ 䨸

䀸䨸 ௘릤 릤௘
릤䀸릤 릤௘
ꮠ  릤릤 릤䬬௘
 䬬 릤릤 릤䬬௘

ઈ䘐릤䬬ퟰퟰ

ퟰ
ꮠ릤 릤릤 산䘐릤 산릤䬬牨릤ꮠ  산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 산릤䬬䨸릤 ꮠ 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ
સ 갬䀸 왌뀨

સ䬬 릤䬬릤릤䬬 산 갬릤 릤牨릤 ꮠ산逄산逄ꮠ䨸ꮠ 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤
鯈 릤릤䬬릤산ꮠ 릤逄산

௘ ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘ ꮠ䨸䘐릤ꮠ 갬௘
ꮠ 䀸䨸牨산䬬௘ꮠ 갬௘ ꮠ䨸䀸䨸 ௘ꮠ 갬௘
ꮠꮠ 䀸䨸 릤牨௘ꮠ 갬௘
ꮠꮠ 릤ꮠ 갬䬬௘
ꮠ 䬬 릤ꮠ 갬䬬௘

릤䬬 산 산 갬릤逄산ꮠ 逄ꮠ산릤산䬬 䘐䬬
ퟰ௘산V 䬬릤௘ 산 䨸䬬릤௘ 산ɬ 䘐산릤௘ 산 䀸௘ 산 산௘ 산 산 ௘

릤䬬 산 산 갬릤逄산ꮠ 逄䨸산릤ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 䀸 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬
௘산 ꮠ䬬䬬௘산䬬 ꮠ䬬䬬௘ 산 산䬬䬬௘산 䘐산䬬௘牨산 ꮠ릤௘ 산 갬릤
䨸௘ɬ산 䬬산䀸௘䬬산ɬ  䘐௘⟴산牨 산䬬௘

왌௘릤䬬 산릤산ꮠ 릤逄산산릤릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 ꮠ
산 䬬산䀸 릤 ꮠ갬 ௘ 산 릤䬬산릤 ௘

ઈ䨸릤 䬬

 산 릤䬬릤 䬬 ꮠ 䨸 릤 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 산䬬 릤䀸 䨸릤 릤 산䬬  䬬 산
સ䬬䬬䨸 릤䬬䬬 䘐 䬬릤牨 산 갬릤릤 릤  ꮠ산릤산산ꮠ산ꮠ

௘릤 릤 䬬릤௘
릤 ꮠ 릤ꮠ  䨸௘

ઈ⟴릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산

苨산릤갬䀸 릤䬬릤릤䬬 산䬬  산 갬릤

뀨௘V릤산  산릤 ꮠ 릤௘
V산산  산릤 ꮠ 릤௘ 릤V산䘐䘐릤 산릤 ꮠ 릤௘
V릤산 䀸䨸 산릤 ꮠ 릤௘ V릤산䘐䀸䨸 ௘ 산릤 ꮠ 릤௘
V릤산 䀸䨸 릤牨䬬ꮠ 갬௘ 산릤 ꮠ 릤௘
ꮠV릤산
V산산
ꮠV릤산䘐

સ릤산䬬䨸릤䬬산  산 갬릤 릤 ꮠ 산逄산逄ꮠ산䬬ꮠ g릤 산 릤௘
ɬ산산 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 ௘䬬릤ɬ⟴산 산䬬௘

ퟰퟰ
䨸갬 릤ꮠ릤산䨸릤 સ苨䘐릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 逄 산릤릤䬬
g릤 ꮠ g릤

௘g릤 산 ꮠ䘐
g릤 ꮠ g릤 ꮠ䘐
ꮠg릤 ꮠ
g릤 ꮠ

鯈 릤䬬 સ릤산䬬䨸릤릤산ꮠ 릤逄산
Ὠ௘ɬ산 릤ɬ산 릤ɬ산䘐
릤ɬ산 릤ɬ산䘐
릤ɬ산
ꮠɬ산
릤ɬ산 ꮠɬ산䘐

릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ  릤ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤
릤ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤 산䬬산䬬릤ꮠ산ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산 牨ꮠ 릤䬬릤 릤䬬

䨸릤䬬   牨 ꮠ䬬 산牨릤䀸牨산 릤䘐릤 ௘산 릤산牨릤௘산
릤산릤௘산 산 릤௘
௘산牨산 갬௘
䬬ꮠ 牨산䬬௘ 䬬ꮠꮠ 릤牨௘ 䬬ꮠ䨸 ௘
산 牨릤௘
산ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 갬௘ 산ꮠ䘐 ௘
산 릤산௘
䨸牨산䬬௘ 䨸ꮠ 릤牨௘ 䨸䨸 ௘
릤 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ䬬V ꮠ 갬ꮠ릤 산 릤௘

鯈 릤 산릤 산ꮠ릤 牨  릤 ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤 산 산䬬  릤䬬 ꮠ 갬
V ꮠ 갬ꮠ릤௘

산산 牨산䬬௘ 산ꮠ 릤牨௘ 산산䘐 ௘

牨ꮠ 산牨 갬䀸
ઈ 릤산ꮠꮠ릤䬬

산ꮠꮠ릤䬬 산릤산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤䬬산 ꮠ 릤릤  
갬릤 릤 산 䨸牨릤 䨸   릤䬬 산 릤 䬬릤 릤릤 산릤 䘐 䀸릤䬬 
V릤 릤VV산 V산௘

산ꮠꮠ릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산릤 릤ꮠ릤 牨 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤 릤䬬 릤䬬릤ꮠ산䀸牨릤산䬬䨸릤 

릤산ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤
릤갬릤 릤산산릤 ꮠ䬬 산V¶산䬬ꮠ 산¶ 산V¶䬬릤 䨸릤 릤䬬

ħ¶ħ산䘐 릤䬬 䘐릤릤 산릤산 逄 산䬬 릤䬬릤  䬬 산  릤

릤 逄¶ ꮠ䬬 牨ꮠ릤 릤䘐릤릤 릤 산䬬䘐  䬬 산 䬬  ꮠ 䬬산 릤
산릤 산䬬ꮠ 산V산¶V 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬 릤 ꮠ 산逄산ꮠ䬬릤산릤 䀸逄ꮠ

સ 갬䀸 왌Ὠ

¶ 릤 릤 ௘

牐௘¶ 䘐릤௘ 산¶ 산ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ릤 ௘
산 산ꮠ 갬릤 릤 ௘
산V 䬬 ௘ 산¶V 산ꮠ 갬䬬 ௘
산 䨸갬 ௘ 산ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬䨸갬 ௘
릤산䬬䬬ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤
릤 갬릤 릤산산릤 ꮠ䬬牨¶ V䨸 산䬬 ꮠ 牨¶䨸  䘐 릤䬬 산 逄

산릤산䬬산䬬 릤䬬릤  䬬 산  릤牨¶䨸Vퟰ 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬 릤

ꮠ 산ઈ䨸ꮠ䬬릤산릤 䀸ꮠ牨¶䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬산릤䬬䨸牨牨산ꮠ 릤䬬산 릤䬬릤 牨䬬

왌ퟰ௘
䀸릤 ઈ䬬릤牨 ઈ䬬릤牨 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤
⟴ꮠ牨릤릤 릤산 ¶ 牨¶䨸
䘐 산V 牨¶䨸V
릤 릤ꮠ릤 산 산ꮠ
산릤 ퟰ牐௘䬬산릤䬬 산牨릤산䬬䨸릤릤䬬 릤 牨 V산 산௘ 

산ꮠꮠ릤䬬산䬬牨¶¶ 䘐 ꮠ릤 ௘

 산릤산산ꮠꮠ릤䘐릤릤䘐릤산䬬䬬䨸牨릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산릤 산䬬䨸 릤䬬산릤
苨  릤산䬬䬬ꮠ 䨸 릤䬬 릤산ꮠ릤산 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤릤䬬 산산릤 牨릤

ꮠ 릤릤 䀸  ꮠ 䬬산 릤 䘐산ꮠ䬬산 릤  릤산ꮠ릤산 牨䨸 릤산䬬䬬ꮠ릤
릤 ꮠ䬬 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬 䨸릤  산 䀸 릤䘐릤䬬산릤 ꮠ䬬䀸릤

ઈ䬬릤牨苨ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤
䘐산 ¶
산 산릤௘ 䘐산¶ 牨䨸䨸
산 산릤௘ 牨䨸䨸
산 ꮠ 갬산릤௘ 산䀸牨릤 ꮠ
산 牨릤௘ 牨산ꮠ산 ꬀꬀꬀꬀꬀
릤苨 ઈ 牨 ¶V산

ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬 릤 牨䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䀸 릤ꮠ릤 牨 牨 ꮠ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤䬬  䘐
릤䬬산 逄ꮠ산릤䬬 릤逄¶V ꮠ䬬산릤 䘐 ꮠ릤ꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬산 䨸ꮠ䬬
릤䨸䬬䨸산 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬逄牨산 릤 산 牨¶ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬逄

逄牨산䬬ꮠ 牨 ¶V ꮠ ௘牨¶牨䨸V ꮠ 릤 ௘

ퟰ
산 릤 산䬬 릤 ꮠ  䬬 산  릤  苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬  릤산릤 릤 릤 
ퟰ牐௘ ¶V산 牨䬬䨸 산릤 산V¶산䬬 릤ꮠ산ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤 牨䬬 ¶V산

䨸牨산 릤ꮠ 갬䬬 산 릤牨산䀸䀸䬬ꮠ산  牨릤 산 䬬산릤䬬 쀔 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 산릤
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산릤  䨸牨릤䨸䬬 릤牨䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䀸릤 䨸 릤릤  릤䬬산릤

왌௘
ઈ䬬릤牨 릤ꮠ릤 산 릤ꮠ릤
¶ 릤릤 릤 ௘ ¶ 산  산 ¶ 갬릤ꮠ 갬릤릤 릤 ௘

¶  ௘ ¶ 산 산¶ 갬릤ꮠ 갬 ௘
¶r 산  산¶ 릤ꮠ 갬 산䀸௘

¶산  산¶ 릤䬬산ꮠ 갬௘
¶ 䀸௘
䬬 ¶ 산ꮠ ௘ 䬬¶ 산 䬬산 ¶ 산ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘

¶ 릤䬬산릤௘
䬬¶ ꮠ ௘ 䬬¶산 䬬산¶ 䨸 ௘
릤릤 산릤 䘐 牨䬬  릤 䬬산牨릤 산릤 逄¶산 ¶VV산 

ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산 ¶V산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산 䬬 릤逄䘐䘐산 逄䨸 ꮠ 산䬬

릤 牨릤 ꮠ산  䬬 산 䬬  牨ꮠ 릤ઈ䘐릤산 䬬 산 逄䨸 ꮠ 䬬 산䬬 릤 ꮠ 산
 䬬 산  ꮠ 산ઈ䘐릤산䬬 牨䬬ꮠ릤 릤䬬릤산릤릤䬬릤牨산 ꮠ산䀸ꮠ 릤
  릤䬬䬬ꮠ 䬬 산 릤䬬 산  산산릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬  산ꮠ䨸산 산ꮠꮠ䀸 ⟴牨릤
릤 산牨릤䬬산릤

왌왌௘
ઈ䬬릤牨 䬬䬬 ઈ산 릤ꮠ릤䬬䬬
¶산 산릤
산 䘐릤릤 ¶산䘐릤릤릤
¶ ¶ 산릤䘐릤릤
 산릤
갬
갬¶ 산 릤ꮠ 갬산䨸 릤 갬¶ 산䨸 릤
 ¶
䬬¶ 릤산ꮠ릤 䬬¶산산ꮠ릤
¶ 산 산䬬牨ꮠ
ꮠ릤 ¶ 산ꮠ산
䘐䘐ꮠ ꮠ
¶산산릤 릤
‫﵌‬牨산 䬬牨릤 ¶牨牨산䬬牨릤
¶ ꮠ 갬䘐 䘐

ઈ 릤逄 ꮠ䬬산
સ 갬䀸 왌牐
ꮠ 䬬산 릤 /ꮠ䬬산牨 䬬산牨௘갬ꮠ릤䬬 /ꮠ䬬산牨ꮠસ ઈ  갬ꮠ산 산 갬릤䬬䨸

릤ꮠ䬬산 ꮠ䬬  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸 릤 릤 ꮠ 갬 ઈꮠ산산 릤 산䬬릤牨 
ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 릤
왌௘ 산 ¶ 갬 ௘ ¶ ꮠퟰ왌 갬 릤 ௘

g¶ 䘐릤䬬௘g¶산䘐ꮠퟰ 牨 릤䘐릤䬬g¶릤䘐릤릤 산산

릤릤산릤 릤䘐릤 산牨릤䬬䘐 릤릤逄산䘐ꮠ䬬ꮠ 䬬릤릤 릤 릤 릤逄ꮠ릤 ꮠ 갬산䬬ꮠ
산 સ릤 䬬௘

鯈 릤 ꮠ䬬산 牨䬬 산릤 ꮠ 逄산  릤逄산산  산 갬릤ꮠ릤ꮠ 릤逄ꮠ
逄䘐ꮠ산䬬ꮠ
ɬ산 䘐산  릤릤௘ ɬ산 䘐ꮠ  릤릤ઈ릤 ௘
산 䬬산 산 릤௘ 산 䬬산䘐ꮠ 릤  ௘

䬬牨산 䬬䀸௘ 䬬牨산䘐ꮠ 䬬䀸䨸릤௘ퟰ뀨

苨䬬牨산 䨸牨릤  ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬 䘐 릤 릤 ꮠ 갬 㽌ઈ ꮠ㧌 산 릤  䬬릤牨䬬
䘐 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 逄산산 㽌ઈ산 ꮠ㧌䬬릤牨䬬䘐 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 逄산

¶ ¶
䨸䘐䘐¶ 䨸䘐䘐산 ꮠ ꮠ䬬௘
¶ 산 ꮠ 산䬬௘
ꮠ
ꮠ산 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ릤ઈ 산ꮠ릤 ௘

ꮠ䬬산 牨䬬 산릤 릤ꮠ릤 牨 ꮠ 릤릤 䀸릤䬬  䬬릤牨䬬 산䬬 릤
䘐ꮠ 갬산릤䬬 䘐䬬
왌뀨௘
릤ꮠ산ꮠ ⟴䨸릤 ⟴릤牨 ꮠ䬬산
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬 산䬬䬬௘ 산䬬ꮠ 산ꮠ릤 䬬௘
갬릤갬산 ꮠ산 산릤 䨸䬬䨸 ꮠ䬬௘ 䨸䬬ꮠ 牨䨸 ꮠ䬬௘
산牨릤䬬௘
䨸산䬬 b 산¶  산 䬬௘ 산ꮠ  산 산牨릤௘
䘐산¶ 산 䬬௘ 䘐산 ꮠ 산 산䀸릤௘
䬬릤䨸 ઈ䨸산䬬 산  ꮠ릤 ௘ 산ꮠ  ꮠ릤 ઈ䬬릤릤௘
苨 ઈ산ꮠ릤䬬 䬬산릤 ¶산 䨸䀸䬬ꮠ 릤௘ ¶산 ꮠ 䨸䬬ꮠ 릤௘
䨸ɬ 산릤௘ 䨸ɬ산 ꮠ 䨸릤௘
䨸 릤릤산௘ 䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ 牨䬬௘
릤 䘐 ௘ ¶ 산 ꮠ 牨௘

ퟰ왌
V䬬¶  릤䀸௘ V¶䬬ꮠ  릤䀸ઈ릤 ௘

鯈 릤릤 산牨릤䬬산릤 ꮠ 산௘ ꮠ ꮠ 산䨸䨸牨 산௘

산䬬䬬௘ 산䬬ꮠ 산ꮠ릤 䬬௘
ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬 산䬬g¶ꮠ 䘐릤䬬릤 릤௘

ꮠ牨䨸 산 갬릤௘ ꮠ牨䨸 ꮠ 산 갬릤ઈ릤 ௘
ퟰ
ퟰ뀨
릤릤ꮠ䬬 릤릤 릤ꮠ  ꮠ䬬 ɬ산 ɬꮠ 릤௘
䘐¶⟴ 릤 릤௘ 䘐¶⟴ 산 ꮠ 릤 산௘

䨸牨릤산䬬 산산 릤릤௘ ¶ꮠ 릤릤ઈ  ௘
¶牨䬬산 ꮠ릤௘
¶V산 䨸௘ 산Vꮠ 䨸ઈ  ௘
牨산䬬ꮠ ꮠ릤ઈ  ௘

ઈ 릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤

ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬 산릤 릤ꮠ릤 牨 䨸䬬 산 苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬苨
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 갬산ꮠ牨牨 牨䬬 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ䬬산 ꮠ ꮠꮠ산䨸䬬릤  䘐
 䬬 산 䬬 䘐릤 䀸 산 䘐릤 릤 릤 산 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬  ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ䬬 
릤 ꮠ산릤 牨 릤牨릤산 ꮠ 갬 릤 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산산䬬릤
ퟰ௘ સ 䬬䀸산릤䬬સ䬬ꮠꮠ릤산牨 䬬䀸산릤䬬 牨 릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤
䀸ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬逄ꮠ릤릤䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬ɬ릤
ɬ 릤
௘ સꮠ 릤ઈ䘐릤산 牨 䬬䀸산릤䬬 릤산ꮠ 릤 릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤 䀸䘐ꮠ산 
䘐ꮠ¶ 산䬬牨산릤릤 산 ௘
릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䀸 릤산릤 Vꮠ산

왌௘ 릤䘐牨 䬬䀸산릤䬬䘐ꮠ ꮠꮠ릤산䬬 산 릤 䘐릤 逄¶ 산 릤산ꮠ 릤
௘ 苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬   릤 릤산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬  릤산릤 Vꮠ 牨

릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤 䀸 VꮠV¶ 䘐 릤릤 릤 䬬릤   䬬 산 ꮠ䬬
뀨௘ ⟴릤牨ઈ산릤 䬬 ꮠ릤 ¶V  산V 鮼 䘐릤 牨 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬䀸

릤릤산릤
ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬 릤 䘐릤 逄ꮠ 릤䘐릤릤 릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬

䘐릤릤ꮠ 릤䬬릤牨ꮠ䬬牨ꮠ 릤ઈ䘐릤산䘐ꮠ 산 ꮠ 산䘐릤산逄䘐ꮠ䬬
릤䬬릤牨산릤 V산산 Vꮠ산 牨 릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䀸 Vꮠ산

산 릤
௘
Ὠ௘ ꒤䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬릤산ꮠ 릤 릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤산릤 ꮠ¶릤 릤
ꮠ 릤 䘐 산䬬 산 ꮠ 산 䘐릤 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 산䬬릤 逄¶ ꮠ䬬 릤
鯈산䬬ꮠ 산䀸䘐릤 ꮠ 䨸  䬬 산 䬬 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬䘐ꮠ 산 逄ꮠ
릤䘐릤릤 릤 䬬릤 산 ꮠ  䬬 산 䬬 산 릤䘐릤릤 릤 ꮠ
산 䨸  䬬 산 䬬
릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산릤䬬䨸牨牨산ꮠ 릤䬬산 릤䬬릤ꮠ 䬬

સ 갬䀸 ퟰ

왌௘
䘐 ઈ䬬릤牨 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산산䬬릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤 牨䬬ퟰ
ꮠꮠ릤산牨 䬬䀸산릤䬬 g¶ 牨䨸릤௘ gꮠ¶
¶ ꮠ릤릤௘
¶ 갬௘ ꮠ¶
¶ 릤산 ௘
ꮠ¶
ꮠ¶
સꮠ 릤ઈ䘐릤산ꮠꮠ릤산䬬 산 ௘ 䘐ꮠ산
ꮠ 䘐릤௘ 䘐ꮠ¶
䨸ɬ  ௘ 䘐ꮠ¶ɬ
산 牨䨸䬬릤௘ 䘐ꮠ¶
ꮠꮠ릤산 牨 䬬䀸산릤䬬 ¶ 갬ꮠ 산䨸갬 릤௘ ꮠ산
V䬬ꮠ산
ꮠ산
V䬬¶  릤䀸௘
䘐ꮠ 산䘐릤逄¶ ¶ ௘
苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬   ¶ 䬬䨸ꮠ ௘ ꮠ ¶

릤 릤 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산 ¶牨牨䨸릤௘
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬  릤 산릤 k ¶ 산௘ k i ¶
ꮠ¶牨
Vꮠ산 ꮠ 牨ꮠ䬬릤௘ ꮠ ¶

牨ꮠ 갬 ௘ 牨ꮠ¶
䘐ꮠ 산௘
⟴릤牨 산릤 䬬 ¶V 산
䘐ꮠ䘐¶
산V鮼䘐릤
¶갬산 䘐௘ 갬ꮠ산
g¶ 牨ꮠ 산牨௘ g ꮠ牨ꮠ

릤산 산䘐௘ ꮠ산
⟴릤牨 산릤 䬬 V산산  산⟴산 산릤௘ ꮠ⟴산

ퟰ
牨산산ꮠ릤䨸䬬릤䬬릤릤 ⟴䨸䬬䬬ꮠ산ꮠ릤䀸௘산䬬牨산릤䬬䨸䬬릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬
䘐ꮠ 䬬ꮠ산 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤ઈ산䬬릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 산ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠꮠ 갬ꮠ ꮠ䬬산ꮠ릤䀸ꮠ䬬 산
ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤䬬산릤牨산릤 䀸 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 산䨸 릤 릤산䨸䀸산  릤 ꮠ산릤산
/ꮠ牨산 릤산䬬௘
䨸䬬릤산䬬ꮠ
/ꮠ牨 ꮠ 䬬牨산௘

ꮠ牨 갬ꮠ 䬬牨산릤산䬬௘
ꮠ牨 ꮠ 릤䀸䬬牨산௘
산 䨸䘐릤䬬갬牨산䬬௘ 산 䨸䬬牨산䘐릤䬬갬 릤牨௘
릤 산산ꮠ䬬산릤 牨산 䨸牨릤 산ꮠ릤䬬릤산릤䬬 릤산ꮠ릤䀸䬬릤 ꮠ 苨ꮠ
苨 릤산 苨갬산 ꮠ
Vꮠ산 ꮠɬ산 牨릤௘ ꮠɬ산

산산 릤 ௘ ꮠ산
꒤䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬 ¶䬬산䬬 䨸䬬䨸䬬௘ 䬬ꮠ¶䬬
¶ ꮠ산 䬬릤산牨௘
牨¶ 산 䬬牨릤 ௘ 牨ꮠ 산
ꮠꮠ산
릤ꮠ산 산릤௘ ꮠꮠ산

ઈ 릤牨산산ꮠ릤

鯈䀸산ꮠ牨ꮠ릤 䨸牨릤 苨䬬 산릤산牨산산ꮠ릤 牨晸 릤릤 릤ꮠ 䬬
릤산릤 䬬 Vꮠ V䨸산 산V¶ 산릤 릤牨산산ꮠ릤 牨 V¶

산릤릤산 릤 산䬬산䨸산䀸ꮠ릤牨䬬
릤산릤 ꮠ¶ 산릤 릤牨산산ꮠ릤산릤 ¶ 䘐¶

ퟰ
릤산릤 Vꮠ 牨 䨸릤 䬬 산릤 릤䘐ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 릤

V¶V 릤VV
왌
뀨 릤 ꮠ 산䘐릤산산릤 䬬 Vꮠ산 V䨸 산릤 릤牨산산ꮠ릤 牨 V산

苨䬬 산 릤 릤 릤릤䀸ꮠ䬬 산 릤䬬릤산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산릤 릤
䬬산牨릤산䬬 릤ꮠ牨산산ꮠ릤 牨䬬 릤䀸산릤䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 릤牨산산ꮠ릤
䘐ꮠ 䨸산 䀸 산 갬릤 牨
왌Ὠ௘
Vꮠ산 산V¶
릤산릤 릤䬬ꮠ牨릤䬬릤牨 릤牨산산ꮠ릤 牨
ꮠ ꮠ갬௘ ¶ ꮠ갬갬릤௘
ɬꮠ 릤산䀸௘ ɬ¶ 릤산ꮠ릤௘
ꮠ¶
䘐산䬬¶V 䘐ꮠ 릤௘ 䘐䬬¶V 䘐ꮠ 릤௘
Vꮠ
ꮠ 갬 ௘ ¶ 릤릤௘
¶ ꮠ갬 릤௘
ꮠ 산 릤ꮠꮠ䨸䬬௘ ¶ 산䬬䀸௘
ꮠ 산 ꮠ갬 ௘
ꮠ 산 릤䘐௘
Vꮠ산 V䨸
¶ 릤䘐릤௘
ɬꮠ 릤산 ௘ ɬ산 릤산 릤௘
V¶ k ¶ 산௘ k ¶ 산릤௘

䨸䬬䘐릤릤௘ 산 䬬䘐릤릤릤௘
牨¶ɬ 산 䀸௘ 牨¶ɬ 산 ꮠ릤௘

¶ 䘐 ꮠ릤௘ ¶ 䘐 ꮠ릤௘

릤 䨸牨릤산䬬
સ苨 산䬬䬬릤산산릤 牨䬬  산 ꮠ 산 산  ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤䬬 牨  릤
䨸갬 䘐릤릤

સ 갬䀸 왌
릤산 ꮠ 산䬬
릤릤산릤ꮠ ꮠꮠ 䨸산 牨䬬  릤 䨸牨릤䬬 牨 릤 䨸갬 ퟰ牐 
릤릤 䬬 牨䘐릤 䀸 䨸갬 ꮠ 릤䀸 산 䨸 릤 산 䨸䬬산 산牨ꮠꮠ 산
산ꮠꮠ
왌௘ 䘐산 ¶  릤牨산䬬௘䘐¶ 산  릤 릤牨௘䘐¶ ꮠ ௘

䨸䘐௘ 산  ꮠ

산산 릤릤௘
V¶산 릤 ௘
¶V산 䨸௘
릤 䨸牨릤산 䘐산ħ¶ ꮠ 릤䬬 牨䨸牨릤산䬬 牨  릤  릤 ꮠ 릤ꮠ 갬 산

산 릤ꮠ릤  䨸ꮠ릤䬬 릤 䬬산牨릤 산릤 ꮠ 릤 䬬䨸䨸릤 산䬬 산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산
䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산䀸산갬릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬릤 릤䘐ꮠ 䘐 산릤릤 䨸 ꮠ牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬
왌牐௘ 산䘐산 ¶  릤௘

牨ꮠ산䘐¶ 산  릤산௘
䨸䨸䘐䬬௘
䨸 ઈઈ䨸䘐䬬௘
䨸 牨ꮠ산 䘐산䬬௘

릤 ꮠ 산䬬

릤  ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤산䬬 산릤 䬬ꮠ牨릤 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬  牨 갬ꮠ산䀸 산
릤䀸산 산릤 릤산릤 산V¶산䬬ꮠ

䬬䀸 산ꮠ산䀸 릤 릤  逄 ꮠ䬬 산 逄䬬릤 䘐 ꮠ 산릤 䬬릤ꮠ산 牨䬬
௘ 䨸䘐䘐¶ퟰὨ ꮠ䬬௘

산 ꮠ 䬬릤 ௘
산¶ ꮠ ௘
산¶V 䨸 ௘
䬬산 ¶䬬䬬ꮠ ௘
산牨¶䬬 ꮠ ௘

苨 릤ꮠ릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ
સ苨 산䬬䘐牨산ꮠ 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산 릤산䨸릤䬬릤 릤䬬牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
산 䘐 䨸牨릤䬬䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산산 䨸산௘苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬䨸 ꮠ릤 䨸䬬  산릤
릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤  牨ꮠ 산릤 ꮠ 갬䬬

ퟰὨ
릤䬬릤산릤牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 牨䬬산릤릤갬䨸산 牨릤 䘐ꮠ 릤
릤 ꮠ 갬䬬逄ઈ산
릤 릤
산ઈ 릤 산䬬릤 牨  릤 산 릤ꮠ릤 ꮠ䬬 릤 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 릤
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤ꮠ䬬 牨릤 䀸산 ꮠ 갬㽌ઈ산㧌 릤牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤산䬬ꮠ
ퟰ௘
ઈ䬬䨸 牨산䬬௘ 䬬䨸 산  릤牨௘
ઈ牨¶ ꮠ릤牨산䬬௘ 牨¶산 ꮠ릤 릤牨௘
ઈ 릤 산 산䀸牨산䬬௘ 릤 산 산 산䀸 릤牨௘

ઈ䘐릤릤 산ꮠꮠ릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 㽌ઈꮠ㧌牨산 릤ꮠ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䀸
 산 갬ꮠ 갬逄ꮠꮠ 逄릤 릤산 ꮠ 갬 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤㽌ઈ산㧌 ꮠ 䬬산 릤
௘
ઈ牨산ꮠ 䘐산ꮠ 갬牨산䬬௘ 牨산산 䘐산ꮠ 갬 릤牨௘
ઈ牨¶ꮠ 䘐릤ઈ릤 䨸산릤 牨산䬬௘牨¶산 䘐릤ઈ릤 䨸산릤 릤牨௘

ઈ鯈 릤䬬릤릤 릤㽌ઈꮠ㧌산 산 㽌ઈ㧌릤 릤逄산산䬬ꮠ
왌௘
ઈ ɬꮠ 릤산 牨산䬬௘ ɬꮠ산 릤산 릤牨௘
ઈ牨¶Ⱈꮠ 䨸갬 牨산䬬௘ 牨¶ꮠ산䨸갬 릤牨௘

ઈ산䬬릤䬬 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 산 牨릤산 릤䬬ꮠ䬬산릤牨릤䘐ꮠ
௘
ઈ갬산¶䬬䬬ꮠꮠ 갬牨산䬬௘ 갬산䬬산 䬬ꮠꮠ 갬 릤牨௘
ઈ牨ꮠ¶ 릤산 牨산䬬௘ 牨ꮠ산 릤산 릤牨௘
ઈ牨¶䬬¶牨 સ䨸䬬ꮠ牨牨산䬬௘ 牨䬬¶牨산 સ䨸䬬ꮠ牨 릤牨௘
䨸牨릤

릤산 릤ꮠ릤ꮠ સ苨ꮠ䬬牨산릤  䨸牨릤

산ઈ산ꮠꮠ릤䬬
牨¶䨸 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤 산ꮠꮠ릤  ¶ 牨¶䨸ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬릤릤 릤산릤 ௘

સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸산
산¶ 산ꮠ릤 산ꮠꮠ릤  ¶ 산䬬ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 갬릤 ௘

ꮠ௘௘ 산ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬䘐ꮠ릤 ௘
䘐ꮠ릤௘௘
산䬬ꮠ 산ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤 䬬산 갬릤௘௘

魤릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산릤牨산릤  䨸牨릤
뀨௘
ઈ⟴gꮠ䘐¶ 䬬牨산䬬ꮠ 갬௘ ⟴gꮠ䘐ꮠ 䬬牨산௘
ઈ 䘐ꮠ䘐¶ 갬 䬬ꮠ 갬௘ 䘐ꮠ䘐 ꮠ 갬 ௘
苨갬릤릤牨릤 릤䘐릤릤 릤 䨸 산 릤산 릤ꮠ릤

સ 갬䀸 뀨

릤 䨸 산 릤 산 릤ꮠ릤 䬬 䘐 릤갬䨸산 牨䨸䨸산 갬릤릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤牨䬬 
䨸牨릤갬릤 릤산 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤
릤릤 ꮠ䬬䨸 산갬릤릤牨릤 ꮠ 䨸牨릤 산 갬릤 릤 릤䘐릤릤 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산 릤
䨸䬬 䨸䬬 릤䀸牨 ꮠ 䀸
ઈ䘐산 ¶ ઈꮠꮠ  릤ꮠ갬牨௘

௘

ઈ䘐산 산ꮠ산  릤ꮠ갬 䨸䬬릤௘
ઈ䨸산 ꮠ갬牨௘
ઈ 䨸䘐䘐산牨ꮠ 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ௘
ઈ ꮠ산牨¶ꮠ산 ⟴ 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ௘
릤牨산산ꮠ릤 牨 릤산 릤ꮠ릤 릤䬬  牨 ꮠ䬬산릤
Ὠ௘
ઈ 䨸䘐산 ꮠ산 䨸牨산௘¶牨¶ ꮠ
릤 䬬 릤 릤䀸௘ꮠ갬갬릤 산 牨릤
逄릤䬬 릤 릤䀸산릤ꮠ갬갬릤 산 牨릤

 산산릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬 산산 산 릤ꮠ릤牨산䀸䨸䀸ꮠ 릤산ꮠ 
릤 䨸 ꮠ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬Ꮰ 苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ સ苨 산릤 䘐 䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬 산牨릤䀸
산ꮠ䨸ꮠ릤산 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤

릤산ꮠ䨸ꮠ릤산 릤ꮠ릤

릤산ꮠ䨸ꮠ릤산 릤ꮠ릤䨸䬬䨸산䀸䨸䬬산 릤 릤 䨸 ꮠ牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬
௘
ઈꮠ 산䬬牨¶ 산 ꮠ 逄⟴牨릤갬 릤릤
ઈ牨䨸 산 䘐ꮠ산 逄苨 갬릤ꮠ  ꮠ牨릤

䘐릤릤 ꮠ 산  䬬䨸ઈ䬬산릤 릤 산 릤ꮠ릤 牨 ꮠ 䀸ꮠ 갬 릤 ꮠ䬬 릤릤牨릤 
릤 䬬䨸ઈ䬬산릤ꮠ䬬산릤 산 릤 릤릤 ꮠ릤 䬬䨸산 릤 산 ꮠ牨牨릤 ꮠ산릤䀸
산 릤 릤 䨸 ꮠ牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬
牐௘
ઈ䨸 산ꮠ牨䨸 ꮠ牨牨ꮠ
逄 ꮠ 릤 䬬䬬산릤ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬

릤릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤산 릤ꮠ릤

릤릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤산 릤ꮠ릤䨸䬬 릤ꮠ 릤산䬬산 릤 ꮠ산릤 牨릤牨릤 산䬬산
산 릤ꮠ릤牨릤牨릤
ઈ䨸 산 ¶฀산 ꮠ 䘐릤䘐릤릤 산䀸௘

뀨௘

ઈ⟴¶g 䨸牨฀䨸牨¶ 릤산ꮠ 릤 릤牨릤 ௘

릤 䬬ꮠꮠ 산 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산릤 ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산  산  魤 갬ꮠ䬬
 릤䬬晸 ꮠ릤 릤䀸 䨸 ꮠ 릤 릤 ꮠ산릤 릤 산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산갬릤릤 䘐ꮠ 릤
䨸䬬 릤䀸牨 ꮠ 䀸릤릤 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ牨ꮠ 䨸ꮠ릤 牨
뀨ퟰ௘
ઈɬ 릤 산⟴gꮠ䘐산逄ꮠ릤
ઈ䘐ꮠ 산 䘐ꮠ䘐 ꮠ 逄갬 䀸䬬
ઈ䘐ꮠ 산 ꮠ ꮠ 逄갬 䀸䬬

Verbal derivational morphology
苨ꮠ릤 䬬릤  릤牨 갬䀸 릤릤

릤 牨산ꮠ 릤ꮠ릤  ꮠ䬬䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬  릤 산牨ꮠ 릤 릤 牨산
릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산 릤 牨䬬䬬 䘐ꮠ 갬 산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬
산ꮠ 릤 䀸산 ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤牨 릤牨릤䬬 산산릤䬬䀸䬬릤牨산ꮠ산䀸산 ꮠ 릤  릤
릤산䬬릤牨䬬 릤ꮠ릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬牨산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬
릤ꮠ산䬬릤ꮠ산산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬산 릤산䬬䬬ꮠ릤릤산릤牨산ꮠ 䀸
 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬 䨸산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬ퟰ

산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬

산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤릤䬬산릤䨸䬬릤 릤 릤䬬䬬산䨸䬬산ꮠ䀸 산릤산ꮠ  산䨸䬬릤산
릤 릤௘ 릤䀸산릤 牨릤 ꮠ સ苨䀸ꮠ ꮠ 산ꮠ 산 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ સ릤
䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ산䀸 릤산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤ꮠ䬬 牨릤 䀸갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 릤䬬릤 䬬릤牨
 䬬 산  릤䬬䨸릤릤ꮠ ꮠ 䬬 산 산 牨䬬 릤산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤ꮠ䬬䨸䬬
牨릤 산 ꮠ 갬산 ꮠ 릤 산릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산산 ꮠ갬牨䬬
ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 릤 ꮠ릤산䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬 산 산릤 牨䬬 ꮠ릤릤갬䨸산 릤산
산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산릤  산릤산 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬௘ퟰ牐

ퟰ
릤릤 산릤 ꮠ릤 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬  릤 릤 ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬 릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤  ꮠ䬬
 산릤䘐릤䘐ꮠꮠ갬 릤산 䀸 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬ꮠ  ꮠ䬬릤산산䬬䬬

ퟰ牐
⟴릤릤산䨸릤 ퟰ牐牐왌௘ 꺸릤䬬릤릤䬬䬬䨸䬬䘐 ꮠ 산릤 릤 ꮠ 릤 산䬬ꮠ 䬬 산 산
䬬릤牨䬬ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤산䬬䘐 ꮠ 산 䬬 산 䬬산릤䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산䬬䨸 산䬬 ‫∂﵌‬꺸䨸晸∫∂
꺸䬬릤௘苨䬬꺸산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산릤 릤䬬 릤䀸릤 릤 릤산䬬䬬 릤䬬ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤
ꮠ䬬산 ꮠ산ꮠ䬬산䬬릤牨ꮠઈ䘐릤산䬬ꮠ 䘐ɬ∂ 꺸䬬산 䨸산 ∂䬬꺸 䀸 릤䀸
 䨸갬산릤ꮠ 산릤䀸䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산䘐산䀸릤갬䨸산릤䬬 䘐ꮠ 갬산䨸릤 ꮠꮠ ௘䬬릤牨䬬
䘐 䬬 산 산릤산䘐릤ꮠ 牨ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산릤산릤  산릤䬬릤牨䬬 릤갬ɬ산꺸
䬬산䀸晸산ζ꺸䬬릤௘ ꮠ䬬 릤 ꮠ ꮠꮠ 산 릤릤 릤 릤 릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬산䬬䘐릤
산꺸산  릤䨸산 䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬ꮠ산 꺸 䬬晸 산䘐ꮠ 릤䨸산산䬬 ꮠ산 ௘
苨䬬 릤산䬬산릤갬䀸ꮠ 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 릤 릤릤䬬 산 산릤 릤산릤 
산魤 산牨릤䬬 릤䬬릤 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬산릤 산꺸릤릤௘晸䬬산꺸 갬릤௘

Basic stem Derived Stem
ઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈઈ
苨 릤갬䨸산릤䬬
ퟰ ∂ 꺸릤䬬산릤 ∂∂逄牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤릤䬬산릤
∂ 꺸䘐ꮠ릤 ∂∂ 꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤䘐ꮠ릤
䬬牨릤 ꮠ 갬
왌갬∂䬬 꺸䬬ꮠ 䘐 갬∂∂䬬 꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 䀸䬬ꮠ
∫∂ 꺸 ꮠ  ∫∂∂ 꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 䀸 ꮠ 
뀨 ∂ 꺸릤 산䀸 ∂∂ 꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤 산䀸

∂䬬꺸 릤䬬䬬 ∂∂䬬꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤䘐릤산
Ὠ ∂ 꺸릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬 ∂∂꺸산䨸䬬릤䬬牨릤 䀸
릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬
릤산 릤䬬
ퟰ∂ 꺸䬬릤∂ ∂ 꺸릤 ꮠ牨

苨䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산릤 릤䬬
ퟰ ∂ 꺸 릤䬬릤 ∂∂ 산䨸䬬릤 릤䬬릤
䘐⟴∂꺸산ꮠ릤䘐∂⟴⟴∂꺸릤䬬

 산릤릤䬬
ퟰ 산꺸牨릤 릤䘐䘐릤산䨸䬬릤牨릤
산꺸 䨸䬬릤 릤릤꺸 䨸䬬릤䬬牨릤 릤
왌牨산꺸 ꮠ릤牨릤䘐䘐릤꺸산䨸䬬릤䬬牨릤 릤 ꮠ릤
산 꺸릤산 산ꮠ 릤䘐䘐릤 꺸 ꮠ갬 릤
뀨 산 꺸 산 릤릤 꺸산䨸䬬릤䬬牨릤 릤 산

魤릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬
산ɬ산꺸릤산 ɬ∂산꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤릤산
산꺸䨸 ∂산꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤䨸
산꺸릤산䘐∂∂꺸 릤릤 꺸

魤 릤ꮠ 䬬
ɬ∂∂꺸䬬릤산  릤ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤௘
∂∂䬬릤산꺸

苨  䬬ꮠ 릤산ꮠ  릤䬬릤 산산 산䘐䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 갬릤 릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ

릤 䬬䨸䨸릤  릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬 산ꮠ릤䬬 산 ꮠ 갬  릤 䬬 산릤  릤 산䬬ꮠ
䬬릤牨릤 릤산䀸ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬산릤산ꮠ 릤牨ꮠ 릤 릤䬬릤牨䬬ꮠ릤산䬬 䘐릤
䬬 䘐산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 䬬릤릤 릤䘐릤릤 릤 ꮠ䬬산 릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ산䬬ꮠ 산산䬬䬬릤䬬
릤 산릤 牨릤 ꮠ 릤 릤산 䬬릤牨䬬 ꮠ릤 릤갬䨸산  산릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산릤 산
릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬௘산 릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ산 䬬릤牨苨산 魤산릤 䨸릤
苨䬬 산릤 릤䬬 릤䘐릤산 ꮠ 릤산䬬ꮠ䬬릤牨 산 갬릤䬬 ꮠ  릤䬬릤牨ꮠ
䘐릤꺸䀸산 逄䘐 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬

뀨௘ 산→ ∂䘐䘐릤 牨릤௘
산→ ∂릤 갬릤 䨸䬬릤 ௘

䘐ꮠ 갬 산ꮠ ퟰ牐牐Ὠ௘䘐릤산䬬䬬䨸牨릤 산ꮠ 갬릤 릤산 릤䬬릤牨 산䬬
 䀸䘐  䬬 산 䬬 산 䨸갬 릤릤 산릤 䬬릤牨䬬䘐ꮠ 牨릤 산 䘐
 䬬 산 䬬䬬䨸 산䬬
뀨왌௘ 산牨→∂ 산牨 ꮠ릤䘐ꮠ 牨산릤௘
䬬牨산 →䬬∂牨牨릤 릤牨릤 산௘
 䨸→∂ ∂  ꮠ䬬릤ꮠ릤릤௘

 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬䀸릤갬산ꮠ릤릤䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬산 갬䨸산갬릤산 릤산䨸䬬산ꮠꮠ 릤 산䬬䬬 䘐
ꮠ
뀨௘산릤 산
逄 릤䬬 䘐牨릤릤
∂䘐䘐∂ઈ䨸 릤
산䨸䬬릤牨릤ઈ 릤䀸 릤䬬 䘐
逄 릤䀸牨릤릤 릤䬬 䘐

릤릤 ꮠ䬬산䀸䬬 릤䬬산牨릤牨 갬ꮠ산릤䀸산䬬 릤산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ릤
갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ  릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ산௘릤릤ꮠꮠ䬬 릤䘐릤산 산ꮠ䬬 릤릤
ꮠ 䘐산 ꮠ䬬 릤 갬릤牨ꮠ 산릤
ꮠ 릤갬산  릤 산䬬 산䬬䬬  릤 䬬릤牨䬬 ꮠ릤 릤 릤ꮠ릤 릤䬬
산 䨸갬 릤산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 牨ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 ꮠꮠ䬬䬬릤릤 산 릤䘐릤∂릤릤䬬
릤䬬산牨릤䬬ꮠꮠ ꮠ  릤산䬬ꮠ산 릤ꮠ릤 牨䬬

뀨뀨௘산ɬ산→ɬ∂산꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤릤산
산→z∂산 꺸산䨸䬬릤䬬牨릤 䀸䨸
산→䘐∂릤 꺸牨산릤䬬牨릤 릤릤산

릤 䀸 ꮠ 릤릤 릤릤䘐릤릤 릤산䬬ꮠ 牨산 ꮠ䬬릤䬬 ꮠ 갬산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤
릤 ꮠ䬬 산 릤 릤ꮠ릤 牨 ꮠ䬬 산牨산 ꮠ릤 䘐ꮠ 산 䬬 䘐산 䘐 ꮠ
ꮠ牨牨릤 ꮠ산릤䀸 䘐䬬 릤 ꮠ䬬산 ꮠ산 ꮠ릤산산릤䬬 릤䬬산牨릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산
릤牨산ꮠ 䬬䨸  산 갬릤 ꮠ  릤산䬬릤산 릤ꮠ릤 牨䬬ꮠ 뀨산ઈ௘ꮠꮠ䬬릤ꮠ 릤
ꮠ 뀨뀨௘ 鯈 릤 ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬 릤䀸  산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 릤䬬 ꮠ䬬 산 릤䀸 산 릤
릤ꮠ릤 牨릤ꮠ 릤 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤 ꮠ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤 릤䬬䘐릤릤 ꮠ 릤산䬬릤
산䬬릤 릤 牨䬬 릤䬬 ꮠ릤 갬릤䬬  䬬ꮠ 䘐 ௘晸 ζ릤䬬  䬬릤릤௘晸 릤 릤
산䀸௘ 릤䀸  릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤산 ꮠ릤릤苨 릤 릤牨 갬ꮠ산릤䬬䬬
 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 牨산ꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ릤 릤릤牨릤䬬산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤 릤 릤릤ɬ䨸ꮠꮠ 갬
산 ꮠ릤릤릤릤산릤䘐릤 산牨릤䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ 갬 ꮠ䬬ꮠ

뀨௘산 산ꮠ 릤ઈ䨸
꺸 릤 ꮠ 릤 산릤릤䬬산릤
∂ઈ䨸 산ꮠ
꺸 릤䀸 산릤牨산 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤 릤䬬산릤

苨  릤䬬산ꮠ릤 릤산䨸릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬䬬ꮠ䬬 산산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬산 릤ɬ䨸산䀸
릤 릤ꮠ릤 牨 䨸䬬산䬬䬬 䘐 릤䘐

뀨Ὠ௘산䬬ɬ산  ௘→䬬∂ɬɬ산 꺸산䨸䬬릤䬬牨릤 ꮠ 갬 산릤산
릤 갬 ௘→ ∂ ∂꺸갬ꮠ 晸릤䘐ꮠ 갬
ɬ䬬릤牨 산䬬 산릤 晸산산௘→ɬ릤䬬䬬릤牨꺸 ꮠꮠ 릤ꮠ 산䬬

苨산䬬릤䀸 산산릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬릤牨䬬ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠꮠ䬬
산 산 䨸갬 산䨸䬬산ꮠꮠ 산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산 갬䨸산갬릤  䬬ꮠ䬬䬬 ꮠ 牨䬬 산䬬릤䬬  릤
갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ  릤 䬬릤 산 ꮠ산  릤   릤릤䀸 릤 䘐ꮠ 산
릤 䨸ꮠ산릤 牨ꮠ 릤산 ꮠ산ꮠ䬬산 릤ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤⟴牨릤릤䬬 산릤릤 산䀸
릤䬬산牨릤牨 갬䀸산䬬 릤ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬䨸   릤䀸 ꮠ䬬牨릤산 ꮠ 갬
릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤 릤䘐릤릤 릤 䘐 ꮠ䬬 산 릤ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬 산릤 산  ઈ
산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䨸 릤산䘐 릤릤산䬬 릤 릤䀸릤 릤䬬 릤䬬  ꮠ 䬬산 릤
릤䬬 ꮠ릤 ∂∂릤䬬 릤산 산 ɬ∂∂ 䬬릤산 ௘ 산릤 산 牨ꮠ 릤 갬릤牨ꮠ 산릤
 䬬 산 䨸산릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬䘐릤릤䨸 䨸䬬 릤릤ꮠ䬬릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸
牨 갬ꮠ산䀸 릤ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬
 䬬䨸牨牨산ꮠ 릤 䘐릤 산릤 릤䬬릤 릤 산 산䨸  산䨸䬬산ꮠꮠ 산ꮠ 산䬬
산 ꮠ 䬬산 릤  산 ꮠ 산ꮠ ퟰ  산䬬 릤릤 䬬 䘐 산 䨸갬 산 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤

산 ꮠ 䬬ꮠ갬 䨸 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬ꮠ  ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬릤릤릤 牨산牨䨸 ퟰ牐牐뀨௘

ퟰ
릤牨산ꮠ ꮠ 䘐릤䘐산 䬬릤䬬䬬 릤릤ꮠ䬬 산䨸 ꮠ릤ꮠ સ苨魤 갬ꮠ䬬 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬산릤
 릤ꮠ릤 䀸 릤산 ꮠ 산ꮠ  산산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤산 ꮠ  릤릤ꮠ䬬산 릤 릤ꮠ릤 䀸
릤牨릤 ꮠ 갬산䬬릤 릤 릤산산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤릤 ꮠ 䬬산 릤䘐릤산 䬬산䀸
릤 ꮠ 릤 䘐릤산릤릤
릤牨산 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ릤 릤릤릤
뀨 苨산牨牨산 સ산 苨산ꮠ
牨䬬산릤䬬䨸䨸릤 산 ꮠ 갬 릤 牨䬬 릤ꮠ䬬릤牨䬬 산산  䬬ꮠ䬬
릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬릤牨ꮠ 산ꮠ  릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ산 릤ꮠ ꮠ 산ꮠ 산 릤
 산 갬릤 릤䘐릤산ꮠ 산䬬릤牨ꮠ䘐릤䘐䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 䨸릤

릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬산 릤 릤 ꮠ릤산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ

릤䬬릤 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬 䬬ꮠ 릤산릤 릤릤 릤 ꮠ릤산
릤릤 릤 ꮠ릤산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ સ苨 릤 릤 ꮠ릤릤䬬 산릤 牨릤  릤산䬬ꮠ䬬
릤산릤  산Ö릤㮴 ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬 릤䬬ꮠ䬬산ꮠ 릤 䀸 릤산 䨸 ꮠ  릤
릤 ꮠ ઈ 릤䬬릤牨 릤䬬산릤 ꮠ릤릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬산䬬ꮠ
뀨௘
릤ɬ ꮠꮠ 릤௘ → 릤ɬ 릤䬬ꮠ௘
s 릤 䘐ꮠ 산䘐௘→ 䬬산 릤 䘐ꮠ 산䘐 ꮠ牨䬬릤 ௘
릤牨 릤 릤산௘→ 산 릤牨 릤 릤 릤산릤 ௘
산 릤산௘ →∂ ∂산 䘐산䬬릤산릤 ௘
릤 䬬 䘐௘→ 산∂ 릤 ꮠ䬬릤릤 ௘
∂ɬ 䬬산௘→ 산∂ɬ 牨산릤산 릤䬬䬬산௘

릤䬬ꮠ 릤䬬 릤 릤 ꮠ 산ꮠ  ꮠ ꮠ䬬䘐 릤牨 산䬬ꮠ ꮠ 갬 릤릤 릤 릤 
ꮠ ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤䬬 䘐릤릤ꮠ䬬릤산릤 䀸 릤䘐릤산ꮠ 릤산릤산䬬릤䬬
䬬산 ∂ 산 산 ∂牨  릤 산牨릤 릤  산    릤 릤 릤 ꮠ릤 산 릤
牨ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 릤 䬬산牨릤 牨䬬䨸 산䬬 릤  꺸릤ꮠ 갬 릤산릤 䬬릤릤  릤산䀸ꮠ
ퟰ牐牐 산릤 갬 䀸 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬ꮠ  ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤௘ ꮠ䬬릤䬬릤ꮠꮠ䬬䘐 䀸
릤 산 ⟴산 산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 산 갬릤산 ꮠ 䨸릤 릤  릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ
牨 갬ꮠ산䬬䀸䬬릤牨䘐 릤릤䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 릤ɬ산 산릤 릤ꮠ산䬬릤 牨䬬ꮠ
સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤䬬 ꮠ릤 산릤 ꮠ䬬산릤산௘晸 산 ∂牨 릤 릤산릤 ௘
䘐릤릤 䬬릤릤牨   릤 牨牨 䀸䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 릤ꮠ 䬬ꮠ牨릤 산䬬릤௘ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤
牨ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ산䬬ꮠ 릤 릤牨
릤산릤  ꮠ䬬䬬䨸䨸릤 릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ䬬 산 릤䬬ઈ산릤 릤 릤 ꮠ릤
산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬  릤䬬산릤 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산산 ꮠ갬牨ꮠ
뀨牐௘ 䬬∂ 산 릤산 ௘ 䬬 ∂䘐 산  산릤 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬 산릤 ௘
䬬릤 ∂牨 릤牨䀸௘ 䬬∂ζ∂ 릤 䬬산릤௘

릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤 릤䘐릤릤 魤 갬ꮠ䬬 산 સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 䨸릤䬬  릤
牨 갬ꮠ산 산䨸릤  릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 牨 릤牨릤  릤 牨릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산 릤릤
牨 릤牨릤 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 산 䬬䨸 산릤 牨 갬ꮠ산䀸  ꮠ䬬 䘐  릤 산릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산
䨸牨 릤牨릤릤ɬ䨸ꮠꮠ 갬䬬牨릤릤 ꮠ산산릤갬䀸䘐 ꮠ ꮠ 산䬬산산 晸ꮠ릤ꮠ
산䬬산산  릤䬬릤牨

릤릤䀸산릤䀸䬬산䀸 릤 산牨릤 ∂牨 릤 릤산௘䨸 릤릤䬬 ꮠ 갬릤 릤 ꮠ릤
牨䬬산릤산 릤 릤ɬ䨸릤 䀸䨸䬬릤 ꮠ ⟴산 산 苨산ꮠ

સ 갬䀸 뀨ퟰ
릤산릤릤 산牨릤䬬산릤 릤ꮠ릤  릤산릤  䬬∂fζ㮴 䬬∂fζ릤㮴䘐릤
산릤산䬬ꮠ牨릤릤갬䨸산릤 牨 릤㮴산ꮠꮠ릤산릤갬䨸산䬬릤牨䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
산 ꮠ 릤 릤 릤 ꮠ 䬬∂㮴鯈 릤산䬬ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬䘐릤산 릤ꮠ릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
牨䬬ꮠ ௘

௘
䬬∂∂ 릤산갬산 ௘
䬬∂䘐 산 산릤 릤산牨䨸  牨 릤䀸 산 릤
릤䬬릤릤䬬௘
䬬∂ 산 릤산ꮠ릤 ௘
산→䬬릤 산 릤산 ௘
䬬산ζ ∂r→ 릤 䨸䬬릤 릤䬬릤 ௘
䬬∂ ∂牨䨸ꮠꮠ 릤௘
ζ∂d→䬬∂ζ∂ 릤 ꮠ௘
g ∂r→䬬g ∂  갬ꮠ릤௘
䘐∂ ∂r→䬬∂䘐 ∂  릤산䀸௘
䬬∂䘐산 산릤䀸 릤௘
ɬ∂ ∂r→䬬∂ɬ ∂ ௘

릤䬬릤 牨䬬 산릤 牨䬬䀸䨸䬬릤 䀸 릤 䨸산릤 릤릤 䨸䘐 릤 䨸䬬릤 䀸  ઈ
릤 䨸산릤 릤䬬 䬬 릤 릤 牨릤牨  牨릤산 릤䬬ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 䬬릤산  䬬산䀸ꮠ 갬
䬬∂γ ∂䘐릤 릤산 릤䘐 䬬∂γ ∂ ꮠ䬬 릤 牨릤  䘐 ꮠ 릤 릤䬬 릤
산릤 산ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤 䬬䨸䬬ꮠ䬬 릤 ꮠ સ䬬산ꮠ ퟰ牐왌왌௘릤산
䘐ꮠ 릤䬬릤산 릤 牨릤  ꮠ ⟴릤牨ꮠꮠ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬  릤 산䬬릤  릤 릤 릤 ꮠ릤
산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤ꮠꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 䀸 릤ꮠ ꮠ 산ꮠ  㮴ꮠ 릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ산䘐 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
ꮠ 䬬릤릤 䨸릤산䨸䬬릤 릤牨릤산 릤䬬ꮠ䬬 릤산 ꮠ 㮴ꮠ䬬산 릤 ꮠ릤䨸릤 릤
릤 䬬 산 䬬㮴௘苨䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산 릤 牨릤  ꮠ䬬䬬릤릤 ꮠ 릤릤䘐산 ⟴䀸ꮠ산
苨산ꮠ산䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ 릤 산牨릤䬬 산ઈ௘

௘산릤릤䘐꺸 ꮠ산牨牨릤 꺸릤䘐산䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬갬䨸산
‘’ ꮠ산牨牨릤

⟴䀸ꮠ산 苨산ꮠ꺸/릤䬬릤牨e꺸릤릤산 릤 꺸
꺸/릤䬬릤牨릤
牨સ䬬산ꮠퟰ牐왌왌௘

ꮠ䬬 릤 牨릤  산䬬સ䬬산ꮠ ꮠꮠ ௘䬬릤릤䬬䨸䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䬬䘐 䬬릤 ꮠ䬬
산 ꮠ산ꮠ䬬산 릤 산산산산ઈ산릤산 ꮠ산ꮠ릤

릤ꮠ산릤䬬

릤 䨸䬬 䘐䬬 ꮠ 릤산릤 ꮠ  릤ꮠ산 릤䬬 ꮠ䬬 산릤갬䀸 
릤䬬 ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤䬬 릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 갬 릤 ꮠ 릤산  牨䨸䨸산ꮠ䀸  릤  산 갬릤
산 䀸䬬릤산ꮠ 갬௘ 릤ꮠ산 릤䬬 산릤 산ꮠ 릤 䀸 릤 릤 ꮠ ઈ 䘐 ꮠ
ꮠ 릤릤 산䀸䬬산䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ산릤ꮠ 䬬릤릤산릤산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 릤䬬䬬릤䬬䬬䨸 산䬬
릤 릤 ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤 릤 릤 릤ꮠ산 ꮠ䬬 릤갬䨸산릤 䀸  릤 산ꮠ
릤牨䨸산ꮠ 䬬䘐ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䘐 ꮠ䬬릤 산 릤 䬬䨸䨸릤 䘐 릤릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 
ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬ꮠ 䬬산 릤䬬

௘산 ઈ 산ઈ䨸
릤ꮠ산산 ꮠ ꮠ 릤䀸
꺸 릤䀸 ꮠ릤산  릤
ઈ 산∂牨ζ산 ઈ산
逄릤 䨸갬 산갬산ꮠ 䬬䨸䬬
산산 릤산䬬ꮠ 牨௘
산산䘐 ઈ䨸→ 릤䀸䬬산䘐릤산  릤
산산 牨ઈ牨ζ산ઈ 산
꺸릤산 릤 산 산갬릤릤牨릤 䘐ꮠ 릤
릤 산 ∂牨ઈ 산
꺸릤 산릤산갬릤릤
산산 牨ઈ
꺸䬬 릤䨸 릤䬬산 䬬

릤 산릤 산산 䬬 䘐 산 릤 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 牨산䀸  牨산䀸  릤 릤䬬릤
䘐릤릤䘐 릤 릤릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산 산䬬릤ꮠ䬬 䨸䬬릤 릤ꮠꮠ䀸ꮠ䬬䬬산릤 䀸
릤 산 ꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ산 산 ꮠ ௘ 갬릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 䨸산 䬬䨸릤 牨산릤
鯈 릤䘐ꮠ䬬릤 䬬릤 릤 릤 ௘ 䘐䨸 릤 䨸 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산  ꮠ䬬 릤 산牨릤
산 䨸갬 릤 릤ꮠ산 산 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤䬬릤 산 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산 산䬬릤ꮠ䬬 릤릤 릤 
 릤䀸 릤ꮠ 릤산 릤ꮠꮠ䀸
릤 릤ꮠ산 牨 ꮠ䬬 산ꮠ 릤 䀸 릤 릤 ꮠ 산ꮠ  ઈ 산 릤
䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ  䨸  산 ꮠ 산 ꮠꮠ  릤 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ  릤 䬬 䘐산 산 릤 릤
䬬릤 산 ꮠ산 산 릤 ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  릤 䘐릤 산 산 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 산 ꮠ산 산䬬
⟴산산 䨸 릤䀸 산릤牨산 릤릤산릤௘
魤ɬ䨸산䀸ꮠ牨산 ꮠ䬬 릤 산 산 산릤릤䬬 릤꺸 산꺸산릤
릤산ꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ릤ꮠ산 牨䬬䀸 릤ꮠ ꮠ 산ꮠ  릤䬬릤牨ꮠ䘐릤䘐산 릤 릤
䘐릤산릤䬬ꮠ 릤䬬 릤산 ꮠ 산ꮠ  산 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ  䨸산䬬ꮠ䬬 릤산䬬릤䘐ꮠ
릤릤산䬬꺸ꮠ䬬䬬䘐 䬬릤릤ꮠ산 牨ꮠ䬬산䘐䬬ઈ䨸꺸 릤䀸ꮠ䬬䬬릤 릤산
 릤
苨䬬 䬬릤牨䬬 릤 ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 산산䬬ꮠ ζ산 䬬䨸릤௘ꮠꮠ䬬䬬릤릤 산 릤
ꮠ ꮠꮠ산  䬬 산  㮴 ꮠ ퟰઈὨ௘ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ 갬 릤 릤 릤 ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤  릤
릤 릤 ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 산ζꮠ ઈ산 䘐릤 산릤 䬬䨸릤 릤산  릤௘ 산 산ζꮠ ઈ산 牨ζ산
䨸牨䘐릤 산릤䬬䨸릤 릤산  릤௘ 릤 ꮠ䬬산 ꮠ산䬬릤牨 릤牨릤䬬 䨸릤 산䬬
산 릤䬬䨸  릤갬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 䘐 릤릤䀸 릤 릤ꮠ산 산 ꮠ 㮴  산 갬릤䬬
ꮠ  산䬬 산 릤䬬䨸  산䬬䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산ꮠ 릤 산䬬릤 牨 ζ산 ꮠ䬬 산 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤 릤
䘐 릤릤산䬬 릤 䘐 릤ꮠ릤 牨䬬 산ζꮠ ઈ산 산 산ζꮠ ઈ산 牨ζ산 䨸牨 산릤
ꮠ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤䬬

સ 갬䀸 뀨왌
䨸䬬 산 䘐릤 산릤 䬬 䘐 䘐 산 ꮠ 산ꮠ 산䀸䬬 산 릤 산 릤 ꮠ 산
䨸牨릤  릤산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산릤䬬䬬릤䬬ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ쀔 ꮠ릤 릤
산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 산牨 릤牨릤䬬산릤牨䬬䀸 䬬 산 산䬬
䬬릤릤⟴산 ꮠɬꮠퟰ牐牐牐 릤릤௘ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤牨 릤牨릤䬬 산산릤
䬬䀸䬬릤牨산ꮠ산䀸산 ꮠ 릤  릤릤산䬬릤牨䬬산릤  䬬 산 산산 산ꮠ
苨  릤䬬ꮠꮠ 갬릤䨸ꮠ산ꮠ䀸 릤산 릤ꮠ산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ䬬산 갬䨸산갬릤ꮠ䬬 산 릤
䬬䨸䨸릤䬬  산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬 릤ꮠ산䬬 릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬 산 릤 릤 ꮠ릤 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤䬬
산䀸산 ꮠ 갬 릤䬬 산릤  릤 산䬬ꮠ䬬릤牨䘐 ꮠ 릤 산ꮠ 䬬 릤 ꮠ 릤䬬䬬
산 릤갬䨸산ꮠ䀸 릤䨸릤䬬ꮠ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬릤䬬䬬
Nominal inflection

릤 牨ꮠ 산 산릤갬䀸 산ɬ䨸ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ䬬 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산 산䨸릤 䀸牨릤산 䬬 
ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산牨 릤牨릤䬬 릤릤산릤 릤릤䀸릤䬬 ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬
산 산릤

ퟰ릤 릤 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
䨸牨릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸산䨸산௘
왌䬬산릤 릤릤䬬산릤산  䬬䨸䬬산릤௘

ꮠ릤 ꮠ䬬 릤릤ꮠ䬬 산 䨸릤 ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬䘐 ꮠ 산 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 ꮠ
릤산ꮠ  릤 䘐산䀸 갬릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 릤산ꮠ 릤 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산  릤
ꮠ 릤릤 䬬䬬ꮠ릤 牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬산ꮠ 䬬  䨸牨릤 ꮠ 릤 산 갬䨸산갬릤 䨸 릤
 䬬ꮠ 릤산ꮠ 릤릤 산牨ꮠ 릤릤산 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤ꮠ 䨸

릤 릤

 䨸 릤 䨸 릤 ꮠ䬬 산䬬䬬  牨ꮠ 산䬬 산릤 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 산
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬산릤ꮠ 릤릤 갬릤 릤산 릤ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ સ苨 
 산릤 산 ꮠ ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 갬릤 릤 릤산䨸릤 릤 갬릤 릤 릤산䨸릤 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ牨䬬릤 
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬䀸산갬릤릤牨릤 䘐ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬

⟴䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬

 ꮠ䬬 산ꮠ䀸䘐릤ઈ 䘐 산牨 갬 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산 䬬  산릤 ퟰ牐왌 산
산䨸릤ퟰ牐牐왌௘ 산릤산 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤ꮠ સ苨 산䬬ꮠ䬬䘐 갬릤 릤苨䬬산牨산릤
산산 䨸䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬산 갬䨸산갬릤산릤산릤갬ꮠ 릤 ꮠ  릤 릤䘐산䬬䬬릤䬬
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ௘ꮠ䬬牨牨 䀸산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ
릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬䘐릤릤 ꮠ䬬갬릤 릤산ꮠ䬬산ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤 산릤ꮠ 릤䬬릤 䬬릤
산䬬牨릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬牨산䀸 릤 ꮠ 산 ௘ꮠ 릤䬬산牨릤䘐산䀸 산䘐릤산
ꮠ  릤 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ ઈ산௘સ릤䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ산䀸 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ 산䬬
 릤 䨸 ꮠ 䬬 산 牨산ꮠ 갬 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤갬릤 릤ꮠ䬬 릤 산牨릤산릤䬬릤 ꮠ
릤 牨산ꮠ  䬬牨릤 릤ꮠ릤 䨸䬬 䨸䬬  릤ꮠ릤䨸 ꮠ䀸௘ 릤산
䨸䬬 䨸䬬 䨸 ꮠɬ䨸릤산ꮠ 䬬산 릤산ꮠ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䨸산䬬 ꮠ䬬䬬릤ꮠ
릤 䨸䬬ꮠ䬬䨸 릤 ꮠ 릤릤 䨸䬬릤䬬 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ 䘐ꮠ 릤산ꮠ牨䘐䨸
릤ꮠ 산ꮠ산 릤 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ䀸 릤䬬릤 䨸 ꮠ 䬬

릤牨산䨸䬬릤䬬 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ௘

鯈 릤 ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬  산산릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ  ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ௘ ꮠ䬬 산 䘐 릤
산 ꮠ ꮠ 갬산산ꮠꮠ ꮠꮠ산䬬䨸 ꮠ 䘐 릤 䨸ꮠ 산ꮠ산ꮠ䬬 䘐ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
䘐 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ  릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤갬릤 릤릤ઈ산릤산䬬  릤䬬산릤 릤 䬬ꮠꮠ
 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬릤 릤 산牨릤䬬

왌௘  ꮠ ꮠ䬬산ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ䬬

ઈ牨산갬산 ઈ산 산䘐산 ௘→牨산갬산 ઈꮠ 牨䀸䘐산 ௘
ઈ ꮠ䬬ઈ산 산산릤௘→ ꮠ䬬ઈ䨸 ꮠ䬬산릤௘
ઈꮠ ઈ산  䨸௘→ꮠ ઈ䨸 ꮠ䬬 䨸௘
ઈꮠઈ산 산 ꮠ갬 ௘→ꮠઈɬ산 릤Ὠ 산䀸 산牨산 산 ௘
ઈ릤산ઈ산 산릤산산௘→릤산ઈ산 牨䀸 산 릤䬬릤산산௘
ઈ牨산 산䘐牨산 䘐ꮠ 릤௘→牨산ζ산牨牨ꮠ 牨䀸䨸 릤䬬䘐ꮠ 릤௘

릤릤 산牨릤䬬산릤릤䨸ꮠ 산릤 릤 산 산 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산
릤갬䨸산䀸 산 갬릤 릤산ꮠ 릤 릤산ꮠ 갬䬬䬬릤䬬䬬ꮠ릤릤 ꮠ 갬䬬䨸ꮠ 갬
산䬬 릤 ꮠ䬬 䨸  산 䬬䨸䬬산릤

릤 릤牨산릤䬬

릤산ꮠ 牨산릤산 ꮠ牨산䬬산릤䬬릤  릤ꮠ 릤牨산릤䬬䀸 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ
산 ௘왌

௘
સ산릤산 ꮠ牨산䬬 릤牨산릤산 ꮠ牨산䬬

ɬ∂ ɬ∂ 산 산산௘
산 산산 산牨䨸䬬릤௘
∂ ∂ઈ산 산 갬௘

⟴牨릤 牨산릤 산 릤牨산릤 산牨릤䬬 산릤 䘐릤릤 릤䬬ꮠ갬 산릤 䀸䘐 䬬  산
ꮠ 릤릤 䀸䘐산䀸 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤

왌
સ산 苨산ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ릤 릤  릤䬬  산릤 산 산ꮠ릤 릤 ꮠꮠ䀸 ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬
갬릤 릤 牨산산ꮠ릤䨸䬬릤䬬 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬

릤  䨸 릤ꮠ䨸릤ઈ䨸 릤 릤䨸 ઈ䨸 릤릤
સ산 苨산ꮠ 牨ꮠ산 ઈ䘐릤 산 ઈ릤䬬䘐산

સ 갬䀸 뀨뀨
뀨௘ 산산 산 ꮠ릤 ௘→ ∂䨸 산௘
릤갬산 산䘐௘→  산䨸௘

苨  릤䨸䬬릤 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ䬬 릤 릤  산牨릤䬬  䨸산ꮠ 산
산 䬬산䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 ꮠ ௘

산牨릤䬬 鯈䨸산ꮠ સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 牨 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 牨

ꮠ ꮠઈ산산牨릤 ꮠ산 ௘
牨䨸ζ산ꮠ牨牨䨸ζ산ꮠ牨ઈ산 산릤산 릤௘
산牨릤䬬 산 䬬 ∂산 ∂산 ઈ산 산௘
릤䬬䬬산牨 ∂䬬䬬산牨ઈ산 산산ꮠ 릤௘
릤䀸䀸산 릤䀸䀸산 ઈ산 산산ꮠ௘

릤 ꮠ  릤  䨸䬬릤 ઈ산 ௘ꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤 牨산ꮠ  릤ꮠ릤 䨸䬬鯈
릤 산䬬ꮠ䬬  릤ꮠ릤 䨸䬬 䨸䬬 ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬 산 䨸 ꮠ  릤 릤산 릤 ꮠ䀸
릤 릤䬬䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 릤릤ꮠ릤ꮠ䬬 牨릤 ꮠ산 릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ઈ௘릤릤산릤䬬牨릤
ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ릤릤 산牨릤䬬
Ὠ௘
릤ꮠ릤䨸䬬 䨸䬬 쀔 ꮠ䬬

갬∂ 䘐䬬௘ ∂갬ઈ산 산䘐௘
牨릤 산 䬬௘ ∂牨ઈ산 산 ௘
⟴∂  ꮠ ௘ ∂⟴ઈ산 산  ꮠ ௘

牨산ꮠ  릤릤산 䨸䬬

릤산 䨸䬬 산릤 牨ꮠ 산 牨䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤䬬  ꮠ䨸䬬산릤
ꮠ䬬 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산산 ꮠ갬牨
௘
릤䬬 릤산䨸䬬

릤 ∂ ꮠ䨸牨ꮠ䬬릤௘ 산산 ꮠ䨸牨ꮠ䬬ꮠ ௘
∂  ꮠ릤௘ 산 릤산 䀸ꮠ 갬௘
γ䬬릤 䘐산䬬 ௘ γ䬬ꮠ 릤산 䘐산䬬 ꮠ 갬௘
릤 ꮠ 릤௘ 䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘
⟴산牨  산䬬௘ 산牨 산䬬ꮠ 갬௘
산 䨸ꮠ ௘ ꮠ 䨸ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘
산 릤 ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 ௘ ∂ 산 릤 ꮠ ꮠ ௘
산 산 릤 䨸䬬릤 ௘ 牨 산 ઈ산  䨸䬬ꮠ ௘
ɬ⟴∂牨  ꮠꮠ 릤௘ ɬ⟴ꮠ牨 산ꮠꮠ ௘
∂  ꮠ௘ ∂ ꮠꮠ 갬௘
d ∂ 산䨸갬 ௘ ∂  산䨸갬 ꮠ 갬௘

⟴牨릤 릤산 䨸䬬 䘐릤릤 牨산䀸 산릤 릤 䬬산牨릤 牨 산䬬 릤ꮠ
릤䬬 ꮠ 갬릤䬬 ꮠ 䬬산 릤
릤릤 γ∂  릤산௘ 릤산䨸 γ∂  릤산ꮠ 갬௘

 ꮠ䬬 䬬릤릤 산 릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산䬬䬬  릤산 䨸䬬牨산䀸
䬬릤릤  䬬릤 릤 산䬬산 䨸䬬 ꮠ릤 䨸牨 꺸 릤산牨 릤 릤ꮠ 갬  릤
䘐 릤 릤䬬䬬 ꮠ 갬릤 릤산  산 䨸 ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬 산 䨸 ꮠɬ䨸릤 산ꮠ  산
산ꮠ䨸산䨸릤 릤 산 산ꮠ 릤 산  ꮠ䬬산䬬릤 릤릤 릤牨 牨
䘐 ꮠ 릤 䨸䨸牨ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 산 산릤산  릤릤산 牨ꮠ 산 牨 
䬬牨릤 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬ꮠ  릤릤산牨릤  릤산 䨸䬬䬬릤릤산䨸릤ퟰ牐牐왌௘
牐௘
릤산⟴릤牨 산牨릤 苨ꮠ  ꮠꮠ 䨸산쀔 ꮠɬ䨸릤苨

⟴산 ∂ 산릤௘⟴ ∂ 산릤௘⟴∂ 산 산ꮠ௘
∂ ꮠ 릤௘䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘∂산 산ꮠ 릤ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘
∂  ꮠ௘∂ ꮠꮠ 갬௘∂ઈ산 산 ꮠ௘
∂ɬ 䬬ꮠ௘ ꮠɬ 䬬ꮠꮠ 갬௘ ∂ ɬઈ산 산䬬ꮠ௘

ઈ산 ௘䘐ꮠ 릤䨸산 સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤⟴䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬

릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산산 산䬬릤䨸䬬릤 산 갬牨ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ  릤䬬릤牨䬬
릤牨ꮠ 릤䨸산 릤산ꮠ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ 䨸䬬 릤䬬ꮠ갬 산ꮠ 갬
䨸산ꮠ 䬬 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 䬬  릤 갬릤갬산 ꮠ산 산릤䬬 牨䘐 ꮠ 산 릤䬬
牨릤䬬갬릤갬산ꮠ산산릤䬬릤 릤ꮠ 갬릤릤䬬갬릤갬산 ꮠ산ꮠ갬ꮠ 
ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬

Ὠ௘
䨸산  산牨릤䬬  릤갬산 ꮠ산 鯈ꮠ갬ꮠ 䨸산 䨸䬬 릤 릤ꮠ 갬 
ꮠ䬬ઈ산௘ 䨸산ꮠ 䬬
⟴⟴∂ 산䘐ꮠ→⟴∂ 산䘐산 릤릤牨ꮠ 갬 牨 갬∂ 산→갬∂ 산ઈ산 䨸 릤 䬬௘௘
릤⟴산 산산௘
릤ઈꮠ→산ઈ산 릤릤ꮠꮠ 갬ꮠ 逄산산ꮠ
릤 릤䬬 સ௘

ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬산릤 ꮠ ⟴산 산 苨산ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬산⟴릤릤 릤䬬릤ꮠ 릤릤  ꮠ䬬 ꮠ
સ 갬䀸 뀨Ὠ
苨䬬  산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 릤䀸산 牨 릤ꮠ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤갬릤 릤 䀸 릤산 䨸 ꮠ 
릤䬬䨸 ꮠ ઈ산 ௘ 릤牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 牨릤ꮠ 갬산ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤
䨸䬬산갬릤  䬬산ꮠ 䬬  릤 ꮠ 갬 릤 릤牨䨸산ꮠ  䬬  䘐릤䬬  䬬ꮠ 릤
릤䬬릤릤 산牨릤䬬ꮠ Ὠ௘
Ὠ௘
સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤

∂ 릤 산 릤䬬  릤릤䬬릤௘ ∂ 산 ꮠ산 릤䬬䨸릤
䨸 산ꮠ 산  䨸릤௘ ∂䬬䘐산산산 산  릤䬬䬬௘

苨ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤

䬬산∂ɬ꺸䨸 ꮠ 갬 䬬산ɬ산 䨸 ꮠ 갬௘
산∂ 꺸䘐ꮠ 릤牨산䬬 산 산꺸䘐ꮠ 릤 릤牨

릤 牨산ꮠ ꮠ 䘐릤 䘐산  䬬릤䬬䬬 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 릤  산 갬릤  릤 䬬  䘐릤䬬 릤
산 ꮠꮠ  릤䬬릤牨ꮠ䘐릤ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䨸 릤산
 䬬  ꮠ 산 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 갬 릤 䘐산䀸 갬릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 릤산ꮠ 릤 ꮠ સ산
苨산ꮠ 䘐릤 산릤 牨릤  릤  䨸䬬ꮠ 산 산 䨸䬬 산릤 산릤갬ꮠ 릤 산䬬
릤 갬ꮠ 갬 릤 䘐산䬬䬬릤䬬牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤  릤릤牨䬬 릤
䬬䨸 ꮠ 산䨸䬬䨸산䀸산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤갬릤 릤ꮠ䬬릤릤산릤  ꮠ䬬산䀸
산 䨸牨릤  ꮠ 릤릤 䨸䬬릤䬬  ꮠ릤 릤 牨산ꮠ䀸 䨸䬬 릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ ઈ산 ௘산릤
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 릤갬 ∂산௘牨䬬 릤 䨸䬬䘐 ꮠ  릤 ꮠ 산산릤牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤
䬬䨸 산䬬γ릤산 산௘苨 릤䘐 䨸䬬 䘐릤릤 릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산산릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤
ꮠ릤 산 䨸 산䬬 ௘晸 산 산 䨸䬬릤௘뀨 릤산䬬 릤 릤 䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸
 릤ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤 䨸산 牨산ꮠ

䨸牨릤

릤 릤 릤牨산ꮠ 갬  릤 산 산䀸䬬ꮠ䬬  릤 䘐산䀸䨸산 牨산ꮠ
릤䬬䬬릤䬬산릤산ꮠ릤 䨸산 䘐 산䨸 릤 䨸 ꮠ  릤산릤갬䀸䨸牨릤
ꮠ䬬 ꮠ  릤 릤릤 산릤 릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ산䀸䘐 䨸牨릤䬬 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 산 릤 䨸산
 산 䨸䬬 산릤 䘐릤릤 䬬䨸릤  릤䬬릤 䘐 牨䬬鯈 릤  릤 산
릤산ꮠ 牨ꮠ 산䬬 산릤산릤 산䀸䬬䀸䬬릤牨䨸릤 릤릤 ꮠ䬬릤 릤 릤 䨸산 牨
苨䬬릤ꮠ릤䬬  牨ꮠ 산䬬  릤  릤 산 산릤  䀸  릤 䬬䬬ꮠ릤 牨 릤
䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䘐 산 䘐䬬䘐릤 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬릤산  릤䬬릤산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ 䨸

牨ꮠ 산䬬䘐ꮠ 䨸䨸산䬬

뀨
苨 ꮠ 갬  산릤 ퟰ牐왌௘ 릤䬬릤릤산ꮠ릤䀸 릤䘐 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬䘐 ꮠ 
릤 ꮠ 산산릤산䨸산䀸릤 릤ꮠ 䬬산 牨䨸䬬릤䬬ꮠ牨䀸牨릤牨ꮠ 릤 䀸䬬릤산릤䬬
સ산 苨산ꮠ

ꮠ䬬 산릤갬䀸  牨ꮠ 산䬬 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ  䨸산 牨䬬 산릤 산릤䬬릤 ꮠ䬬
 䬬ꮠ䨸릤  릤ꮠ릤 䨸䬬 릤ꮠ릤䬬 릤 산릤 산䬬䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬 ꮠ릤 릤䀸
䬬 䘐䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 산갬릤릤牨릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 릤䬬 산 산 산 ꮠ  䨸䬬௘ 릤䀸
릤䬬ꮠ갬 산릤 갬䨸䬬  ꮠ ꮠꮠ 䨸산䬬  릤䬬䨸 릤䬬 산䬬 산 䘐 릤  산䬬 산
릤ꮠ  릤릤牨릤 䬬䬬䨸 산䬬䨸ꮠ䬬릤갬릤산릤䬬ꮠꮠ 갬산 ꮠ牨산䬬ꮠ 갬䨸䬬
릤䘐ꮠ 䬬릤䬬릤魤 산牨릤䬬 ꮠ䬬산릤갬䀸산릤
Ὠ௘
∂ 산 䨸릤௘ 산  ௘
䬬牨∂ 릤䬬릤릤 䨸릤௘ ɬ ∂  ௘
⟴䨸䘐௘ ꮠ 䬬ꮠ௘

 릤 䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 릤䨸산䬬牨릤 릤䬬릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬산ꮠ 산牨 갬ꮠ산
牨䘐ꮠ 산릤䀸산ꮠ䨸산牨릤산 ꮠ 갬 산䬬릤릤䬬牨산ꮠ 릤 䬬ꮠ䀸સ릤릤
릤䀸산릤䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 릤릤 산牨산ꮠ릤ɬ䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ릤 산 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬 䘐牨䨸 ௘산䬬
ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬
Ὠ왌௘
산 산 䬬牨䨸 산 릤䘐䘐∂ઈꮠ
꺸꺸 산산 릤䬬릤릤 䨸릤䀸䨸 산릤牨릤릤 
산 릤 䀸䀸䨸ꮠઈ
꺸꺸 산산 ꮠ䀸䨸 산릤䨸갬 

ꮠ릤 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산릤  갬릤 릤산䀸䨸산ꮠ 릤  릤 릤䀸 산릤 릤
䨸산 牨ꮠ䬬牨릤산 릤ꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ 릤산 ꮠ 릤 䬬ꮠ䀸
 䘐 산 䘐䬬䘐릤  䬬ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬 산ꮠ 갬 산 릤 산䀸䬬䀸䬬릤牨 ꮠ䬬
산䬬䬬  䨸䬬 ꮠ䬬  산갬릤ꮠ 䨸牨릤 릤䀸산릤ꮠ牨ꮠ릤 ꮠ 䨸牨릤 산 산릤
䨸䬬릤  릤䬬ꮠ갬 산릤 䨸 ꮠ䬬  ꮠ牨릤 牨릤산䬬䨸릤䬬苨 릤  릤䬬ꮠ䬬 ꮠ䬬 릤 릤䀸
릤䬬ꮠ릤 䬬릤 䨸䬬릤 릤ꮠ 갬릤산ꮠ 䨸릤산䬬 릤 䀸 릤 䨸산
ꮠ䬬 牨릤 䀸 릤ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  릤산 ꮠ 산䀸  릤牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䘐ꮠ 릤䨸䬬䨸산
릤牨䨸산ꮠ  릤 䬬  䘐릤 䘐ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䘐  ꮠ䬬䬬牨릤ꮠ牨릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ 릤
牨  릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ ઈꮠ 산䬬 ꮠ䬬 릤 산䬬릤  릤산ꮠ 산䬬  릤 䨸牨산  䀸
 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 산산
Ὠ뀨௘
䀸릤䬬 䨸䬬 ⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸산 䨸산
산ꮠ 갬산릤 산䀸
䬬䀸䬬릤牨

쀔 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ牨릤 ɬ䬬∂牨 뀨牨 ௘ ɬ䬬牨산 ퟰ牨 ௘ ɬ䬬䨸牨ઈ산 牨ꮠ 䨸릤䬬௘
䨸牨 산 산䀸௘䨸牨ꮠ 산䀸䬬௘ꮠ산牨 산䀸䬬௘
ζ산牨 산䀸릤산௘ζ산牨ꮠ 䀸릤산䬬௘ζ䘐산牨䀸릤산䬬௘

䨸牨릤산䬬 ζ산 릤 ௘ ζꮠ 䘐릤 䀸௘ ζ산䘐산 릤 䬬௘
牨산 산 䨸 릤 ௘牨산산 䨸 릤 ௘牨산䘐산 䨸 릤 䬬௘

સ 갬䀸 뀨牐

쀔 ꮠ䬬 牨릤산䬬䨸릤䨸ɬꮠ산 䨸 릤௘䨸ɬꮠ산 䨸 릤䬬௘䨸ɬꮠ산 䨸 릤䬬௘

ɬ∂산 산산牨릤산䬬䨸릤ꮠ௘ɬ∂산䀸 ɬ∂

苨䬬 릤䨸 ꮠ䬬 牨릤산䬬䨸릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 산릤산 릤ꮠ갬 ꮠ갬ꮠ 릤䀸산릤䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ
산 ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤䬬  릤䀸 ꮠ䬬산䘐 산 䨸산 牨  릤ꮠ 䘐  ꮠ 䬬산 릤
 䬬ꮠ 릤 Ὠ뀨௘
ꮠ䨸→䨸 ꮠ䨸 ꮠ䬬௘
ꮠ∂→䨸 ꮠ∂䨸 ꮠ릤䬬௘
牨ꮠ∂→ 산牨䬬산牨ꮠ∂ ꮠ릤牨릤릤䬬௘

苨산 牨 릤산릤牨산갬ꮠ 산ꮠ 䬬산 릤䬬સ산 苨산ꮠ䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬
산릤 산䬬ꮠ산䀸䘐 牨䬬 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 산 릤 䨸산 苨䬬 산 산䬬䨸산
牨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬  릤 릤 릤릤 䬬산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬 산릤 릤릤 䬬ꮠ 갬릤 䨸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
산 갬䨸산갬릤
ퟰ 䨸산䬬 牨릤 䀸䬬ꮠ牨릤산 䨸 ꮠ  산䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 산릤릤 릤 릤 산
䨸산䬬
 릤 산䨸산䬬 산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸산 牨 ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ  릤䬬릤牨릤 ꮠ 갬
䨸ꮠ 릤 牨산ꮠ  산  릤䘐
왌 苨牨ꮠ 산ꮠ   릤 ꮠ䬬산 䬬릤 䬬산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬

䀸릤䬬 䨸산䬬

魤 릤 산䨸산䬬

魤 릤 산䨸산䬬산릤 牨릤 산 ꮠ 갬산䨸릤 ퟰ牐牐왌௘䀸 릤산 䨸 ꮠ
  릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬ઈꮠ 晸ઈ산 ௘산 ઈ산

릤䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ
릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤䬬

ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산牨䬬 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸 䬬릤릤 ꮠ 릤 䨸산ꮠ 산ꮠ 
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산 산ꮠꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ 䬬산 릤䘐릤산 䬬산䀸
Ὠ௘
牨 산 →牨 산 ઈꮠ 갬  산 䬬牨릤௘
牨산ꮠ→牨산ઈꮠ 릤산ꮠ 갬௘
mγ∂ ઈ→牨γ∂ ઈઈꮠ 산ꮠ 갬릤산릤 䨸䨸  ௘


릤䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬

릤 䨸산  䨸䬬 牨릤 䀸 릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 산릤 릤䬬䬬䨸牨릤䨸䬬
릤䀸 산릤 䨸䘐ꮠ 䨸䬬 릤 릤ꮠ 갬 䨸릤산䬬 릤 䀸 䨸䬬 
䨸산ꮠ 䘐ꮠ 䘐릤 䘐 䬬 牨⟴산 산 苨산ꮠ

ઈ䨸䬬릤 릤ꮠ 갬산䬬 릤 䀸

ὨὨ௘∂ →∂ ꮠ 산 䬬௘晸䘐 ∂n→䘐∂ ꮠ 릤산䬬௘晸∂l→∂ꮠ ௘

ઈ䨸䬬릤 릤ꮠ 갬 산牨릤䬬 산 䬬䨸산ꮠ
릤䬬릤산릤 牨릤  릤∂산䬬릤牨 릤 산牨릤䬬

Ὠ௘ 산 릤䀸௘→ 산ઈꮠ 晸䀸䀸산 산䀸௘→ 䀸䀸산 ઈꮠ 晸 산 산릤 릤௘
→ 산ઈꮠ 晸 ζ∂ 산 릤 䨸牨릤 릤 ௘→ ζ∂ 산ઈꮠ 晸 ζ∂산 릤산갬릤
䬬릤릤௘→ζ∂산ઈꮠ ∂산 산䬬ꮠ䘐릤산릤௘→ ∂산ઈꮠ

ઈ䨸䬬䘐릤 牨⟴산 산 苨산ꮠ

Ὠ牐௘ 牨䨸 ઈꮠ䬬→ 牨䨸 ꮠ䬬ઈꮠ 릤 갬ꮠ 릤릤䬬௘晸牨䨸 산牨ꮠ→ 牨䨸 산牨ꮠ䀸䀸ઈꮠ
산䘐䀸릤䬬௘晸牨䨸 ꮠ∫→牨䨸 ꮠ∫ઈꮠ ꮠ 䬬릤䬬௘晸牨䨸ζ산ꮠ牨→牨䨸ζ산ꮠ牨ઈꮠ
ꮠ 䬬䨸䬬௘

릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ௘

ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ 䬬릤릤䬬 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸  릤 牨산ꮠ  릤 䨸산 
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 릤䬬ꮠ갬 산ꮠ 갬 䨸牨산 갬䨸䬬 산ꮠ 갬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬릤牨
C∂산 릤 릤릤  산䬬 릤  䀸牨䬬௘  䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 릤 산牨릤䬬䘐ꮠ
릤∂산
௘
갬∂ 산→갬∂ 산산 䨸 릤䬬௘
∂ 산→ ∂ 산산 릤갬릤산릤䬬릤릤䬬௘
ꮠ산 → ꮠ산 산 산䀸௘
∂산䀸i→산䀸ꮠꮠ䀸산 ꮠ릤ઈ牨산릤䬬௘
 䬬산 릤䬬䘐ꮠ 릤  䀸牨䬬산릤릤䬬릤 릤 산䬬 䘐䬬
ퟰ௘

ꮠ릤
산 릤䬬릤䨸산 䨸䬬릤 릤 산牨릤䬬 䬬릤릤䬬ꮠ 릤 牨릤 ꮠ 산 䬬
릤䀸산릤산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 릤산릤䬬䘐 릤릤䬬䨸 산 䬬산릤릤 릤릤 䘐 릤릤산䀸ꮠ산
ꮠ  갬 䬬ꮠ䬬䬬

સ 갬䀸 ퟰ
䬬䨸䬬ꮠ→䬬䘐산䬬산 牨⟴䨸䬬䬬ꮠ 릤䬬䨸  સ௘
∂ꮠ→산ઈ산 牨산산ꮠ 릤 릤䬬௘
䨸䬬ꮠ→䘐산 䬬산 䨸 ꮠ䬬ꮠ산 䬬௘

릤산릤 䨸䬬산䘐䘐䨸산䬬 릤릤 ꮠ 갬 䘐 릤 릤 릤䀸산릤산릤 산䬬
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산䬬 䨸䬬 릤 牨릤 릤䨸산䘐ꮠ 산 ઈ산 릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤
䘐릤릤ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 산䬬䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ䬬䬬 䘐릤ꮠꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산ꮠ䬬
䬬䨸䬬ꮠ䨸릤 ઈ䀸ꮠ 릤䨸산산䬬릤䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬
௘
牨∂ 산䬬ઈꮠ→牨산 䬬ઈ산 牨સ릤 䬬௘
→牨릤 산䬬ꮠ䀸ઈꮠ 逄逄௘
⟴∂ 산䘐ઈꮠ→⟴∂ 산䘐산䘐ꮠ䀸ઈꮠ 牨 릤⟴산 산산௘
→⟴∂ 산䘐ઈ산 逄逄逄௘

ꮠ릤䘐ꮠ䬬릤 릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 䬬릤릤䬬  릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸 牨 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤
䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 릤 ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 산 ௘ 산 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 릤 ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 산
 䬬 산 산䘐릤䨸

릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 산 ௘

魤 산牨릤䬬 ꮠ䬬산릤갬䀸산릤릤䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 릤䘐
왌௘
ζ산→ ζ산䘐산 ꮠ 릤䬬௘
牨산ઈ산→牨산ઈ산 산 릤䬬௘
ઈ산→산䘐ઈ산 릤 릤릤䬬௘
⟴산→⟴산䘐ઈ산 산䀸릤䬬௘
牨 ∂ઈ산→牨 ∂ઈ산 牨산릤䬬䬬릤䬬௘

 릤 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  산䬬릤牨ꮠ䘐릤
릤 릤 릤䨸산䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ䬬ꮠ갬산䀸

સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬

릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 䬬릤릤䬬  牨 릤䨸산  牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬
 릤산릤  산 䨸䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤ꮠ갬 ꮠ갬ꮠ 산 䘐 䬬௘
산䬬䬬 䘐 ꮠ
௘
䘐산→ 䘐산ઈ산 릤䬬௘
산→ 산ઈ산 산䀸䬬௘
산 →산 ઈ산 갬산 릤 䬬௘
산→ 산ઈ산 릤䘐䬬௘
䬬산牨→䬬산牨ઈ산 갬릤릤ꮠ 갬䬬௘
䘐ꮠ 갬
뀨௘
산䬬ઈꮠ→ 산䬬ꮠઈ산 산 ꮠ䬬௘
산 ઈ䨸→산 䨸䘐ઈ산 산 ꮠ䬬௘
ઈ산→ઈ산 산牨䬬௘
산 산ઈ→산 산ꮠઈ산 䬬 산䬬௘
䨸ઈ산→䨸ઈ산 䬬ꮠ䬬௘
䬬䨸牨ꮠઈ산→䬬䨸牨ꮠઈ산 䬬 ꮠ䬬௘
산 →산 ઈ산 산 䬬௘
ꮠ䬬ઈ산→ ꮠ䬬ઈ산 산䬬௘

䨸산䬬 䨸䬬 䨸 ꮠ

릤 릤ꮠ릤 䨸䬬  䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 갬 ꮠ 산 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ௘산 산릤산
牨  릤 릤 산 䨸산 ꮠ ઈ산 ꮠ䬬䨸산 산 릤 䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ ɬ䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ
산 ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤산䬬  릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 䬬 릤䬬ꮠ갬 산ꮠ 갬 산 䬬牨산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠ䀸  릤릤牨릤 䬬
 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬릤 산牨릤䬬
௘
릤ꮠ릤䨸䬬䨸䬬 쀔 ꮠ䀸䨸산

산 산릤䬬௘ 산 ઈ산 산 산릤௘ 산 ઈ산 산릤䬬௘
牨릤牨산 산ꮠ䬬௘牨牨산산 산 산ꮠ௘牨牨산䬬ઈ산 산ꮠ䬬௘

 산 ꮠ 갬산산 ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤䘐릤산ꮠ ꮠ 䬬산 릤䬬ꮠ릤
Ὠ௘
ζ산 산牨산ζ 산
䨸 릤갬산䬬
䨸갬산䬬

䨸ꮠ 산ɬ䨸산 ꮠ ꮠ릤ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 䬬릤산 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 牨ꮠ䬬䬬릤릤
௘ ∂ 산 산牨ζꮠ
꺸 갬산䬬

릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬䨸䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬牨산ꮠ 䀸 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 릤산䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ 산牨릤䀸ઈ
산
릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산

릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산牨릤산 ꮠ 갬  릤䬬䨸 ꮠ 산 ꮠ
릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산௘  산䀸䬬 산 䨸ꮠ산 릤 ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ릤 릤ꮠ산ꮠ 릤 䬬산䀸 
ꮠ 䬬산 릤 γ∂ઈ산 산 갬䀸 ௘ 晸䬬∂산 䨸 ௘晸 ꮠζઈ산 䨸 갬䀸௘ 릤 릤 산
산䬬산릤䬬 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸 ꮠ ꮠ 릤 牨산ꮠ  릤䨸산 산ꮠ 갬 릤䬬릤牨∂ઈ
산 산䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 릤䘐

⟴산ζ→⟴ζઈꮠ ꮠ 갬릤䬬௘
સ 갬䀸 왌
ζ산䘐 →ζ산䘐 ઈ산 䬬릤䬬௘
릤 → 릤 ઈ산 ꮠ갬 䬬௘ 䘐릤산 산䬬䬬산䀸 산 ௘
산릤→ 릤ઈ산 릤䀸릤산䬬 릤䬬௘

산ꮠ 갬릤 䬬릤 릤 ꮠ 릤릤 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 릤 릤ꮠ산ꮠ  릤 릤 산
䨸산䬬 릤산䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬䨸䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬䬬릤릤 䘐ꮠ 릤 산䨸산䬬산릤
릤ꮠ릤
Internal plurals

牨산릤   릤 䀸릤䬬  䨸산䬬 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산䬬 산릤 릤䀸 산갬릤 ꮠ
䨸牨릤 릤䀸 릤  䨸䬬 산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 릤 牨ꮠ 릤 릤산䨸릤 
릤䬬릤䨸산䬬 ꮠ䬬 산 릤䀸牨산ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤䬬산牨릤䨸 릤䬬릤牨䨸 릤갬릤䬬산
牨릤릤  산 갬릤 牨 산 릤 ꮠ산 릤䬬릤ꮠ릤 䘐릤 산 릤 산 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 산
牨산ꮠ  산 릤䘐䘐 苨 䨸갬 산릤 ퟰ牐왌௘산ꮠ牨䬬 산 ꮠ સ산
苨산ꮠ 릤릤ꮠ䬬 ઈ 릤ઈ 릤릤䬬 릤 릤릤䘐릤릤 산䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨산
ꮠ䬬䨸산 릤䬬 ꮠ 갬 牨 산 산 䨸산 牨산ꮠ ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산 갬䨸산갬릤 ꮠ䬬
牨릤릤䀸산牨산릤 牨릤牨䀸䘐릤ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산䨸릤 ퟰ牐牐왌௘ 산릤䬬ꮠ 갬릤
䨸 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 릤갬䨸산ꮠꮠ릤䬬 산  릤 牨䬬䀸 ꮠꮠ릤산 䬬릤牨䬬䘐ꮠ
䬬산 ꮠ 릤 릤릤 릤  ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬  ꮠ䬬䬬䨸䬬릤ꮠ 䘐릤 산䬬 䬬 䘐 산
ꮠ릤릤 릤 산䨸산䬬갬릤 릤산䀸䬬산䨸ꮠ산릤산 ꮠ䬬䬬릤䀸ꮠ 릤  릤
牨 산릤산 䘐 산릤䬬䨸䬬 릤산 䨸산䬬릤牨 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬䘐ꮠ
릤릤갬䨸릤 산 ꮠ 갬 릤ꮠ갬릤 릤

ꮠ 䬬 산 산䬬릤牨䬬

䘐䬬릤䬬  산 갬릤䬬산 릤 릤ꮠꮠ릤산䨸산䬬릤牨䬬
ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬䀸릤   산 갬릤  䬬ꮠ䬬䬬  릤 산 䨸 ꮠ  산 䘐릤 산
릤䘐릤릤 릤 䬬릤 산 ꮠ 䬬릤牨ઈ산 ꮠ산䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 牨䬬
산릤 릤릤 릤䬬릤릤 ꮠ 牐௘

牐௘ઈ산晸䘐산晸䀸산晸산산晸䘐산산晸산晸䘐산ꮠ晸䀸산ꮠ晸
䀸산ꮠ晸

ꮠꮠ 릤䬬릤 䬬䨸ઈ산䬬䬬  ꮠ 䬬 산 산ꮠ 릤 산䨸산䬬ꮠ 릤䬬 릤
ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  릤䘐릤䨸 릤䬬릤牨ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬牨산 릤

䨸
䘐䨸
䀸䨸
䨸산
䀸䨸산

ꮠ 릤䬬릤  ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산䬬 릤䀸 산릤  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸 릤
ꮠ  䨸ꮠ  산 䬬 䘐산 릤䘐릤릤 릤 ꮠ 산 䨸 산 ꮠ산䬬 산䬬䬬 䘐 ꮠ
릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 䬬릤牨 릤ꮠ 릤䬬䬬산 䘐ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 䬬 산산 ꮠ 릤 산
䨸산䬬

ꮠ 䬬 산 산ꮠ 릤 산䨸산䬬

ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤 산䨸산ꮠ 릤䬬 릤산 䨸 ꮠ  릤䘐릤산릤䘐릤릤
릤䬬릤 산 ꮠ 䬬릤牨ઈ산 ꮠ산䬬 릤릤산릤릤ꮠ갬 䬬릤牨䬬

릤산䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䨸산 䬬릤牨 릤䬬 䬬  릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨䬬 산 산릤 산䬬
산릤갬ꮠ 릤 산 ꮠ 갬 릤ꮠ갬릤 릤

ꮠ 䬬 산산䬬릤牨䬬
牐௘
릤 릤 ⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산⟴릤牨䬬䨸산⟴릤牨䬬魤 산牨릤䬬

સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 ퟰ∂ 산 牨∂l→ 牨산 산牨릤䬬௘
⟴䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 ∂l→산 牨䨸 산ꮠ 䬬௘
∂산䘐∂ →䘐산 䀸䬬௘
∂→산 갬䬬௘
왌䨸산牨䨸 →牨 산 산ꮠ 䬬௘
䨸⟴⟴→ ⟴산⟴ 䀸䬬௘
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 ∂산∂ → 산 갬ꮠ䬬௘
⟴䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬뀨릤산산䘐∂ɬઈ산→䘐산ɬ 산릤䬬௘
∂ ઈ산→ ∂ ઈ산 산ꮠ䬬௘
સ산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산௘산牨ꮠ 산௘→牨산 ꮠ௘
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 ɬꮠ a→ɬ산 䨸갬䀸௘
苨 릤ꮠ릤䬬ɬꮠ 산௘→ɬ산 릤산䀸௘

릤⟴릤 䨸산䬬릤牨䘐산

 ꮠ䬬䨸산䬬릤牨릤䬬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬 산산릤
릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ산䀸牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤䀸산릤릤䬬릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산산 ꮠ갬牨

牐왌௘
ઈ䨸 䬬䨸ɬ 牨산릤௘ 䬬䘐산ɬ牨산릤䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
ઈ䨸 䨸牨牨牨䨸 ௘ 牨산牨 산牨牨䨸䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
ઈ산 산 䨸 릤௘ 䘐산 䨸 릤䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘

સ 갬䀸 뀨

릤䀸산䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨䬬릤릤䬬 산牨릤䀸䨸산ꮠ 릤牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬 릤
䘐ꮠ 갬산릤 ꮠ산䬬릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 릤䘐
牐௘ ζꮠ → ζ산 릤산䬬䬬௘
ꮠ䬬 →산䬬 산갬䬬௘

릤䘐산ઈ산 ௘䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨릤䬬 䬬䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬 산ꮠ 갬 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 牨䬬
牐௘

䨸ꮠ晸䨸ꮠ䀸ઈ산 ௘
䨸ꮠ 䨸ɬꮠ→ 䘐산ɬ산
䬬䨸䬬ꮠ→䬬䘐산䬬산 릤릤䘐 ꮠ갬ꮠ 산릤 牨 릤䬬䨸  સ௘
䨸ꮠઈ산 ௘ 䨸ɬꮠઈ산→ 䨸ɬꮠ산 䨸릤ꮠ릤릤 산સ산 산 산 ௘

릤䘐산ꮠ䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨 산 갬릤 릤산릤 릤 䨸산  릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬 산ꮠ 갬 릤ꮠ 릤  릤
䘐ꮠ 갬䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬

牐뀨௘
산ꮠઈ산 ௘산䀸ઈ산 ௘
䬬산ઈ산→䬬䘐산ꮠ 䨸牨 ௘
ζ산 ઈ산→ζ䘐산 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬௘
䬬ꮠ ꮠ산→䬬䘐산 ꮠ 산䀸䬬௘

릤䘐산∂䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䨸산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 릤 牨산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨䬬 산ꮠ 갬 릤䘐릤
산산 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬산 ꮠ산산䬬䬬 䘐 릤䘐

牐௘
ઈ 릤산∂䬬릤牨  牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤
산∂m→ 䘐산∂牨ꮠ 갬䬬௘ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
ɬ산∂b→ɬ䘐산∂䬬䨸䬬ꮠꮠ릤䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨산ઈ산 ௘  䀸 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
牨산산→牨䘐산 牨릤산䬬௘

ઈ 릤산䨸䬬릤牨  牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘

ɬ산 䨸⟴→ɬ䘐산 ∂⟴ 산 산䬬௘ 牨산䬬௘
산 䨸→ 䘐산 ∂ζ 䬬 䬬௘ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘

ઈ 릤산䨸ઈ산 ௘䬬릤牨 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䀸௘
산ζ䨸ઈ산→ 䘐산ζ릤 䘐 릤릤䬬௘

ઈ 릤산䨸ꮠઈ䀸산 ௘䬬릤牨 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
산牨䨸䬬ꮠ䀸산→ 䘐산牨∂䬬 릤 䬬௘

ઈ 릤산ꮠઈ산 ௘䬬릤牨 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
산⟴ꮠ 산 → 䘐산⟴ 산䬬䬬릤릤䬬௘

ઈ 릤산산ઈ산 ௘䬬릤牨 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
산산ɬ산→ 䘐산릤ɬ 릤산ꮠ 갬䬬௘

릤 䬬릤 산䬬䬬  ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산䬬 ꮠ 릤䬬 릤 ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ  릤
䘐릤 䨸 산 릤 릤 䬬릤 산 ꮠ산  릤ɬ䨸산䀸䬬䨸䬬䨸牨릤䬬 릤 䨸산 
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 સ릤릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬
ꮠ 릤 ꮠ 릤 䨸산 牨산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨䬬  산릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산
䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 산 릤산 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬  䘐 산 䘐䬬䘐릤 릤 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤릤
䬬䬬ꮠ릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨䬬 릤 䨸산  䘐 ꮠ 산 릤 䬬䨸䬬䨸牨릤 䨸 릤 ꮠ䬬
산䬬䬬

ઈ䨸산 릤갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬

릤 ꮠ䬬䨸산 䬬릤牨 ꮠ䬬 䨸 산௘  䬬릤릤䬬  䨸산ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬릤晸릤릤산䨸산
牐Ὠ௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨∂

∂䬬→ 䨸䬬牨 릤䀸௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
ɬ∂ →ɬ䨸牨 릤䀸䬬௘ 逄 ௘
∫∂牨→牨䨸䬬䨸 ௘ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
∂→䨸 릤ꮠ릤䬬௘ 逄௘
牐௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산⟴릤牨 ∂
䘐∂h→䘐䨸 산 산릤䬬牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산⟴릤牨∂ઈ산 ௘
ɬ∂ 산→ɬ 쀔 산䬬௘ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
牐௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䨸 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
牨䨸 →牨 산 산ꮠ 䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
牐牐௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨∂
∂r→ 䨸산 산䘐䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
ɬ산牨→ɬ䨸牨산 릤 䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘

릤䨸산䬬릤牨䀸䨸ꮠ

ꮠ䬬 릤 䬬 릤䨸산䬬  산릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 릤 牨ꮠ산

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨ꮠ 牨산䬬 릤牨௘
ퟰ௘
릤→ 䨸 ꮠ 䬬௘ 牨산䬬௘
ζꮠ → ζ䨸䬬ꮠ 갬䘐산릤௘ 牨산௘

䨸산䬬릤牨䀸ꮠ

䬬릤릤䬬 牨 릤䨸산  산릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬
ퟰퟰ௘
산ɬ산→ ꮠɬ 산ɬ산 산䬬牨산䘐ꮠ 䘐௘ 릤牨௘
⟴산산→⟴ꮠ⟴산산 牨䬬௘ 逄௘

릤산䬬산릤갬䀸릤ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ갬산릤 ꮠ䬬 산 ꮠ 䬬 산 산䬬䘐ꮠ 릤릤 산
䘐릤䬬 䘐산산䬬䬬 䘐 릤䘐

릤䨸산䬬릤牨ퟰ릤

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 릤산 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬䘐ꮠ 릤ꮠ 릤 릤䬬릤  릤 ꮠ
산 ꮠ산릤ꮠ 갬갬릤牨ꮠ 산릤

䨸산䬬릤牨∂산 릤牨௘
ퟰ௘
∂산→ ∂ 䬬산 䬬௘ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
∂⟴⟴산→ ⟴∂⟴ 䨸 산ꮠ 䬬௘ 逄௘

릤䨸산䬬릤牨䨸릤

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨 ꮠ䬬牨산ꮠ 䀸䨸䬬릤 ꮠ 릤 䨸산 牨산ꮠ  산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 ꮠ 릤
䘐ꮠ 갬䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 牨릤 릤 산牨릤

ퟰ왌௘
∂q→ 䨸∂ɬ 䨸릤௘
⟴ ∂r→⟴䨸 ∂ 䀸릤䘐௘
∂q→䨸∂ɬ  ௘

릤䨸산䬬릤牨ꮠ릤ꮠ䘐릤

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨䬬릤릤䬬 牨 릤䨸산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 산ꮠ 갬 릤䘐릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산
䬬릤牨

ퟰ௘
䘐∂l→ ꮠ䘐∂ 䬬䬬ઈ릤䀸릤 ௘
ζ䘐∂r→ζꮠ䘐∂ ꮠ ௘
ζ䘐∂ →ζꮠ䘐릤 릤 ௘

 릤 산䨸산䬬  ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬릤牨䬬

릤ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬릤牨산∂

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨䬬릤릤䬬 牨 릤䨸산 산 䨸牨릤 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤산
릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸䬬  산 䨸산ꮠ 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䨸䬬䘐ꮠ 릤 䘐릤
䬬䨸䬬산ꮠ䨸산 릤 릤 ꮠ 산 ꮠ산 䨸䬬ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬산䬬 䘐산릤
산릤 릤ꮠ 릤릤䘐릤릤 릤 ꮠ䬬산 䬬릤 산 ꮠ산산 릤 릤 ꮠ 산 ꮠ산
릤 䘐ꮠ 갬산릤ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ릤 산산

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬릤牨∂䨸 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
ퟰ뀨௘
∂ 䨸∫ 산 ∂∫ 䨸갬䀸릤릤௘
ɬ∂ 䨸 ɬ∂ 산 ∂ 릤 갬릤 갬䬬௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬릤牨릤산
ퟰ௘
牨릤 산 牨 산∂  ꮠ릤䬬௘
ɬ∂ 산 ɬ 산 ઈ∂ 산 산 䬬௘
牨∂䬬牨산 牨䬬산牨∂ 산ꮠ䬬௘
∂ 산 산 ∂ 릤䬬௘
䬬∂산 䬬산∂ 산ꮠ䬬 
䬬 릤䬬௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤䬬릤牨䬬릤산ઈ산 ௘
ퟰὨ௘
∂산 산 산∂ 䬬௘
⟴∂산 산 ⟴산∂ 䘐산䬬 ꮠ 갬牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬௘
䬬∂牨䬬산산 䬬牨산䬬∂ 릤䬬௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨∂산ꮠ
ퟰ௘
䬬∂ 산ꮠ 䬬 산 ∂ 牨산릤䬬䬬릤䬬௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨릤산ꮠ䀸ઈ산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘

ퟰퟰ௘
릤 산 ꮠ산 산 ∂ 산 릤䬬௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨릤ꮠ  牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘

ퟰퟰퟰ௘
ɬ∂ ꮠ ɬ 산 ∂ 산 릤ઈ䬬ꮠ௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
∂牨ꮠ 산牨ꮠ 䘐릤䬬௘
릤⟴ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤䬬௘ 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘
∂ζꮠ산 tζ산ꮠ 䨸牨䬬௘ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
∂ꮠઈ산산릤 산산 ꮠꮠ 산 릤牨산릤 릤䬬䬬௘
∂牨ꮠ䬬ઈ산 산牨∂䬬 산산갬릤䬬௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨䨸산

ζ䨸산 ζ∂산∂ 䨸 릤䬬௘
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤௘

릤 䬬릤 䬬릤  䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨䬬 릤ꮠꮠ 갬 릤ꮠ 䨸산䬬 산䬬 릤 산∂
 산ꮠ 산 릤 산 䘐릤 산릤 牨산ꮠ 䀸 릤䘐릤릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 산 䬬릤 䬬릤牨
산 ꮠ산魤 산牨릤䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ 갬 ꮠ䬬산릤갬䀸산릤산䬬 䘐䬬

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨∂∂ 牨산䬬௘
ퟰퟰ௘
䬬∂ ∂牨䬬산 ∂牨䘐ꮠ 䘐䬬௘
∂ ∂ ∂ 산 ∂ 산갬갬릤䬬௘
牨∂ ∂ɬ 牨산 ∂ɬ 릤䘐䬬௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산∂ઈ산 ௘⟴릤牨 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤௘
ퟰퟰ왌௘
牨 ∂䬬ઈ산 牨 산∂䬬䬬 䬬௘
牨∂牨牨산 牨산牨∂ 릤牨ꮠ 릤䀸䘐௘

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨릤ઈ산 ௘
ퟰퟰ௘
⟴∂䬬ઈ산 䬬산䬬∂  산ꮠ 䬬௘ 릤牨௘
∂ 산 산∂ 릤䬬䬬䨸릤ઈ릤௘

Mixed plurals
સꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 릤 ꮠ 산릤갬䀸 સ苨䨸산 牨산ꮠ

릤䬬䬬릤䬬   䬬ꮠ䬬䬬  牨ꮠ ꮠ 갬 릤 릤ꮠ䨸䬬牨릤 산 ꮠ䬬牨䬬 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ
릤 릤 산산 ꮠ 릤 산䨸산䬬 ꮠ릤 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산鮼산 ꮠ 산ꮠ ௘ સꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬
Ὠ 苨산牨牨산 સ산 苨산ꮠ
 ꮠ릤 릤 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산 䘐ꮠ 릤  릤 ꮠ 릤릤 릤  산 산 ꮠꮠ 산 䬬䨸 ꮠ
산 ꮠ 릤  릤ꮠ 릤 산䨸산 牨 ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 ꮠ䬬 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬
䀸릤䬬 牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬릤牨䬬

릤 ꮠ䬬牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬릤牨산ઈꮠ

릤ꮠ 릤 산䨸산산 산䬬䬬牨릤산 ꮠ ꮠꮠ릤䬬䘐ꮠ 릤 牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산
䬬릤牨 릤牨䬬ꮠ牨산 릤산䨸릤 산ꮠ䬬䬬 산릤 䀸 䬬릤牨䬬ꮠ䬬 산  릤
牨산ꮠ䀸  䨸산 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬䘐ꮠ 산 䬬릤牨 릤릤 ꮠ䬬 산  릤
릤䬬 ꮠ 갬 䨸산  릤 산ઈꮠ 牨 릤䬬릤 산릤 牨산ꮠ 䀸 䨸䘐ꮠ
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬䘐 릤릤 릤䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산ꮠ䬬ꮠ산䬬ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 ꮠ 릤䘐

ퟰퟰ뀨௘
ꮠ 산 산 ઈꮠ 릤 릤௘
ꮠ 산 산 ઈꮠ ꮠ갬 ௘
䘐릤 䘐산 䘐산ઈꮠ 산௘

릤牨산ꮠ ꮠ 릤릤 릤릤䘐릤릤 릤䘐䨸산䬬릤牨䬬릤䬬ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ 릤 산 산 릤
ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산 산௘ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤  牨산 릤 䨸산   䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬 산
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬 䘐릤릤 릤 산ઈꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 산 릤ꮠ릤 䬬 산ꮠ 갬 산 ꮠ
䬬릤牨

릤⟴릤 牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬릤牨산ઈ산 ௘산ઈ산 ௘

산ઈ산 ௘ 산 산ઈ산 ௘ 산릤 䨸산 䬬릤牨䬬 산 릤䬬 
ꮠꮠ릤산 산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산 䬬릤牨䬬 릤䀸 산릤  릤䬬ꮠ릤  릤
䨸산ꮠ 산ꮠ  䨸䬬 릤 릤ꮠ 갬 릤  䀸牨䬬 릤 牨릤 䬬릤牨䀸ꮠ산䀸
릤䬬 䬬 䨸䬬릤갬산 릤䬬䬬 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산䬬릤牨 牨 릤 산牨릤
ퟰퟰ௘
⟴쀔苨 쀔 苨
ꮠ ꮠ산 ઈ산
ž∂ꮠ 산ઈ산
䬬䨸䬬ઈꮠ䬬䘐산䬬ઈ산
산䬬ꮠ 䘐산䬬ઈ산
w∂ ꮠ 䘐산 ઈ산

苨䬬  릤 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산 牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬 릤䀸 산릤 牨릤 산 ꮠ 갬 
릤䬬릤牨산ઈ산 ௘ ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤 릤䬬릤릤 산牨릤䬬
ퟰퟰὨ௘
䨸䬬ઈꮠ 䘐산 䬬ઈ산
m∂γꮠꮠ mγ산ઈ산
m∂ 산䬬ꮠ 牨산 䬬ઈ산

સ 갬䀸 Ὠퟰ
릤 ꮠ 牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산䬬릤牨䨸ઈ산

릤ꮠ 릤 산䨸산 牨䨸ꮠ䬬䨸䬬릤 산䬬산䨸산䨸 릤산 릤
릤갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬䬬䨸 산䬬∂산 Ὠ 릤䨸산ઈ䬬릤牨䬬릤릤牨䬬릤릤䬬릤릤 
릤 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산 䘐ꮠ 산 릤 산牨산ꮠ릤 산䨸릤  릤 릤牨ꮠ 䀸 ꮠ䬬 산䬬릤
 䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬ꮠ 䬬산 릤䬬
ퟰퟰ௘
 䨸ઈ산 릤산 산䬬䬬௘
䨸䨸ઈ산 ꮠ䬬௘
䬬牨릤 䬬牨䨸 ઈ산 릤䬬릤릤 䨸릤௘
∂ 䨸산 牨䨸 산ꮠ 䬬௘

ꮠ䬬䨸산 䬬릤牨 릤䬬 䬬 산䬬ꮠ산䀸  릤 릤갬䨸산 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤
䬬릤牨䬬∂
ퟰퟰ牐௘
m∂ɬઈ산 牨䨸ɬઈ산 䬬산䨸릤௘
m∂䬬산 牨䬬䨸ઈ산  릤䘐ꮠ 갬갬䨸牨௘
m∂l 산 牨䨸 ઈ산 䬬산௘
b∂ 䨸 ઈ산  릤䬬䬬௘

릤ꮠઈ산 䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨䬬릤릤䬬 牨 릤䨸산  산릤䬬릤牨䬬 릤산산 䨸
牨
ퟰ௘
⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산⟴릤牨䬬䨸산⟴릤牨䬬

산䬬 ꮠ䬬ઈ산 䨸䬬௘
산䬬 ꮠ䬬ઈ산 릤 ௘
산 ꮠઈ산 䬬௘
γ산 γꮠઈ산 산릤䬬௘

릤∂ઈ산 䬬릤牨

ꮠ䬬䬬릤牨䬬릤릤䬬  牨 릤 䨸산  䨸䬬  릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 牨 산
산 ꮠ䀸䘐산䀸 ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ  䬬ꮠ 릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 산산

⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산⟴릤牨䬬 ⟴ꮠ 갬䨸산䨸䬬䨸산䨸 릤산䬬

산 산 b∂ ઈ산 䨸 ꮠ릤䬬௘
ꮠ ꮠɬ T∂ɬઈ산 䬬릤릤䬬௘

Ὠ
苨 릤 산牨릤 릤릤갬䨸산䬬릤牨䬬䬬䨸 산䬬∂산ꮠ䬬릤 ઈ산→䨸 릤산 릤௘

Ὠ 苨산牨牨산 સ산 苨산ꮠ
릤ɬ b∂ɬઈ산 ꮠ 릤䬬䨸갬䬬௘
䨸 䨸 x∂ ઈ산 䀸䨸 갬䬬 릤릤௘

苨ꮠ 산 릤 ꮠ 산릤갬䀸 䨸산䬬ꮠ䬬䬬릤릤 릤牨䬬릤 
 릤䬬䬬릤䬬 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산 䨸릤 산 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ ௘ ⟴牨릤 牨ꮠ 릤 䨸산
䬬릤牨䬬 산릤릤릤 䬬 䘐 릤䬬릤牨릤 릤ꮠ 릤 산䨸산ꮠ 산 䨸牨릤 䘐산䀸䬬
䘐ꮠ 릤산 ꮠꮠ   릤 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬ઈꮠ 晸ઈ산 산
䬬䨸牨䨸ꮠ 산䬬릤릤 䬬릤릤 산 릤䨸산 䬬䨸䬬산 ꮠ릤䬬牨산䀸
릤  산산릤ꮠ 릤 산䬬 䘐䬬 릤 䨸산 ꮠ 릤산䬬 ꮠ 산 ꮠ ꮠ산릤 䘐산䀸䘐ꮠ
갬릤 릤 산ꮠ䬬䘐 ꮠ릤릤산ꮠ 산릤 䬬산릤䀸ꮠ산䀸䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤
牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤䬬릤산산릤䀸 릤䬬산 릤䨸䬬릤 䘐ꮠ  ꮠ䬬䬬산릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬 산ꮠ
 ꮠ 릤 산 䨸산䬬  릤 산牨릤 䘐 릤릤 릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산  ꮠ䬬牨산ꮠ 산ꮠ 릤 䨸
䘐ꮠ 䬬牨릤 牨 ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬௘ ꮠ 릤 산ꮠ 牨릤 䀸  릤 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산 䬬릤牨 
산ꮠ 릤䨸산 牨苨  릤 ꮠ 갬䬬산䀸산 ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ䬬 산산䬬ꮠ  릤
牨 갬ꮠ산산릤산䬬 릤䨸산 牨산ꮠ  䨸䬬ꮠ䬬산ꮠ 산릤산 산릤 ꮠꮠ䬬
릤ꮠ 릤䬬䬬  릤 સ산 苨산ꮠ 牨 갬ꮠ산 䬬䀸䬬릤牨 산 ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 산갬릤
산릤갬䨸산䀸 䬬산ꮠ 릤 䀸산䬬릤 䨸릤䬬 산 릤䬬ꮠ릤 릤 ꮠ릤䬬ꮠ䀸
䬬䨸䨸릤䬬 산 䨸산 산릤 䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 릤 릤갬䨸산ꮠꮠ릤䬬  릤
䨸릤䬬䘐 ꮠ 릤 산산릤산 ꮠ䀸릤䀸갬릤 릤산릤산 릤 ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬 산릤 䬬
䘐 ꮠ 䬬 䘐䬬 릤ꮠ 릤䬬䬬산 릤갬䨸산ꮠ䀸 릤 산산
Conclusion

 ꮠ䬬 산릤䘐릤 산릤ꮠ 릤 산 릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤산䨸  릤牨산
릤산 산 牨ꮠ 산 牨 갬ꮠ산 산릤 䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산ꮠ䨸䬬
ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤䬬 산릤릤 ꮠ 릤 릤䬬ꮠꮠ  릤䬬릤 牨ꮠ 산산 릤산䬬䀸䬬릤牨䬬
鯈 릤 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤  릤 䬬 牨ꮠ 산 牨 갬䀸 산 릤 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬 릤산릤  ꮠ
苨  릤 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤 ꮠ䬬 릤산릤  릤산 牨 갬䀸 산 릤 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬 릤ꮠ릤
牨 ꮠ   릤䬬릤 ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤䬬 릤 릤 릤 ꮠ 릤䬬䬬 산 릤갬䨸산ꮠꮠ릤䬬  릤
릤산산 牨ꮠ 산牨 갬䀸ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ

§
Syntax
§
§
Introduction
§
ꮠ䬬 § 산릤î §䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ䬬 § 릤릤 § § 릤 §䬬䀸 산 § §સŞî §ꮠ 릤䬬 §산 §
릤산ꮠ릤 § 릤䬬ꮠꮠ § § 릤§牨산§䀸릤䬬§  §䬬ꮠ牨릤§산 §牨릤 §䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ §
ꮠ䬬§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤ö§ 릤§ 산릤§  䬬ꮠ䬬䬬§ §䘐§䬬릤산산릤§䬬릤ꮠ 䬬ö§⟴릤ꮠ § 릤§ꮠ䬬§
 릤 릤 § 䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬ꮠ牨릤§ 䬬릤 릤 릤î§ 산 § ⟴릤ꮠ § 䘐§ 䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 牨릤 §
䬬릤 릤 릤ö§
Ş §ꮠ牨산 §산䬬릤 § §સŞ §䬬䀸 산 §ꮠ䬬 § 산 §ꮠ §ꮠ䬬 §산 § 릤산 §ꮠ ꮠꮠ산 §
산 갬䨸산갬릤ö§릤䬬î§ 䨸䬬§산 §릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§산䘐산䀸䬬§릤릤 릤§ 릤ꮠ§牨릤牨릤 䬬ö§
Ş䬬§䘐릤§䬬 산§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ꮠ § 䨸릤§䨸䬬릤î§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ꮠ䬬§ §릤䬬ꮠ릤 § 䀸§§릤 ꮠ산§
릤산 䬬î§䨸§ꮠ§산ꮠ릤䬬§산䬬§§ 䨸 ꮠ 산§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬î§ 산牨릤䀸î§Ū牨릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤䬬î§
 릤ꮠ 䬬î§산 §Ű릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬ö§Ş  릤§산䬬릤§ §સ산 §Ş산ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ §
牨 갬䀸ĺ§ 䨸䬬î§ 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬î§ 산 § 릤䬬§ 䬬 䘐§ 산§ 릤갬䨸산§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ § §
갬릤 릤î§ 䨸牨릤î§산 §릤䬬 î§산䬬§䘐릤§䬬산䘐§ꮠ § 릤§ 산릤§ §牨 갬䀸ö§
§
The simple sentence
The basic word order

§
§ Ş§ 䬬릤 릤 릤§ 갬릤 릤산䀸§ 릤 릤䬬§ § 䬬䀸 산ꮠ§ 릤산ꮠ 䬬§ 산 § 산牨 䀸§
릤䘐릤릤 § 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§ꮠ § 릤§§ 牨§ §릤 ꮠ산§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§§䬬䨸 §산䬬§ 릤§ 䨸 î§ 릤§
릤î§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬î§ 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬î§ 산 § 䨸 ꮠ 산§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ ꮠ릤§ § 산갬릤릤牨릤 î§ §
릤 䬬릤§ 산 § 산䬬릤ö§ 릤§ 산牨 䀸§  § 릤䬬릤§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§ ꮠ § 산§ સŞ§ 䬬ꮠ牨릤§
䬬릤 릤 릤§  牨䬬§ § § 산 §  릤ꮠ 갬§ 산§ 牨산릤䬬§ 䬬䨸 § 릤릤牨릤 䬬§ §  §
䬬䀸 산ꮠ산䀸§산 §䬬릤牨산 ꮠ산䀸§ 갬䨸릤 ö§
§ 릤릤 § ꮠ릤산䨸릤§ 산䬬§ 릤릤산릤 § § 산§ § Ş갬×릤릤牨릤 § Ýî§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 䨸ꮠ산§
릤릤牨릤 § 䘐 ꮠ § 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬§ 䘐 §  릤§ ꮠ § 牨䬬§ 산䨸산§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬ö§ ꮠ䬬§
산갬릤릤牨릤 §䨸 §릤§牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 §§ 䨸䀸î§ ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬§갬릤 릤î§ 䨸牨릤§ 산 §릤䬬 §î§
§산ꮠ산䀸î§ 䬬ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬§ §릤䬬 §산 § 䨸牨릤§ §갬릤 릤§ 산 § 䨸牨릤ö§
§ 䘐릤릤î§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ § 릤䘐릤릤 § 䨸§ 산 § 산ꮠ산§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ § સŞ§
ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬릤 î§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산䘐산䀸䬬§ 릤산ꮠ 릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§
䘐산䀸î§ 산䀸§ 䨸§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 ö§ 릤릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§ 산§ 牨ꮠ § 릤 릤ꮠ î§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§
릤산䨸릤§  § 갬릤 릤§ § 牨ꮠ갬 § 릤§ 牨ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ 갬§ 산 § § 牨 갬ꮠ산§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§
牨산 릤§  § 릤§ 릤§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤§ 산 § 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §
릤산䀸§䘐ꮠ § 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤§ 䨸䬬§ꮠ § 릤§䨸산î§산䬬§ꮠ §×nÝĺ§
§
ĆÝ§§산ö§ ð 산ꮠ§§§§§§§§§§§§§§산䘐ö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§×⟴Ý§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤 §§산ꮠ릤 §§§§§§§§§§§
꺸 릤§ ꮠ 릤 § × 산릤Ý§산ꮠ릤 §
§§§§§§ö§산䘐§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ð 산ꮠö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§×⟴Ý§
ĨĖ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§§§§§§§§§§산ꮠ릤 §ð§§§§§§§ 릤ð§ ꮠ 릤 §§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§ ꮠ 릤 §× 산릤Ý§산ꮠ릤 §
§
nÝ§§§산ö§§ð 산§§§§§§§§§산䘐ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð§갬ꮠ䬬§산ꮠ릤 ð§§§§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§갬ꮠ䬬§§× 산릤Ý산ꮠ릤 ö§
§§§§§§ö§§§산䘐§§§§§§§§§ð 산ö§
§§ 산ꮠ릤 ð§§§§ 릤§갬ꮠ䬬§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§갬ꮠ䬬§× 산릤§Ý산ꮠ릤 §
§
ĐÝ§§§§산ö§§ð䘐릤 §§§§§§산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§산ꮠ릤 §§§§§§ § §
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§䀸§× 산䬬§Ý산ꮠ릤 ö§
§§§§§§§§ö§산§§§§§§ð䘐릤 ö§
산ꮠ릤 § 릤ð䀸§§ §§§§§§§§§§§§§§
§꺸 릤§䀸§× 산䬬§Ý산ꮠ릤 §
§
§ĖÝ§§§§산ö§ð릤 §§§§§산ðö§§§ § §§§§
꺸 릤§갬ꮠ§× 산䬬Ý산ꮠ릤 §
§§§§§§§§§ö§산ð§§§ð릤 ö§§§§ § §§§
§ 산ꮠ릤 ð ð䬬갬ð 릤§갬ꮠ§
§ 꺸 릤§갬ꮠ§§× 산䬬Ý산ꮠ릤 §
§
릤 §릤 §逄산 § §×산ꮠ릤Ý §산갬릤릤䬬 §䘐ꮠ § 릤 § §䬬䨸릤 §ꮠ §×ĆÝð×ĖÝ §ꮠ §산 § 릤산䨸릤䬬 §
× 䨸牨릤î§ 갬릤 릤§ 산 § § 릤䬬 Ý§ 릤갬산 릤䬬䬬§  § 䘐 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ § 릤릤 릤䬬§ § ꮠ§ §
䘐䬬§ ꮠî§ 䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 릤ꮠ §  § 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤§ 䨸산䬬§ ×nÝî§ 䘐 릤릤§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ §
갬릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 牨ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ 갬§릤산䨸䬬릤§§ 릤§릤§ ꮠ䬬산䀸䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§산갬릤릤牨릤 § 릤산䨸릤䬬î§ 산䬬§
ꮠ § 릤§산䬬릤§ §牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤§䨸산䬬§×ĆÝö§
§ ⟴ꮠ 릤§ 䨸§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 릤산ꮠ 릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ 산릤 § ×䘐ꮠ § ⟴鯈§ 산 §
⟴鯈Ýî§䘐릤§䬬䨸갬갬릤䬬§ 릤§산䬬ꮠ§䬬䨸䨸릤§ꮠ §સŞ§×산䨸䬬릤䬬Ý§§릤§⟴鯈î§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĜÝ§ĺ§
§
ĜÝ§Subject + V + Complement (X)§
§
Where X is a variable that may stand for a direct object NP, a PP or
an AdvP,§§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§
§
ĢÝ§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §Ű산§§ 산ꮠ ö§§§§§§
§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §릤산§‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §
§꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산§§‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ ö§
§
ĨÝ 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §Ű산§× Ýððꮠꮠ 䨸 ö§§§
સ 산牨릤 §릤산§×ꮠ Ý§ 릤§  릤§
꺸સ 산牨릤 §§牨산 릤§산§  릤§산§
§
Syntax ĨĜ
ĮÝ 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§ V릤䬬§§§§§ §ð䨸ţ릤ö§
§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §䬬릤§§§ꮠ § 릤ð 릤§
§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §䬬릤§ꮠ § 릤§ 릤ö§
§
ĴÝ§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §산§§§䬬䨸 §§V릤 §§§§§ 䨸ð ö§
§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §산§§§§ꮠ릤䬬§§§䘐ꮠ §§ 릤ð ꮠ䬬§§§§§§§
§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §§§ꮠ릤䬬§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤ö§
§
ĆĀÝ§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§산 §§§ §ð䨸ꮠ산ö§
§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §릤§ꮠ § 릤ð 산䨸䀸§
§§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §ꮠ䬬§산§ 릤§ 산䨸䀸ö§
§
§ 릤§ 䀸 릤䬬ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤§산䬬ꮠ§䬬䨸䨸릤§ꮠ §સŞ§ꮠ䬬§⟴鯈§§ 릤 산ꮠ 䬬§ 䘐䀸§
ꮠꮠ䬬§산 §ð䨸§䘐ꮠ §䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§릤산§ 牨§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§릤 산牨릤䬬§ĺ§§
§
×ĆĆÝ§§§산ö§산ð ö§§ § §
§§§§§§§§§§§§§산릤ðꮠ§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸릤§산릤§ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§ö§산§§§§牨Vð산 ö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§산牨릤§䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨§
§꺸릤§산牨릤§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ牨ö§
§
ĆnÝ§§산ö§ã§산ð §§§§§ ð 䨸 ö§
§§§§§ §§§산릤§§ꮠ§§ 릤ð릤산 §
§§§§§§§§ö§§산§§§§牨V산ð § ð산릤ö§
§ §산牨릤§䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨§ 릤ð牨산 §
꺸 릤§牨산 §산牨릤§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ牨§
§
ĆĐÝ§ §산ö§ §산§ § § ð 䨸 ö§
§ 산릤§§ 릤ð릤산 §§
§ 꺸릤§산릤§ 릤§릤산 ö§
§§§§§§§ö§산§§§§§§§牨V산§§§§§§ð산릤ö§
§ 산牨릤§䘐ꮠ § 릤ð牨산 §
§ 꺸릤§산牨릤§䘐ꮠ § 릤§牨산 ö§
§
 §×ĆĐÝî§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§릤§ ×산Ý§×산 § 릤§牨릤牨릤 § ×Ý§Ý§산릤§릤䀸§릤 릤䬬䬬릤 î§
䨸§ꮠ §×ĆĆÝ§ 릤䀸§산릤§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 §산䬬§ꮠꮠ䬬ö§
§ Ū 릤 ꮠ 갬§ 릤§䬬䨸릤§ꮠ §સŞî§ꮠ§䨸 §릤§산§ 䨸§ 牨ꮠ 산§릤릤牨릤 §
산䬬 §ꮠ §×ĆĖÝö §Ş䬬 § § 릤 §䬬䨸 ꮠ §ð §䘐î §ꮠ §ꮠ䬬 §산 §산갬릤릤牨릤 §牨산릤 §䬬ꮠ 릤 §ꮠ §산 §ð
䨸§䘐ꮠ §산§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§䬬䨸릤§×ĆĜÝ§ĺ§§
§
ĆĖÝ §§§§§§§§§§산ð䘐ö§§
§§§§§§§§산牨릤ðĐð牨䬬ð§ § §
§§§§§§§꺸 릤䀸§산牨릤ö§
ĨĢ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§
ĆĜÝ§ 산ö§ð䘐산 § § § § § § § § § § §산ð䘐ö§
§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 §§§산牨릤ðð牨䬬§ § §
§§§§ §§꺸 릤§ ꮠ 릤 §산牨릤ö§
§ ö§ 䨸牨산§§§산ð䘐ö§
§§§§ § § § § 릤䀸§ § §산牨릤ðð牨䬬§ § §
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤䀸§산牨릤ö§
§
§ § 䬬 䨸 § 릤§ 릤 § 산§ dual§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§ § 牨 갬ꮠ산䀸§
릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § § 릤§릤ĺ§ꮠ§산 릤§산릤䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§ 牨§산䬬§䨸산§산갬릤릤牨릤 ĺ§
§
ĆĢÝ§ § 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § § §䘐§ § §䬬산Vꮠ §§§산ɬ산ð䘐§§§ðŒ䨸䬬산ĺ§dö§
§ સ 산牨릤 §§산 §§§⟴산ꮠ §§§§牨릤ð§§§§ 릤ð릤산 릤§
§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 §산 §§⟴산ꮠ §§牨릤§ 릤§릤산 릤ö§
§
§ 릤§ 䨸牨릤§ 牨 릤牨릤§ 牨ꮠ갬 § 릤§ ꮠ 䬬릤릤 § 릤 릤§ 산§ dual§ §산䬬 §ꮠ §
સŞî§Ť릤릤§산 § 릤  ö§
§
ĆĨÝ 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§ð산ɬ산§§䨸§§ 산ꮠö§§×સŞÝ§
સ 산牨릤 §§× 산䬬Ý§牨릤§§§§䘐§§§䀸䬬§
꺸સ 산牨릤 §§牨릤§䘐§䀸䬬ö§
§
ĆĮÝ 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §/䬬F산§䬬 산§§ 䨸䨸䬬ꮠ ö§×Ť릤릤Ý§
꺸સ 산牨릤 §䨸갬 §䘐§ 릤 䬬ö§
§
ĆĴÝ§ સ 산牨릤 §산§산 릤䨬§ 릤䨸 §ꮠ릤䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §§䨸갬 §§§䘐§§§䬬§
§
§ Ť䀸§ 산䬬î§ꮠ §⟴Ş§î§ 䨸산§산갬릤릤牨릤 §ꮠ䬬§릤䀸§牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ 牨§
꺸aan×䘐 릤 §§ ꮠ䬬§ 牨ꮠ 산ꮠ릤Ý§ 산 §逄산 §×䘐 릤 §§ ꮠ䬬§ 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤î§ꮠɬ䨸릤§§
갬릤 ꮠꮠ릤Ý§ĺ§
§
nĀÝ§ 산ö§ 산 䨸 § § § §산산산§
§ § § §ꮠ산산산
§ ðꮠ§
§ §§§§산䀸 §§§§§§§§䨸갬 §§§䬬ð 䨸산§
§ §§꺸산䀸 §䨸갬 §§䘐§䬬§
§ ö§ 산 §§ð산ɬ산산§§§§ꮠð§/䨸䬬산산d산 ðꮠ§
§ §§§§§§§산䀸 §§牨릤§§§䘐ꮠ §§§릤산 릤䬬ð§ 䨸산ð산§
§§§§ ö§§산 ð 산 ð산산 §§§/산 산dð산산§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ산산ð산 ö§
§ §§§§§ 릤§산ꮠ ð 䨸산§§§§ð 䨸산ð 䬬§§§§§산§§ð산§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 꺸 릤§䘐§산ꮠ 䬬§§산§§
§
§  §સŞî§산䬬릤§ 릤산䨸릤䬬§× 牨ꮠ 산ꮠ릤î§산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤î§갬릤 ꮠꮠ릤î§ꮠɬ䨸릤Ý§§
산릤§ §牨 갬ꮠ산䀸§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § §릤 ꮠ산§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§릤갬산 릤䬬䬬§§ §䘐 릤 릤§
Syntax ĨĨ
릤§§ꮠ䬬§ 牨ꮠ 산ꮠ릤î§산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤§§갬릤 ꮠꮠ릤ö§§ §䬬牨릤§ ꮠ산릤䬬î§䬬䨸 § 릤산䨸릤䬬§
산릤산§산䬬§산갬릤릤牨릤 §牨산릤䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §릤䘐§ĺ§§
§
nĆÝ§§ 산ö§갬䨸§§§§§§§§§ ꮠ§§§䬬릤 ×ꮠÝ§§§§ §ð산산ţö§
§ §§§ ð䀸䨸§§牨릤§ꮠ릤 ð䀸䨸§§ꮠ § 릤§ 산산§
§ 꺸�䨸§× 산릤Ý§ §牨릤§ 산§䀸䨸§ꮠ릤 §ꮠ § 산산ö§
§ ö§갬䨸§§§ꮠ§§§䬬릤 䨸§§§§ §ð산산ţö§
§ §§§§ ð䀸䨸§牨릤§ꮠ릤 ð 릤䀸§ꮠ § 릤ð 산산§
§ §§꺸�䨸§ §牨릤§ 산§ 릤䀸§ꮠ릤 §ꮠ § 산산ö§
§
nnÝ 산ö§§ ð산ð䨸§§ 산 §ð산ö§
§§§§§ ꮠ䬬§§§ ꮠ䬬§§
§§§§§꺸 ꮠ䬬§§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬ö§
nĐÝ §ö§ ð산ð 산§§ 산 §ð산§
§§§§§ 릤§§§ ꮠ䬬§§
§§§§§꺸 ꮠ䬬§§ꮠ䬬§ 릤䬬ö§
§
§  § 牨䬬§ 산䬬릤䬬î§ 릤 ꮠ산§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ § § 릤 ꮠꮠ§ 산 䀸§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산§ §
릤 ꮠ 갬§ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬§산䬬릤ĺ§§§
§
nĖÝ 산ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § 릤ö§
§§§§સ 산牨릤 §§䘐릤 §§䨸§
§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §䘐릤 §䨸ö§
ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §䬬릤릤§ 산ꮠ ö§
§§§§સ 산牨릤 §§牨산 릤§䬬ꮠ릤 § 산ꮠ §
§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 § 산䬬§牨산 릤§‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §릤릤§§䬬ꮠ릤 ö§
§ ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§§§䬬산릤ö§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §䬬ꮠ릤 ð 䬬ð䬬갬§
§ §§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §ꮠ䬬§䬬ꮠ릤 ö§
§ ö§§/산 산×산Ý§§§牨䬬산 릤§
§ §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§산릤ꮠ 갬§
§ §§§§§§꺸§산牨§산릤ꮠ 갬ö§
§
§ 릤§ 䬬릤릤§ 릤릤§ 산§ 산䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ § 牨 갬ꮠ산䀸§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § ꮠ § 릤§
릤산§ § 牨ꮠ 산§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ î§ ꮠ § 산 ꮠꮠ § § 릤§ 산䬬릤 릤§ § 䨸산§ 牨산릤䬬ö§ 鯈 §
릤 §산䬬ꮠ䬬 § § 릤 §逄산䬬ꮠ §䬬䨸䨸릤î §䘐 ꮠ §䘐릤 §산 릤 §ꮠ §×ĜÝî §䘐릤 §䘐ꮠ §䀸 § §
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 § 릤䘐릤릤 § ꮠ 릤릤 § 䀸릤䬬§  § 䬬ꮠ牨릤§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ § સŞĺ§ 䘐릤§ 䘐ꮠ§ 䬬릤릤§
산§ 䨸 ꮠ 산§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ ×릤 䬬릤î§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § 산 § 산䬬릤î§ 릤öÝ§ § 牨릤갬릤§ 䘐ꮠ §
릤 ꮠ산§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ ×îîÝ§ ꮠ § ꮠ 릤릤 § 䬬䀸 산ꮠ§  릤 䬬§ §  䬬䨸§ 䘐릤§
牨릤 §䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§
§ ꮠ릤 § 산§ 릤§  릤 §  § 릤§ 릤䬬릤 § 䬬릤ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 䬬䨸䨸릤§  §
䬬ꮠ牨릤§ 䬬릤 릤 릤§ § ꮠ § સŞî§ 䘐릤§ 䘐ꮠ§ 䀸§ § ꮠ 릤§ 산§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ §  § 릤§ 牨䬬§
ꮠ牨산 § 릤릤牨릤 䬬§§ 산§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤§산 §갬릤 §§ 릤§ 䬬䨸ꮠ §  § 산§ 산ꮠ릤䀸§§
ĨĮ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
 § 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§ 릤§ § 䨸䬬§ 䘐ꮠ§ 릤§  §  릤 䬬§ § ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 산 䬬ꮠꮠꮠ䀸§ 산 §
ꮠ 산 䬬ꮠꮠꮠ䀸î§ 릤갬산ꮠ î§ 牨ꮠ 산§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ 산 §ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 牨䬬ö§
§
The syntactic structure of simple sentences §
§
Subject + Verb§
릤§산 § ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 §릤䘐릤릤 §䘐§䀸릤䬬§ §䬬䀸 산ꮠ§ 릤 䬬§§ꮠ §સŞ§ĺ§

산Ý§산§  릤 §䘐 릤릤§䘐릤§산 § 산릤§산§ 䬬䨸릤§산 § 릤§릤§§ 䘐ꮠ 䨸§산 §릤§ Ý§
산§  릤 § 䘐 릤릤ꮠ §䘐릤§산 § 산릤§산§ 䬬䨸릤î§ 산§ 릤§산 §산§ 牨릤牨릤 § ×䘐ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§
ꮠ 릤릤 §䀸릤䬬Ýö§
§ 릤§§릤䬬§ 산§ 䨸§ ꮠ § 릤§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§  릤 § ×nĖÝ§ 산릤§  산산릤ꮠ 릤 §
䀸§ 릤§ 산§§ 릤䀸§ § § 릤릤 §산§ ꮠ릤§릤§ 릤 릤§䘐 릤 § 릤ꮠ§ 牨 갬ꮠ산§
䬬䨸䨸릤§ꮠ䬬§牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§牨산릤§ 릤牨§산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤î§산䬬§ꮠ §×nĮÝð×nĴÝ§릤䘐ĺ§
§
nĜÝ§§§ð䘐릤 §§§산ö§
§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§§산牨릤ð牨䬬§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§ 산䬬§산ꮠ릤 ö§
§
nĢÝ§§§§ð䘐릤 §§牨산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§릤 ð牨䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§ 산䬬§릤 ö§
§
nĨÝ§§§§ð䘐릤 §§§§§䘐ɬ릤 ö§
§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð§䀸§§§䬬 §䨸§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§䬬 §䨸ö§
§
§ § 牨산릤§ 릤§ 릤䬬§ ꮠ § ×nĜÝð×nĢÝ§ ×牨 Ý산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤î§ 릤§ 䬬릤 §
 䬬 산 § ꮠ䬬§ 갬릤 릤산릤 § § § ×산 § 䬬 䘐산§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 䬬릤릤 § 릤 릤§ ꮠÝ§ ꮠ § 릤§ § ꮠ䬬§
ꮠ 䬬 산 산î§ 산䬬§ ꮠ § ×nĮÝð×nĴÝ§ ×䨸§ 䬬릤릤§ 릤§ 릤ꮠ䨸䬬§  산릤§  § 牨 갬䀸§
§牨릤§ 릤산ꮠ䬬§ § 릤§ꮠ 릤 산§牨산릤§䨸§ § ꮠ 릤릤 § 릤䬬Ýĺ§§
§
nĮÝ§ § ð䘐릤 § §牨릤산§ § § § § § §ð牨릤ς牨릤ö§
§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§牨산 릤ð갬§ 릤§ð 산䀸§
§ 꺸 릤§§䀸§ 산䬬§䨸 § 릤§ 산䀸ö§
§
nĴÝ §§§§§§ð䘐릤 §§䘐릤ɬɬ릤 §§§§§§§ð牨릤ς牨릤ö§
릤ð䀸§§牨산 릤ð䬬§ 릤§ 산䀸§
§
§ 릤§ 릤§ mša§ 산䬬§ 릤릤 § 牨산 릤§ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ ×산 § 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤Ý§ 䀸§ 䨸ꮠ 갬§
릤§  䬬 산 § 㮴§ 릤릤 § 䨸갬 § § 릤§ 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 § 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ ꮠ 갬§
산릤 䬬§§ 릤§릤§wqefî§䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 䬬 산 § ɬ㮴§ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤 §ö§
§
Subject + Verb ( ergative)§
Syntax ĨĴ
§
ꮠ䬬§ 릤 §ꮠ 릤䬬§ 릤§䨸䬬릤§ §산 §§䬬䨸릤§산 §산§릤§䘐ꮠ 䨸§산 §
릤î§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤 릤릤 § § ꮠ § 릤§ ꮠ릤산䨸릤§ 산䬬§ 릤갬산ꮠꮠ䀸ö§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䀸 산ꮠ§
릤 牨릤  § ꮠ䬬§ ³牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 ³§ 䀸§ ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬§ 䬬牨릤§ 산ꮠ䨸산§ 릤 ꮠ 릤䬬î§ 䬬䨸 § 산䬬§
n-,§t-§산 §ð§산䬬§ꮠ §×nĴÝĺ§§
§
ĐĀÝ§ § 산ö§ 산릤䬬ð§ § § § ð산䬬ö§
§§
§ §§§릤ð§§§§§ 릤§ð§갬산䬬䬬§§
§ §§§꺸§릤§ 릤§갬산䬬䬬ö§
§ ö§ð산䬬§§§ð 산릤䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð갬산䬬䬬§ꮠð릤§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§갬산䬬䬬§릤ö§
§
ĐĆÝ§ § 산ö§ 산릤ħ§ § §ð§ħ산 ö§
§ §§§§牨산 릤ð 산§ 릤§ð䘐산§
§ §§§§꺸§ 산릤§牨산 릤§ 릤§䘐산§ 산§ 䘐 ö§
§ ö§ðħ산 §§ 산ħö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䘐산§ 릤§ 䘐 §
§§ §§§§꺸 릤§§䘐산§ 릤§ 䘐 ö§
§
ĐnÝ§§ 산ö§ð§§ꮠ 䨸§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ɬ릤§§§§ð산ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð 䨸§§산 §릤§ 릤ð䨸䬬§
§ §§§꺸 릤§ 䨸§산 §§ 릤§䨸䬬§䨸䬬ꮠ 릤§ 䘐 ö§§
§ ö§ð산§§ðɬ릤ö§
§ §§§꺸 릤ð䨸䬬§䘐산䬬§䨸 §䨸䬬ꮠ 릤§ 䘐 ö§
§
ĐĐÝ§ § 산ö§ð산릤§ § 릤ħ§ § § § §ð산ö§
§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð牨산 §§릤 § 릤ð §
§ ö§ð산§§ð 릤ħö§
§ §§§ 릤ð §§릤 릤 §
§
ĐĖÝ§ 산ö§ð牨䨸ς산릤牨§ § ɬ릤ţţaς§
§ §ð䨸ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð산ꮠ§䨸§ 릤ð §
§ ö§ð䨸§§§ðɬ릤ţţaςö§
§ §§§§ 릤§ §ꮠðꮠ䬬§䨸§
§
Subject + Verb + Object§䘐 § 릤§§
§
સŞî§ꮠ릤§ 릤§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬î§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤䬬§산 §§䬬䨸릤§ ×Ş갬릤 Ý§î§ 산§릤§ §
산ꮠ § 산 § § 산 § § 릤§ ×산ꮠ릤 Ýú 릤牨릤§ î§ ⦜Ýö§ 릤§ 䨸牨릤§ §  § 릤䬬§
릤릤 䬬§  § 릤§ 䬬릤릤ꮠ 산§ 릤ꮠ릤䬬§  § 릤§ 릤 ꮠ산릤ĺ§ 릤릤§ 산릤§ 릤䬬§ 䘐 ꮠ §
릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 릤§릤§ 䀸§ 릤릤§산릤§ 릤§릤䬬§ 산§릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§§䘐§§牨릤§릤§
䬬ö§
§ ꮠ §릤갬산 §§牨 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤§릤䬬§î§䘐릤§ ꮠ §릤 산牨릤䬬§ ꮠ릤§×ĐĜÝ§ĺ§
ĮĀ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĐĜÝ §§§§§§§ ꮠ산牨§§§§릤ħ§§§§산/ꮠ 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ 산牨§䘐 §§§ 릤§ðꮠ 릤ö§
§ §꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐 § 릤§ꮠ 릤ö§
§
§ § ꮠ䬬§ 䘐 § ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 䨸§ 산§ 릤§ 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤§ 릤산䨸릤§ 릤䬬§ § §
䬬 䘐§䨸§ § 릤§§릤ö§ 릤§산릤§ 릤산ꮠ 䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§ 牨§산䬬§ꮠ § 릤§릤 ꮠ ö§
§ꮠ䬬§산䬬§§䬬䬬ꮠ릤§§ § 릤§ ꮠ릤§릤§§릤릤 릤§ 릤§릤§산 § 릤§䬬䨸릤î§
산䬬§䬬 䘐 §ꮠ §×ĐĢÝð×ĐĮÝ§ĺ§§
§
ĐĢÝ§ § 산ö§ §牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §Ű산§ § § ꮠ산牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 ö§§릤산§§§§§§§ꮠ 산牨§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산§ꮠ 산牨ö§
§ ö§ ꮠ산牨§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §Ű산ð䨸ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ 산牨§§સ 산牨릤 §릤산ð ꮠ牨§
§ §§§§꺸ꮠ 산牨î§સ 산牨릤 §릤산§ ꮠ牨ö§
ö§ ꮠ산牨§§§Ű산§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 ö§
§§ §§§꺸ꮠ 산牨§릤산§સ 산牨릤 ö§
§
ĐĨÝ§ 산ö§ §牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § § §Ű산§
§ § § ð 산ꮠö§
§ §§§§§સ 산牨릤 §릤산§§§§§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 §
§ §§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤 ö§
§ ö§§ ð 산ꮠ§§§§§§§§§§Ű산ð 䨸牨§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 ö§
§ §§§§§§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 §§릤산ð 릤牨§§§§§સ§
§ ö§ã ð 산ꮠ§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§Ű산ö§
§
ĐĮÝ§ 산ö§ §ð牨䨸 ꮠ§ § 릤릤ħ§ § §ð 산ö§
§ §§§§§ 릤ð 릤산 牨산䬬릤§牨산 릤§ð䬬䨸릤릤 §§ 릤§ð§갬ꮠ䬬§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§ 릤산 牨산䬬릤§ 산 §牨산 릤§ 릤§갬ꮠ䬬§산䬬䬬§ 릤§릤 산牨ö§
ö ð 산§ 릤릤ħð 䨸牨§§ð牨䨸 ꮠö§
릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§ 牨산 릤ð 릤牨§䬬䨸릤릤 § 릤ð 릤산 牨산䬬릤§
§ §ö§ã§ð 산§ð牨䨸 ꮠ§§ 릤릤ħö§
릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§§ 릤ð 릤산 牨산䬬릤§§牨산 릤ð䬬䨸릤릤 ö§
§
릤§ § ꮠð 牨릤 릤䬬䬬§  § 릤§ ×Ý§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤§ § 릤§ 산§  § 산§
 牨ꮠ 산§ꮠꮠ§ § 릤§릤§§ 산§䨸 §䬬 䘐§산갬릤릤牨릤 § 䘐ꮠ § 릤§䬬䨸릤ö§
§ 릤§ § 牨릤牨릤 § ꮠ § 릤§  릤 § ×2.3Ý §산 §산䬬 §릤 §산 § §산䬬 §ꮠ §×ĐĴÝî §
릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§ꮠ §×ĖĀÝ§ĺ§§
§
ĐĴÝ§ Subject + Verb + (P + NP)
ĖĀÝ§§§§산ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§§ ς산䬬§§§§§§§ § ð 산ö§

§§§§§§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §䬬릤ð牨䬬§§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 §䬬릤§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤ö§
§ §
Syntax ĮĆ
릤§§ 䨸 §릤릤 릤§ 릤§릤§산 § 릤§䬬䨸릤§ 䘐ꮠ 䨸§ 릤§릤산ꮠ䬬산ꮠ § § 산 䀸§
산갬릤릤牨릤 § 릤산䨸릤§ § 릤§릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§䀸릤§ §䬬䨸䨸릤§ꮠ䬬§릤䬬䬬§ 䨸ꮠ릤§ĺ§
§
ĖĆÝ§ ö§ § ð 산§ § ς산䬬§ §ħꮠ산牨§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§䬬릤§ꮠ 산牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§ 산§ꮠ 산牨§䬬릤ö§
ö§ § ð 산§ħꮠ산牨§§ ς산䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§ꮠ 산牨§䬬릤ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§ 산§ꮠ 산牨§䬬릤ö§
§
§  릤 § 릤§ § 牨릤牨릤 §  § 릤§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ § ꮠ䬬§  릤 § 䀸§ ꮠ䬬릤 î§ ꮠ§
릤산릤䬬§ 산§ 릤䬬䨸牨ꮠ릤§  䨸 § 산산 릤 § § 릤§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ § § ꮠ ꮠ산릤§ 산§
牨릤牨릤 §§ 산䬬§산릤 §산릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§  䨸 §릤릤ꮠ릤䬬ú ꮠ䬬 산갬릤䬬§ 릤§산䬬릤§ § 릤§
릤䬬ꮠꮠ ö§
§
ĖnÝ§ 산ö§ ð 산§ § § ꮠ산牨§ § ς산䬬§ § ꮠð 산ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§䬬릤§ꮠ ðꮠ§
§ §§§§§꺸 릤§§ 䨸䬬릤î§ꮠ 산牨§䬬릤§ꮠ §ꮠö§
§ ö§ ð 산§ ς산䬬§ ꮠð 산§§ ꮠ산牨ö§
§ §§§
Subject + Verb + Object1 + Object2§
§
ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䀸 산ꮠ§  릤 § 산 § 릤§ ꮠꮠ 릤 § ꮠ § 䘐§ 䀸릤䬬ĺ§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§  릤§
 䬬ꮠ䬬䬬§ §산§ 릤§ 산§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤䬬§䘐§릤§䬬§ꮠ릤§ 릤§릤§ ςTaa§×갬ꮠ릤Ý§ 릤§
䬬릤 §  릤§ ꮠ 릤䬬§ 산§ 릤§ 산§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 릤산ꮠ §  § 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ § § 릤䘐릤릤 §
릤§ 䘐§ 릤§ 䬬î§ 산§ 릤산ꮠ § 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ ×산 ꮠꮠ 산䀸Ý§ 산릤 § ÑꮠÑ§ 산 §
Ñ牨牨릤 Ñ§ĺ§§
§
ĖĐÝ 산ö§§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§ςţ산§§§§§§산ꮠ §§§§§§§§§ð 䨸䬬ö§
§§સ 산牨릤 §§갬산릤§§ 산 ꮠ §§ 릤ð牨 릤䀸§
§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §갬산릤§ 산 ꮠ §牨 릤䀸ö§
ö §§ςţ산§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§ððς䨸䬬산§§§§ð ꮠ산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§갬산릤§સ牨산 릤 §§ 릤ðꮠ 릤§§ 릤ð릤䬬릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 § 릤릤 § 릤§ꮠ 릤§ 릤§릤䬬릤 ö§
§
§ 릤§산 §䬬릤릤§ 牨§×ĖĐ산Ýð§ ×ĖĐÝ§ 산§ 릤릤§ꮠ䬬§ §릤산ꮠ § § 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ §
릤䘐릤릤 § rašid§ 산 § l-flus§ § 릤䘐릤릤 § l-ςrusa§ § 산 § §l-hdiyaî§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ § 릤§
산䬬릤§ꮠ §×ĖĖÝ§ĺ§§
§
ĖĖÝ 산ö§Ű산 ðꮠ§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §牨ꮠŰö§
§§§§§§§§§§릤ꮠ릤릤 ð§સ 산牨릤 §ꮠ牨牨꬀牨䬬ð䬬갬§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§릤ꮠ릤릤 §સ 산牨릤 §§릤§ꮠö§
§§§§§§ö§ã§Ű산 ðꮠ§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 ö§
§
Įn§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĖĜÝ 산ö§䬬฀산ꮠð§§§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§ 산ς릤䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 䨸갬 ð§§§સ 산牨릤 §§§䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ 䨸갬 §સ 산牨릤 §䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬ö§
§§§§§§§öã䬬฀산ꮠð§સ䨸ħ산牨릤 §§ððððððö§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ 䨸갬 §સ 산牨릤 ⦜⦜§ §
§
릤§ 䨸 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산ꮠ䀸§  § ×Ý§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ×ĖĖÝð×ĖĜÝ§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤§ § 릤§ 산§ 산§ 릤§
䬬릤 § § ×릤 ꮠ산릤Ý§ ꮠ䬬§ 牨ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ 갬î§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ 릤§ 릤䬬§ ÑŰ산 Ñ§ 산 § Ñ산 Ñ§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 산§
䬬릤 §릤§ § ×릤 릤§䘐 릤 §Ñ산 Ñ§§§ 산䬬§ 릤§牨릤산 ꮠ 갬§§ §Ñ䬬릤릤Ñ§×䨸 §§ ð 산§ Ñ§
䬬산䘐§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤ÑÝö§
§ §산 §릤§ 릤 䨸릤 § 牨§ 릤§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§ 릤 䬬§§릤䬬릤 릤 §산릤§ 산§
릤§䨸 릤䀸ꮠ 갬§䬬䨸䨸릤§ꮠ §સŞ§ꮠ䬬§산䬬§ 릤ꮠ릤 §ꮠ §×ĜÝ§§×ꮠö릤ö§⟴§§×䘐 릤릤§§©§
§§î§릤öÝÝö§鯈 § 릤§산䬬ꮠ䬬§ § ꮠ䬬§䬬䨸䨸릤î§䘐릤§산 § 릤ꮠ릤§산ꮠ䨸䬬§
 䬬䨸ꮠ 䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ §×nöĜÝĺ§§§
§
산ö§Subject + Verb§
ö§Subject + Verb + Complement (X)§
ö§Subject + Verb + Object1 + Object2 (where there is no relation of
predication)
§§§ ö Subject + Verb + Object1 + Object2 (where there is a relation of
predication)§
§ §
§  §산§ 릤䬬릤§䬬䨸䨸산§ 릤 䬬î§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䬬ꮠ릤§§䬬릤§산§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 §
릤§ 산  릤§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬§ 䬬牨릤§  䬬산ꮠ 䬬§ § 牨릤牨릤 ö§  § 䘐 산§
䘐䬬î§ 䘐릤§ 䘐ꮠ§ 䀸§ § 䬬䨸䀸§ 릤산 §  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 §  § 릤䬬릤§ 䬬䨸䨸릤䬬ö§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ§
릤 산牨ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 §䀸릤䬬§ §릤 ꮠ산§산 § 䨸 ꮠ 산§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§산 § 䘐§ 릤䀸§
산릤§牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 § ꮠ §સŞ§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ §갬릤 릤산ö§
§ §§
The internal structure of simple sentences
⟴ꮠ牨릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞî§ 산䬬§ꮠ § 릤§ 산䨸산§산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬î§ 䬬ꮠ䬬§ §릤 ꮠ산§
산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ 䬬䨸 § 산䬬§ 䨸䬬§ èîð㮴§ î릤䬬§ ðîè㮴î§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§ ðîð㮴§ 산 §
산 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ èîè㮴ö§ Ş§ 䬬릤 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬산ꮠ § § 릤§ 릤산§ ꮠ § ꮠ§  䬬ꮠ䬬䬬§  § 산 §
릤 ꮠꮠ§릤î§릤갬산 릤䬬䬬§ §䘐 릤 릤§ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ 릤牨산ꮠ§§산 §산䨸 ꮠꮠ산䀸.
The verb§
§
릤 §릤 §ꮠ §સŞ §牨산䀸 §릤 §䬬䀸 산ꮠ산䀸 § 산산릤ꮠ 릤 § § 릤 §산䬬ꮠ䬬 § §ꮠ䬬 §
 䨸갬산ꮠ §×ꮠö릤ö§ 䨸갬 § 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 §릤 䬬릤䬬§ 산§ꮠ§릤  릤䬬Ý§ §산 ꮠ 갬§§
ꮠ䬬§×ꮠ Ý산 䬬ꮠꮠꮠ䀸ö§ 릤§§산ꮠ牨§ § ꮠ䬬§䬬䨸ð䬬릤ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ ꮠ䬬§ꮠ ö§
§
§
§
The imperative and the past
Syntax ĮĐ
§
 § ⟴Şî§ 산䬬§ 릤 䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산릤 § § 릤§ 릤§ 산䬬ꮠ§ 牨§ 牨§ 䘐 ꮠ § 릤§
릤䬬릤 §산 § 릤§ 䨸䨸릤§릤 䬬릤䬬§산 §릤§ 릤ꮠ릤 î§ 䨸갬 § 릤§릤䬬릤 §릤 䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§牨릤§
산䨸䬬ꮠ䀸§ 릤§산䬬ꮠ§ § ꮠ § ꮠ릤䘐§ §ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬릤䨸산§ 산牨ꮠ갬䨸ꮠ䀸§×릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§산䬬§
산 § 릤§ 䨸䨸릤Ýö§Ť䀸§ 산䬬î§ 릤§산䬬ꮠ§릤 䬬릤§ꮠ §સŞ§릤䬬§ꮠ䬬§牨릤§ꮠ릤䀸§§릤§
릤§ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤ö§ 릤§ 牨산ꮠ § 릤산䬬 § ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤§ 릤䬬릤 § 산 § 릤§ 䨸䨸릤§릤 䬬릤䬬§ 산릤§
릤ꮠ릤 § 牨§ 릤§ ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤ö§ 릤§ ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§ 牨§ 산 § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤 § § 릤 릤䬬䬬§ 산§
산䬬§산ꮠ ö§릤§ 산§ 릤§ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§산 § 릤§산䬬§릤 䬬릤§§ 산릤§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§릤산§
牨ö§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 릤§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤牨§ 산 § 릤䬬䬬릤 ꮠ산䀸§ § 릤§ 牨산 릤§ 䀸§ 牨릤산 䬬§  §
산 릤䬬§ §ꮠ牨릤ö§
§
ĖĢÝ §§§§산ö§갬릤䬬§§ § ð 산§§ 산산ö§
§§䬬산䀸§§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§ 䘐§
§§§§§§§§꺸䬬산䀸§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§ 䘐ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ö§릤§§ ð 산䬬§§ 산산§Œ산䘐§§§g산 산§ú§ãŒ산䘐§ð산릤ħöö§
§ §§§§䘐ꮠ릤§ 릤ð릤䬬䬬 §§ 䘐§§牨䘐§ú§§ 릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§ §§§§꺸ꮠ릤§ 릤§릤䬬䬬 § 䘐ú牨䘐úã§ 䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
ĖĨÝ §§§§산ö§§ 릤§§§§§§§§§ ð 산§§§§§§§§§ħ산§ 산 ꮠö§
§§§§릤 릤릤 ð 릤§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§ 䘐§ 갬§ ꮠ䬬§
§§§§릤§릤 릤릤 § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§§산§ 갬§ꮠ牨릤§산갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ö§§ 릤§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ð 산§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ς산 § 산산ö§
§ §§§§§릤 릤릤 ð 릤§§ð 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§산ö§ 䘐ö§
§ §§§§꺸릤§§ 산䬬§䨸䬬§릤 릤릤 § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤ö§
§ §
릤§ 산 § 산䬬§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 § 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§ ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§ 산 § 릤§ 산䬬§ 䀸§ 릤§
×  릤ꮠÝ§릤산ꮠ䬬산ꮠ § § 릤§䬬䨸릤§§ꮠ䬬§산䬬릤 릤ö§ § 릤§䬬䨸릤§산릤산䬬§䘐ꮠ §
ö/aĺ§§§wa:§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
릤§ ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§ 릤ö§ § 릤릤 䬬§ § 릤§ 릤릤 릤 § § 䀸§ 산§ 산ꮠ릤§ 산ꮠ릤§ 䬬䨸 § 산䬬§
§
ĖĮÝ 산ö§/산§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §갬릤䬬§§ ð 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§산§§§સ 산牨릤 §§§§§§§§§§䬬산䀸§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§§§§§§§§§꺸�䨸§સ 산牨릤 î§䬬산䀸§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§
§§§§§§ö§/산§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § 䨸§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ð 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§산§§§§§સ§릤 릤ð牨䬬ð䬬갬§ð 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§§
§§§§§§§§§꺸�䨸§સ 산牨릤 î§갬릤§§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤ö§
§ §
 § 릤§산䬬§릤 䬬릤î§ 릤§䬬䨸릤§牨산䀸§ § 릤릤 §§릤§릤릤 릤 §䀸§䬬䨸 §산§ 산ꮠ릤§
산ꮠ릤ö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§
ĖĴÝ §§§§산ö§ã§/산§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§§§§§§갬릤䬬§§§§§§§§§§§§ § ð 산ö§
§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §§§䬬산䀸릤 ð 릤§§§§ꮠ § 릤§ð 䨸䬬릤§
§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §䬬산䀸릤 §산§ 牨릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
öã§䘐산§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § 릤§ð 산§§ð산릤ħö§
§§§ãસ 산牨릤 § î§릤 릤§ð 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
ĮĖ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§§§꺸ãસ 산牨릤 § 릤§ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
§ 릤§릤산§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§산䬬§ 산 § 릤§ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§ 牨䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤§§ 릤§
산䬬릤 릤§ §牨 갬ꮠ산§산䬬릤î§ 산䬬§ 릤§산릤§§ ꮠ䬬§ 갬릤 릤산䀸§ § 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § § 릤§
ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산§릤 ꮠ 갬䬬î§ 산䬬§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §릤䘐ĺ§
§
ĜĀÝ § § § § §산ö§
§ 䨸§ 산§ö§ § §§§§§§§§×ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤Ý§
§§§§갬§䨸ð䀸䨸§
§§§꺸§䨸ö§
ö§ 䨸§ð䘐릤 ö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§×산䬬Ý§
§§§§䘐릤 §䨸§§ 릤§䀸§
§§§꺸 릤§䀸§䘐릤 §䨸ö§
§
ĜĆÝ§ 산ö§ 릤ħ§ð산ðö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§×ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤Ý§
§ §§§릤 § 릤ð§ §
§ §§§§꺸鯈릤 § 릤§ ö§
§ ö§ 릤ħ§ð산ðö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§×산䬬Ý§
§ §§§릤 릤 ð 릤§§ 릤ð§ §
§ §§§§꺸릤§릤 릤 § 릤§ ö§
§
The present tense
릤§ 릤䬬릤 § 릤 䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 산§ 산§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤䀸§
산䬬릤䨸산§산 §산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 §䘐ꮠ §䘐§릤 ꮠ 릤䬬î§ 산牨릤䀸î§ tað§산 §kaðĺ§
ĜnÝ§ § § § 산ö§ § 산ꮠ §산ð§릤ς산ö§

§§§§§ 산ꮠ §산ð산䀸䬬§
§§§§꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §산䀸䬬ö§
ö 산ꮠ §§§산§§릤ς산ö§
 산ꮠ §산§ð산䀸䬬§
꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §산䀸䬬ö§
§
§ 릤§ 릤䬬릤 § 릤 䬬릤§ ꮠ § સŞ§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ 䘐산䀸§ 산䬬§ ꮠ䬬§
릤䬬 ꮠ 갬§ § 牨§ ꮠ § ⟴산 산 § Ş산ꮠ§ ×⟴ŞÝ§ ꮠ § 산§ 릤§ 릤산§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ §
릤 릤䬬䬬릤䬬§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § 䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬䨸릤î§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 릤 ꮠ §  릤䀸䬬§ 릤䬬 § 산 §
갬릤 릤§䘐 ꮠ릤§ 릤§䬬䨸 ꮠ §ꮠ ꮠ산릤䬬§ 䨸牨릤î§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§
§
ĜĐÝ§ ð 산§산ð릤ς䨸§ § 산산ö§ § § §×સŞÝ§
§
릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§산ð산䀸§ 䘐§
꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ䬬§산릤§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 䘐ö§
§
ĜĖÝ §§§§§§산ð산 산ĺ§§산ς산 산§§ð/산ĺ 산§§§×⟴ŞÝ§
릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§산䀸ð ð§ 릤ð 䘐§
꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ䬬§산릤§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 䘐ö§
Syntax ĮĜ
§
Verbs in the passive voice
산䬬䬬ꮠꮠ 릤 §릤䬬§ 산릤§갬릤 릤산䀸§산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤î§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§릤 ꮠ산§䬬䨸릤§ ꮠ䬬§

릤릤릤 § 산 § 릤산릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 릤§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산ꮠ䬬릤 § § ꮠ䬬§ 䬬ꮠꮠ § 산 §
산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§ 䨸 ꮠ ö§  § ⟴산 산 § Ş산ꮠ§ î§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 릤§
산릤䬬§ 릤§ 산䬬릤§  § 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ ꮠ§  산 갬릤䬬§ 牨§ 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤§ § 牨ꮠ 산ꮠ릤§
산䬬§릤산䀸§§ꮠ ꮠ산릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§릤 산牨릤䬬§ĺ§§
§
ĜĜÝ §§§§§산ö§산산산§§ 산䀸 ð䨸 §§ ð 산䬬ð산ö§
§§§§䘐릤§§§산䀸 ð 䨸 § 릤§ð릤䬬䬬 ð산§
§§§§꺸산䀸 §§䘐릤§ 릤§릤䬬䬬 ö§
ö§䨸ꮠ산§§ ð 산䬬ð䨸§
§§§§䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ릤 § 릤ð릤䬬䬬 ð 䨸 §
§§§§꺸 릤§§릤䬬䬬 §䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ릤 ö§
§
 §સŞ§î§ 릤§산䬬䬬ꮠ릤§릤§ꮠ䬬§牨릤갬릤 §䘐ꮠ § 릤§牨 릤牨릤§×릤 ꮠ Ýî§§산䬬§ꮠ ĺ§
§
ĜĢÝ §§§§§산ö§ 산ꮠ §§산ð䀸릤ς산§§ð䨸산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 산ꮠ §§§산䀸䬬§§§§§ 릤ð산§
§ §§§§꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §§산䀸䬬§ 산ö§
§ ö§ð릤ς릤§§§§§§§§§ð䨸산ö§
§ §§§§䘐산䬬ð산䀸릤 § 릤ð산§
ö§산ððς산§§ð䨸산ö§
§§§§산ð산ö§ꮠ䬬ð산䀸릤 § 릤ð산§
§§§§꺸 산§ꮠ䬬§산䀸릤 ö§
§
릤§ 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤§ ꮠ릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤산䀸§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 산릤§ ꮠ § 릤§ 산䬬§ 릤 䬬릤î§ 䨸§ § ꮠ § 릤§
릤䬬릤 § 릤 䬬릤ö§ 릤§ § 릤䬬ꮠꮠ § bi,§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산산 릤 § § r-rel§ Ñ 릤 § Ñ §î § §
릤䬬 䬬§§ 릤§§ by-phrase§ꮠ § Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 §§§ min qibal§산 § min ladun§ú§牨ꮠ §
taraf × § 릤§산§ Ý§ꮠ §⟴Şî§산䬬§䬬 䘐 §ꮠ ĺ§
§
ĜĨÝ §§§§§§ð릤ς릤§ð䨸산§ðð릤§§ ×સŞÝ§
䘐산䬬ð산䀸릤 § 릤ð산§䘐ꮠ ð 릤ð §
꺸 릤§§산§䘐산䬬§산䀸릤 §䘐ꮠ § 릤§ ö§
§
ĜĮÝ §§§§§§ɬ䨸 ꮠ 산ð§ð䨸산ð䨸§§牨ꮠ §산산 §牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§ ×⟴ŞÝ§
䘐산䬬§䬬 § 릤ð산§ 牨§산§સ§
꺸 릤§§산§䘐산䬬§䬬 § § 릤§산§ §સ 산牨릤 ö§
§
§
§
§
§
ĮĢ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
Verbs indicating the future
릤䬬릤§ 릤䬬§ 산릤§ 릤릤 릤 § 䀸§ 䬬牨릤§ Ñ 릤ꮠ 갬Ñ§ 릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 䬬§ 䬬䨸 § 산䬬§ g산î§
§
g산 ꮠî§ 산산î§䬬산ħ§⦜§ 릤§§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§릤 산牨릤䬬§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ § § 릤䬬릤§

§
牨䬬§ĺ§
§
ĜĴÝ 산ö§ ꮠ산牨§g산§ð䬬산 릤§g산 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ 산牨§䘐ꮠ§산릤ðĐ§牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§牨䘐§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐ꮠ§산릤§牨䘐ö§
§§§§§§ö§ ꮠ산牨§g산 ꮠ§§ð䬬산 릤ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ 산牨§䘐ꮠ§산릤ðĐ§牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐ꮠ§산릤ö§
ö§ ꮠ산牨§ 산산§§ð䬬산 릤ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ 산牨§ 䘐§산릤öĐ牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐ꮠ§산릤§ 䘐ö§
릤§§ 䨸䨸릤§산 § 산릤§산䬬§ 릤 릤릤 릤§䘐ꮠ § 릤§䨸䬬릤§ § 릤§산ꮠ릤§ ga§§

§
gadi§×䘐ꮠÝ§릤릤 릤 §䀸§kan§§×䘐산䬬Ýî§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§

§
ĢĀÝ 산ö§산 §g산§ð䬬산 릤§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ꮠ산牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ§산릤ðĐö牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§ꮠ䬬 산牨§
§§§§§§§§§꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐산䬬§갬ꮠ 갬§§산릤ö§
§§§§§§ö§산 §g산 ꮠ§§ð䬬산 릤§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ꮠ산牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§§䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ§산릤ðĐö牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§§§ꮠ䬬 산牨§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐산䬬§갬ꮠ 갬§§산릤ö§
§§§§§§ö§산 §⟴산ħ§ð䬬산 릤§ ꮠ산牨§
䘐산䬬§ꮠ갬 § 䘐§산릤öĐö牨䬬ö䬬갬§ꮠ 산牨§
§
ꮠ䬬§䀸릤§ §䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ 산䬬§산§ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ ö§
§
ĢĆÝ §§§§§§산 §§g산§ð䬬산 릤§ ꮠ산牨§䘐산§산ꮠ § ς산䬬§
䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ§산릤§öĐö牨䬬§ꮠ 산牨§산 §䨸§䬬릤ð 릤§
꺸ꮠ 산牨§䘐산䬬§갬ꮠ 갬§§산릤§䨸§ 릤§릤牨산ꮠ 릤 §산䬬릤릤ö§
§ § §
Helping verbs
릤ꮠ 갬§릤䬬§ 릤 릤§ §산䨸 ꮠꮠ산ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 牨산䀸§릤릤 릤§牨산ꮠ §릤䬬§

§ 릤 릤䬬䬬§ 牨 산ꮠ䀸ö§ ⟴牨릤§  § 릤牨§ 산릤§ ꮠ갬산ꮠ䀸§ 䨸䬬릤 § § 牨§ 릤갬산ꮠ릤î§
ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§산 §산䬬䬬ꮠ릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§산䬬§ꮠ § 릤§산䬬릤§ §Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 ö§
 §ꮠ릤䘐§ § 릤§ 산§ 산§ 릤ꮠ 갬§릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞ§산릤§逄䬬 갬§䘐ꮠ §릤갬산 §
§ 릤 䬬릤î§ 릤䀸§ 산 § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤 § § 릤 릤䬬䬬§ 릤§ 산䬬§ § 릤§ 䨸䨸릤ö§ ⟴䨸 § 릤䬬§
ꮠ 䨸 릤§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬ĺ§§
§
Syntax ĮĨ
Helping verbs for the past Helping verbs for the future
산 § § § ×§릤Ý§ § § §§g산§×䘐산 Ý§§§§§§§§§§
릤牨§§§§§§×䬬산Ý§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤䬬§§× 릤릤 Ý§
ɬ산§§§§§§§×릤릤Ý§§§§§§§ § §§ς산䘐릤 §×릤릤산Ý§
§
 §  릤§ § 릤牨 䬬산릤§ 산§ 䬬䨸 § 릤ꮠ 갬§ 릤䬬§ 릤 릤§ § 릤 䬬릤î§ 릤ꮠ§
ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ §䘐ꮠ§릤§릤䬬릤 §䀸§ 릤§䨸䬬릤§ § 산 릤䬬î§ 䬬牨릤§ § 䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ ꮠ산릤§ 릤§
산䬬§䘐 ꮠ릤§ 릤䬬§ꮠ ꮠ산릤§ 䨸䨸ꮠ䀸§ĺ§§
§
ĢnÝ 산ö§산 §§g산 ꮠ§ð䬬산 릤§§ð산릤ħ§ú§ã§g산 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ§산릤ðĐö牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸úã§牨䘐§
§§§§§§§§§§×릤§䘐산䬬§갬ꮠ 갬§§산릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§úã牨䘐Ýö§
§
ĢĐÝ§§§§릤牨§g산 ꮠ§§§§§§§§ð산릤ħ§䨸ħ 䨸§ú§ã§g산 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§䬬산릤 §갬ꮠ 갬§§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§산 릤§ú§ã§牨䘐§
§§§§§§§§§꺸릤§䬬산릤 §갬ꮠ 갬§산 릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ú§ã牨䘐ö§
§
ĢĖÝ§§§§ɬ산§§g산 ꮠ§§牨ð䬬산 릤§§ð산릤ħ§úã§g산 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§릤ð 릤§갬ꮠ 갬§산릤ꮠ 갬§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§úã牨䘐§
§§§§§§§§§꺸릤§릤§산릤ꮠ 갬§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ú§ã§牨䘐ö§
§
ĢĜÝ§§§§ς산䘐릤 §§§§산§§ð산릤ħ§§ú§§ § ã§g산 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§릤릤산릤 §산牨릤§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ú§ã牨䘐§
§§§§§§§§§꺸릤§산牨릤§산갬산ꮠ §䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ú§ã§牨䘐ö§
ĢĢÝ §§§§ 릤䬬§§ðꮠ§§g산 산§ú 산산úãð산릤ħö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤릤 §산牨릤§ð 릤§牨䘐ú 䘐úã§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸릤§ 릤릤 䬬§§牨릤§牨䘐ú 䘐úã䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö
Conditional sentences
§ §
§w kakan 산 §/ila§×ꮠ Ý§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§

§ Ū ꮠꮠ 산§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§산릤§ 릤 §䨸䬬릤 §䘐ꮠ §䬬䨸 §릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 䬬§§ 산䬬§ lukan§
§
ĢĨÝ§ § § § § § 䨸산 § § § 산§ §䨸 ð§牨릤ꮠ 산ö§
§ §§§§§ꮠ ð䘐산䬬§산牨릤§䘐산릤 ð§
산ö§ /ila§§산î§ ð牨ꮠð䘐§§牨ς산ð ö§

§ §§§§꺸 § 릤§산牨릤§î§䘐릤§䘐䨸 §산릤§산§䘐산ö§
ĢĮÝ§
§ §§§§§ꮠ §§산牨릤§§갬ð䘐릤§䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨§
§ §§§§§꺸 § 릤§牨릤䬬î§䘐릤§䘐ꮠ§갬§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ牨ö§
§ ö§w kakan§ðꮠð䘐§§ 牨ꮠ䘐ö§
§ §§§§ꮠ §䘐산䬬§牨릤ð䀸䨸ð§갬ð䘐릤§
§ §§§§꺸 §䀸䨸§牨릤î§䘐릤§䘐ꮠ§갬ö§
§
ĮĮ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĢĴÝ§ /ila ꮠ§ ð牨ꮠð䘐§
§§§§ꮠ §牨릤ð䀸䨸§§§§갬ð䘐릤§
§§§§꺸 §䀸䨸§牨릤î§䘐릤§䘐ꮠ§갬ö§
§
 § 牨䬬§  릤 䬬§  §  ꮠꮠ î§ 䘐§ 릤䬬§ 산릤§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § § ĺ§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§  릤§ ꮠ䬬§
릤 릤䬬䬬릤 §ꮠ § 릤§산䬬§ × 牨Ýî§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ 릤§䬬릤 §ꮠ䬬§䬬릤릤 §䨸§䘐ꮠ §§릤䬬릤 §§ §
䨸䨸릤§ 릤 릤릤 릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 䬬산 ꮠ산릤 § 䀸§ § ×ĢĨÝ§ 산 § ×ĢĮ산Ýö§ 릤§ § ꮠ䬬§ 산 § 릤§
䬬릤 §릤§§牨ꮠ갬 §릤§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 §ꮠ § 릤§릤䬬릤 §산 § 릤§ 䨸䨸릤î§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĢĮ§îĢĴÝö§
§
Simple nominal sentences§
§
§ 릤§§산䬬ꮠ§ 䬬䨸䨸릤§§ § 산§䬬ꮠ牨릤§䬬릤 릤 릤§ꮠ §સŞ§산 §릤§릤릤䬬릤 릤 î§
산䬬§ꮠ §§ĺ§
§
70) NP +PP /Adjective/ derived nominal (subject / object)
§
䨸䬬산ꮠ릤§릤 산牨릤䬬§산릤§갬ꮠ릤 §릤䘐§ĺ§§
§
ĨĆÝ§ § 산ö§ 산ꮠ § § §§ § ð 산ö§
§ §§§‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §§§ꮠ § 릤§ð 䨸䬬릤§
§ §§§꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§산§ 牨릤ö§
§ ö§ 산ꮠ §§牨ꮠŰö§
§ §§§ 산ꮠ §§ꮠð牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§
§ §§§꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§ꮠö§
§ ö§ 산ꮠ §§§牨䬬䨸 §ú§牨䬬산 릤ö§
§ §§§§ 산ꮠ §§ 산䨸 릤 §ú§산릤ꮠ 갬§
§ §§§§꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§ 산䨸 릤 ú§산릤ꮠ 갬ö§
ö§ 산ꮠ §§ 산ς릤䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 산ꮠ §§䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬ð牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸‫ ﵌‬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬ö§
§
§  § 䬬䨸 § 牨ꮠ 산§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬î§ 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤ö§ Ű릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 릤䬬䬬§ ꮠ䬬§
ꮠ ꮠ산릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 릤 ꮠ § alð§ × 릤Ýî§ § 산§ 릤牨 䬬산ꮠ릤§  䨸 § §  䬬䨸§
䬬산릤§§ 牨䬬§ꮠ§䨸 §산䬬§릤§산§릤 ꮠ산§ 䨸 î§䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§산§䬬 갬§ꮠ ꮠ산§ §
릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 릤䬬䬬§ú× 릤 ꮠ ꮠ䨸 릤Ý§릤산䨸䬬릤§산§ 牨§산 § 릤§ 牨ꮠ 산ꮠ䬬릤 §䨸 ꮠ§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§
牨릤 ꮠ 릤 § 릤 릤§ĺ§§
§
ĨnÝ§ § 산ö§ §ð릤 § § 牨 § ꮠŰ산ö§
§ §§§§§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§§ꮠð 릤牨ö䬬갬§
§ §§§§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ꮠö§
ö 산 §§ð릤 §§牨ꮠŰ산ö§
ꮠ䬬§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§ꮠð 릤牨ö䬬갬ö§
ö§§§/산 산§§§牨䬬산 릤§§§ðð산ö§

§ §§§§§§꺸 ꮠ䬬§갬ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ꮠö§
§
Syntax ĮĴ
§ §§§§§§§§§§§산릤ꮠ 갬ð牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§§§§ 산산§
§ §§§§§§§꺸§산牨§산릤ꮠ 갬§§ 산산ö§
§ ö§§§ 산산§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§牨릤 ꮠ산 산ö§
§ §§§§§§䨸䬬릤§§§× Ý§§સ§§갬 ð 릤牨ö䬬갬ö§
§ §§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 Ñ䬬§ 䨸䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§갬 ö§
§
§ § ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬§ 䬬䬬ꮠ릤§ § 산§ 牨ꮠ 산§ 䬬릤 릤 릤§ § 릤§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ 산§
릤 릤ꮠ릤§릤§䬬䨸 §산䬬§Ñ산 Ñ§§§×䘐산䬬Ý§ĺ§§§
§
ĨĐÝ§ § § § § § § 산 ð§ § § §ð릤 § § §牨ꮠŰ산ö§
§ §§§§§§䘐산䬬ð 릤牨§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§§ꮠð 릤牨ð䬬갬§
§ §§§§§§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ§䘐산䬬§ꮠö§
§
Demonstrative pronouns
§ §
§ Ű릤牨 䬬산ꮠ릤§ 䨸䬬§ 牨산䀸§릤§䨸䬬릤 §§릤 릤䬬䬬§  ꮠ牨ꮠ䀸§×릤ö갬ö§ had§
逄 ꮠ䬬Ý§§ ꮠ䬬산 릤§×릤ö갬ö§dak§逄 산Ý§ĺ§§
§
ĨĖÝ 산ö§§had§§ð䘐릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§§ ꮠ䬬§§ 릤ð䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 ꮠ䬬§䀸§
ö§§dak §ð䘐릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§ 산§ 릤ð䀸§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 산§䀸§
§
릤䬬릤§  䨸䬬§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산§ § ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸산§ 䘐 릤 § ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬§
ꮠ䬬산 릤ö§ 䘐릤릤î§ 릤§ 릤牨 䬬산ꮠ릤§  䨸 §  §  ꮠ牨ꮠ䀸§ 릤䬬§ § ꮠ 릤§
§ 릤§ 䨸산î§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§  ð릤 ꮠ䬬릤 § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산§  릤䀸릤 § § 䀸§ 릤§
ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ § § 릤§ 릤릤§牨 릤牨릤§ § 䨸牨릤§ žuž§ ×䘐Ýî§§산䬬§§ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ 릤§산䬬릤§䘐ꮠ §
䨸䬬§ꮠ §갬릤 릤산§ĺ§
ĨĜÝ 산ö§§§had§§§§ð䘐릤 §
ꮠ䬬§§§§ 릤ð䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 ꮠ䬬§䀸§
ö§§§ 산 §§ð䨸산 §
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤䬬릤§§ 릤ð䀸䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 䬬릤§䀸䬬§
§
ĨĢÝ 산ö§dak §§§ð䘐릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§ 산§§§§ 릤§ð䀸§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 산§䀸§
§§§§§§ö§duk §ð䨸산 §
§§§§§§§§§§ 䬬릤§ 릤ð䀸䬬§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 䬬릤§䀸䬬§
§
ĴĀ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĨĨÝ§산ö§had§§§䨸§§ 산ꮠ§§§
§§§§§§§§§§ ꮠ䬬§§§䘐§§§䀸䬬§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 䬬릤§䘐§䀸䬬§
§§§§§§ö§§duk 䨸§§§ 산ꮠ§
§§§§§§§§§§§ 䬬릤§§䘐§§䀸䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 䬬릤§䘐§䀸䬬§
§
§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤牨 䬬산ꮠ릤§  䨸䬬§ § §  산 갬릤§ 릤ꮠ§ 牨§
牨§ 릤§ 䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산§ § 릤§ 䨸산§ 䘐 릤 § ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬§  ꮠ牨ꮠ䀸î§ 산䬬§ ꮠ § ×ĨĜÝî§ ꮠ §
 산䬬§ 䘐ꮠ § 릤§§ 䬬ꮠ䨸산ꮠ § 䘐 릤 §산§ 릤牨 䬬산ꮠ릤§ 䨸 §ꮠ ꮠ산릤䬬§ ꮠ䬬산 릤§
×ĨĢÝö§ § ꮠ䬬§산䬬릤î§ 릤§ 牨§ 산 갬릤䬬§ 牨§ 릤§䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산§§ 릤§䨸산î§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĨĢÝ§
산 §§×ĨĨÝ§䘐ꮠ § 릤§ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ §×산 ꮠꮠ Ý§ §žuž§§§릤 릤䬬䬬§ 릤§ 䨸산§ĺ§§
§
Attributives vs. predicatives and their properties within the sentence §
§ §
§§§§§Ş§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§릤䀸§ §릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤§산 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞ§ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤䀸§牨산䀸§
䨸§䘐ꮠ §산 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ § 릤ꮠ릤 § 牨ꮠ 산䬬ĺ§
ĨĮÝ 산ö§ð䘐릤 §§§§§§ ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§§§§§§ö§ð䘐릤 §§§§ţ䘐ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§§산§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§ꮠ䬬§산ö§
§§§§§§ö§ð䘐릤 §§§§산릤§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ð 산䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§§䘐ꮠꮠ 갬§牨䬬ö§䬬갬§§ 릤ð릤䬬䬬 §
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§ 산䬬§䘐ꮠ릤 § 릤§릤䬬䬬 §
§
ĨĴÝ§산ö§ ð 산䬬§§§§§§§§§§牨릤䨸ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤§릤䬬䬬 §§§§䘐ꮠ릤 §ð牨䬬§§
§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§릤䬬䬬 §ꮠ䬬§䘐ꮠ릤 ö§
§ § § § §ö§ð산§
§ § 牨릤ɬ 䨸ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð §§§䬬릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§ §§ꮠ䬬§䬬릤 ö§
§
ĨĴÝ 산ö§䬬ð䬬牨산§§ 릤ɬ산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䬬䀸§䨸릤§릤牨산䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䬬䀸§ꮠ䬬§䨸릤ö§
§§§§§§ö§ð牨산§§§§§§§§ 산ɬö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䘐산릤§䨸릤§×ꮠ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤Ý§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䘐산릤§ꮠ䬬§䨸릤ö§
§
ĮĆÝ 산ö§ð䘐릤 §§§§牨릤 산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸§§§ ꮠ릤§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤ö§
Syntax ĴĆ
§§§§§§ö§ð䘐산 §§牨릤 산 ðꮠ ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð§䀸䬬§§ ꮠ릤ð§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸䬬§산릤§ ꮠ릤ö§
§
§ 릤§ 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ릤§ § 산ꮠ䨸ꮠ릤§ 산 릤ꮠ릤§ 산갬릤릤䬬§ 䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § §
ꮠ § 䨸牨릤î§갬릤 릤§ 산 §×ꮠ Ý§ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 릤䬬䬬§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§
§
ĮnÝ§ 산ö§䘐산ħ릤 § §ð䘐릤 § §牨릤 산 ö§
§§§§ 릤§ 릤ð䀸§§§§§§§§ ꮠ릤ð牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§
§§§§꺸Ş§ ꮠ릤§䀸§
ö§ꮠ§§䘐산 §§牨릤 산 ðꮠ ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§䬬牨릤§䀸䬬§ ꮠ릤§牨䬬öö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 꺸⟴牨릤§䀸䬬§§§산릤§ ꮠ릤ö§
§
ĮĐÝ§ 산ö§ð릤 § 牨 § 릤 산 산ö§ §
§§§§§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§§ ꮠ릤ð 牨ö䬬갬ö§
§§ §§§§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤ö§
§ ö§ð 산§§ð牨릤 산 ð산§
§§ § § §§ 릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§ § 릤ð ꮠ릤ð 릤牨ö§ § § § § §
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§ ꮠ릤§갬ꮠ䬬§
§
§ 릤§ 산 릤ꮠ릤§ 牨산䀸§ § 릤릤 릤§ 릤§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 릤릤牨릤 § 산 䨸갬 § ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§
릤 릤산릤§ ꮠ § 䬬牨릤§ 산䬬릤䬬î§ § 산 § ꮠ§ 산갬릤릤§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ§ ꮠ § 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 릤䬬䬬§ ꮠ § ꮠ§ 䨸䬬§
릤 릤§ꮠ§ĺ§§
§
ĮĖÝ§ 산ö§牨릤 산 §䘐산ħ릤 §ð䘐릤 ö§
§§§§ ꮠ릤ö牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§ 릤§ 릤ð䀸§
§§§§꺸Ş§䀸§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤ö§
ö§牨릤 산 ðꮠ §ꮠ§䘐산 ö§
§§§§ ꮠ릤ð牨䬬ö§䬬갬ö§§⟴牨릤§䀸䬬§
§§§§꺸⟴牨릤§䀸䬬§산릤§ ꮠ릤ö§
§
ĮĜÝ §§§§§산ö§牨릤 산 ð산§§§§§§릤 ð§
§§§ ꮠ릤ð 릤牨ö䬬갬ö§§§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§
§ §§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤§
§ öã§ð牨릤 산 ð산§§§§§§§ð 산§
§ §§§§ 릤ð§ ꮠ릤§ 릤牨ö§䬬갬ö§ 릤§ð갬ꮠ䬬§§§§§
Prepositional and adverbial phrases§

Ĵn§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§
Prepositions
§ સ䬬§ × § 릤Ý§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§ 䨸§ 䘐ꮠ § 䨸䬬§  § ꮠ 릤릤 § 䀸릤䬬§ 산䬬§

䘐릤§산䬬§ 䨸䬬§ĺ§§
§
ĮĢÝ §§§ ð×ꮠ Ýî§ð×Ýî§ς산§× Ýî§牨ς산§×䘐ꮠ Ýî§牨릤 §× 牨Ýî§ς산 §×산Ý⦜§
§
⟴䨸 §릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§릤릤 릤§§산§䬬î§ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬§ 䨸䬬ĺ§§
§
ĮĨÝ§산ö§ § ð 산§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ς산 §§ ð 산§§§§§§§§ ð ð 산§ § §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§
ꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§§§§§§§§§§§§산§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§§§§§§§§§ð 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§ §§§ §
§§§§§§§§§ð ð 산§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§牨ς산§ ð 산§ §§§§§§§牨릤 § ð 산§
§§§§§§§§§䘐ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§§§§§§§䘐ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§§§§§§§牨§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§
§ § §§§§§§§§§§§§
§§§§§ö§䨸 §§ ð ð 산ö§ § 䨸 §§ς산 §§ ð 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§ §䘐산䬬§ꮠ ð 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§ §§䘐산䬬§산§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐산䬬§산§ 牨릤ö§§ §§䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 산牨ꮠ䀸ö§
§
§§§§§§§§§牨ꮠ§§ð ð 산ö§ § 牨ꮠ§牨ς산§ ð 산ö§§
§§§§§§§§§§䘐릤 §§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§ §䘐릤 §䘐ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§ § § § § § §꺸§䘐릤
§§ § 牨릤ö§ § 꺸§䘐릤 §䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 산牨ꮠ䀸ö§
§
ĮĮÝ§§§§§릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§산릤§산산 릤 §§ 䨸䬬ĺ§§
§
ꮠð산§§§§§§ú§ ꮠð§§§§î§ς산 ðꮠ§§ú§ς산 릤ð§§§§§§§§î§ꮠð산ú§ꮠð§
 ð牨릤§ú§ꮠ §ð䀸䨸î§§§ 산릤ú§䀸䨸§ 산릤úî§§§§§§牨릤úð䀸䨸§
§
ꮠð산§§§§ú§ꮠð 䨸牨§§§§§ꮠð산ú§ꮠð§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ꮠð 산§
ð 릤§§ú§ð 릤牨§§§䀸§牨릤ú§䀸ð䀸䨸§§§§ꮠ ð 릤§
§
Ŷ산 § § 릤䬬릤§릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§ 산䬬§산§산ꮠ䨸산§牨릤산 ꮠ 갬§ 릤릤 ꮠ 갬§ § 릤§ 릤 §
ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ§䨸䬬§ĺ§§
§
ĮĴÝ§§§§§䨸 § ð ð 산ö§
§§§§§䘐산䬬§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§§§§꺸§䘐산䬬§산§ 牨릤úꮠ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤ö§
§
ĴĀÝ §§§§§䨸 §§ς산 § ð 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐산䬬§산§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐산䬬§산§牨䀸§ 산牨ꮠ䀸Ñ䬬§ 䨸䬬릤§ú§ 릤산§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤ö§
§
 §×ĮĴÝ§î§ 릤§릤䬬ꮠꮠ §§f§§牨릤산 䬬§³ꮠ ³§§䘐 ꮠ릤§ςand§ꮠ §×ĴĀÝ§牨릤산 䬬§³ 릤산³ö§
§
Syntax ĴĐ
䨸 § 산䬬릤䬬§ 牨산䀸§ § 릤릤 릤§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§  릤䘐ꮠ䬬릤î§ 릤§ 릤䬬䨸§ ꮠ䬬§ 산 §
䨸 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§䬬릤 릤 릤ĺ§§
§
ĴĆÝ§ ã§牨ꮠ§ § ð 산§ §ς산 § §ú§牨ꮠ§ς산 § § ð 산ö§
§ §§䘐릤 §§§§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§§§ú§§䘐릤 §산§ 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§ 꺸§䘐릤 §§ 릤§ 산牨ꮠ䀸Ñ䬬§ 䨸䬬릤ö§
§
Adverbs
§
×䬬䨸 §산䬬§l-bareħ§Ñ䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸Ñî§l-yum§Ñ 산䀸Ñî§gaddaî§³牨䘐Ñî§§daba§Ñ 䘐Ñ⦜Ý§

Ş 릤䬬 §ꮠ §સ산 §Ş산ꮠ §산릤 § ꮠꮠ 릤 §ꮠ  §䘐 §䀸릤䬬 §ĺ §산 릤䬬 § §ꮠ牨릤 §
산 § 산 릤䬬§  § 산릤§ § ×릤ö갬ö§ hna§ Ñ 릤릤Ñî§ hnak, l-hih§ Ñ 릤릤Ñî§ fuq§ Ñ릤Ñî§ teħt§
Ñ䨸 릤Ñî§enb§Ñ 릤산Ñî§qeddam§Ñꮠ §  § Ñî§l-lur§Ñ릤 ꮠ Ñ⦜§
§ Ş 릤䬬§ §산릤§산릤§ 릤 §산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 §䘐ꮠ §men§Ñ 牨Ñ§§l-§ÑÑĺ§
ĴnÝ§ 䬬ꮠ§ð 䨸ɬ§ § § § § §ú§䬬ꮠ§牨릤
§§ §ð 䨸ɬ§ ú§䬬ꮠ§牨릤 §릤牨牨산§
§ 갬§ð릤§§§ú갬§ 牨§ 릤ð릤§ ú§갬§ 牨§ 릤릤§
§ 갬§릤§ 릤릤§§ú§갬§ 牨§릤§ 릤릤§§§§ú§갬§ 牨§ 릤릤§
§
Ş 릤䬬§ §ꮠ牨릤§산䀸§산 ꮠ 갬§§ 릤§릤䬬§䘐ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ § 릤䀸§䨸ö§
§
ĴĐÝ산ö§ V산§ð산릤ħö§
§ 릤§산䀸릤 § 릤§ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§ 꺸릤§산䀸릤 §䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§ § § §ö§
§ 산䀸§V산§ 산산ö§
§ 산ð 릤ð산䀸䬬§ 䘐§
§§§§ö§ g산§ð§V산§g산 산ö§

§ 꺸릤§ꮠ䬬§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 䘐ö§
§ ꮠ§ 릤ð산䀸䬬§牨䘐§
§ 꺸릤§䘐ꮠ§산䀸§牨䘐ö§
§
ĴĖÝ산ö§§§§§ð산릤ħ§V산ö§
릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ 릤§산䀸릤 §
꺸�릤䬬릤 산䀸§î§ 릤§산䀸릤 ö§
§§§§§ö§§§§ 산산§§산ðð§V산ö§
䘐§산ð 릤§산䀸䬬§
§§§§§ö§§§§§g산 산§ § g산ðð§V산§
꺸䘐§ 릤§ꮠ䬬§산䀸ꮠ 갬ö§
牨䘐§䘐ꮠð 릤§산䀸䬬§§
꺸 牨䘐§î§ 릤§䘐ꮠ산䀸§
§
§
§
§
ĴĖ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
Aspect, tense and agreement
§
릤 릤산䀸î§ 산§ 䬬릤 릤 릤§ 산 § 릤§ 䘐릤§ 牨릤 § 䨸 릤䬬䬬§ 릤§ 릤 ꮠ산§ 산 §
䨸 ꮠ 산§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ꮠ§  䬬ꮠ䬬䬬§ §산릤§牨릤갬릤 §산ꮠ산릤䀸ö§ §䘐 산§ 䘐䬬§§
䘐릤§䘐ꮠ§䀸§§릤䬬릤 § 릤§산䬬ꮠ§ 䨸 ꮠ 산§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞö§
§
Aspect
§
Ş䬬릤§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 릤ꮠ릤§è§ 릤 㮴§ § 릤§ ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§§
ð§ 릤 㮴§ 牨ö§ Ū 릤 ꮠ 갬§ 릤§ 릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤î§ ꮠ§ 䨸 § 릤§ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬î§
산ꮠ䨸산§§ ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
§
ĴĜÝ§ ð 산ꮠ§ § §릤§ § § §ð산ö§
§ §§§ ×牨릤릤Ý§
§ § 릤ð䬬䨸 릤 §§䘐릤§ 릤ð릤릤§
§ 逄§ 릤§䬬䨸 릤 §䘐릤§ 릤§릤릤ö§
§
ĴĢÝ§ ð§ 산ꮠ§ §산 § §산ð§ §릤ö§ § § × 산ꮠ䨸산Ý§
§ § 릤ð䬬䨸 릤 §§䘐산䬬ð 릤§䘐ꮠ릤䬬§
§ §§꺸 릤§§䬬䨸 릤 §䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠꮠ 갬ö§
§
ĴĨÝ§ ð§ 산ꮠ§산 §§산ðð§릤ö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§
× ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬Ý§
§ § 릤ð䬬䨸 릤 § 䘐산䬬§ 릤ð䘐ꮠ릤䬬§
§ §꺸 릤§§䬬䨸 릤 §䘐산䬬§䘐ꮠꮠ 갬ö§
§
§ Ş䬬릤§牨산䀸§䨸§䘐ꮠ §산§ð§ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤㮴§ 牨î§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
§
§ĴĮÝ§ ð§ 산ꮠ§ §산ðð§ 릤牨ö§ § × ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬Ý§
§ 릤ð䬬䨸 릤 §산ðĐð䘐䬬§
§ 꺸 릤§§䬬䨸 릤 §ꮠ䬬§䘐ꮠ 갬ö§
§
ĴĴÝ§ ð§ 산ꮠ§산ðð§ 릤牨ö§ § × 산ꮠ䨸산Ý§
§ 릤ð䬬䨸 릤 §산ðĐð§䘐䬬§
§ 꺸 릤§§䬬䨸 릤 §ꮠ䬬§䘐ꮠ 갬ö§
§
§ 릤§ ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § ꮠ § 산§ 䬬䨸䨸산§  릤 § ꮠ릤§
×ĆĀĀ§산Ý§릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 §䀸§×ĆĀĀ§ð릤Ýĺ§§
§
ĆĀĀÝ 산ö§è§×ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤Ý§
§
ö§gꮠ§ 릤牨ꮠ§ðħ산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐산 릤 ð§ð갬§ð 릤ð릤산 §
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐산 릤 §§갬§§ 릤§릤산 ö§
§§§§§§§§ö§g산 ꮠ§ 갬릤䬬§ §§ ð 산ö§
ꮠ§§ð䬬산䀸§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
Syntax ĴĜ
꺸§䘐ꮠ§䬬산䀸§산§ 牨릤ö§
§§§§§§§§ ö§牨ꮠ§ð䨸䬬 산§§산§ Ű䨸§ðꮠꮠ 䨸 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐릤 ð§ð 릤ð䬬ð ꮠ릤§§§§ ꮠð§ 릤ð  릤§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐릤 §§ 릤§䬬ð ꮠ릤§§牨산릤§산§  릤§산ö§
§§§§§§§§릤ö§§§gꮠ§§§§䨸䘐䬬산§§§§§§§ 릤ð§ꮠ§§§§§§§§ðꮠꮠ 䨸 ö§
§산䬬§䬬 §산䬬§§§§§䀸䨸§산ꮠ릤§§§ ꮠ§ð牨릤§§ 릤ð릤릤  릤§§
§꺸Ş䬬§䬬 §산䬬§䀸䨸§산ꮠ릤î§산§牨릤ö§
§
Tense : the past, the present and the future
The past and the present

§
 § સŞî§ 릤 䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 갬릤 릤산䀸§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § 䀸§ 牨릤산 䬬§  § ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산§
牨 릤牨릤䬬§× 산§䨸 §릤§䨸 §§§산§릤§§ 릤릤Ý§산 §산䬬§산 릤䬬§ §ꮠ牨릤ö§
산䬬§ 릤 䬬릤î§ 䘐릤릤î§ ꮠ䬬§ 산 § 릤 릤ꮠ î§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ ꮠ§ 䨸 § 릤§ 牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 § 䘐ꮠ 䨸§
牨산ꮠ 갬§䨸䬬릤§ §䬬䨸 §牨 릤牨릤䬬ö§§ 릤§§산䬬§牨산䀸§䬬牨릤ꮠ牨릤䬬§릤§ 䨸䬬릤 §䘐ꮠ §
릤§ ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ 릤䀸§ ꮠ䬬산䀸§ 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ 牨§ 䀸릤î§ 릤䀸§ 䨸 § 릤§
ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤 § 牨§릤산 § 릤§䀸§牨릤산 䬬§ §산 릤䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
§
ĆĀĆÝ산ö§ § § §§§§§§§§§§§§ 䨸§꺸갬§䨸ö§
§
§§§ 䨸§ 산§§ § § 䨸§ð산릤ħ§

§ 갬§䨸§ð䀸䨸§ § 䘐릤 ð 릤§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§ 꺸§䨸ö§ §§§§§§§§§§꺸릤§䘐릤 §䨸§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§§
§§§§§§§§ö§
ɬ산§×릤산 Ý§
§§
§ ɬ산§ § 산§ 산산§ § § §§§§§§§§§§§§ɬ산§§ð산릤ħ§
§ 릤산 §ð§䀸䨸§ §§§§§ 릤산 릤 ð 릤§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§ 꺸릤산 § 䘐§ § § 릤§릤산 릤 §䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
§ 릤牨산§ 산 릤䬬§ 릤 릤ꮠ 갬§ § 릤§ 산䬬§ 릤牨 산䬬ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ 산§ 산§ 릤§
릤릤 § § 산릤§ ꮠ § 릤§ 산䬬ö§ 릤䀸§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 § 산䬬§ 牨 릤牨릤䬬§ 䘐 릤 §
릤§릤§릤 릤䬬䬬릤䬬§산§릤䬬릤 §§산§ 䨸䨸릤§산ꮠ ö§
§ 릤 䬬릤§ꮠ §સŞî§ 산䬬§ ꮠ §⟴Şî§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤 § 牨§ 릤§牨牨릤 §  § 䬬릤산ꮠ 갬§
× 릤ꮠꮠ§ ꮠ牨릤Ýî§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤䀸§ 산䬬릤䨸산ö§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤ꮠꮠ§ ꮠ牨릤§ ꮠ䬬§  릤䀸릤 § 䀸§
牨릤산 䬬§ §산䬬릤䨸산§牨 릤牨릤䬬§§䬬䨸 §산䬬§kað§산 §taðö§  § ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬릤î§ 릤릤§ꮠ䬬§ §
릤릤 § §릤 䬬릤§§릤§䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ릤 §䀸§牨릤산 䬬§ §산 릤䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§
ĴĢ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§
ĆĀnÝ§ 산ö§ ð산ꮠ§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 산ðð§릤ς䨸§§§§§§ð䨸산ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 §산ðĐð산䀸ðö§§§ 릤ð산§
§§ §§§§꺸 릤§§ ꮠ 릤 §산릤§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 산ö§
§ ö§ ð산ꮠ§§§§§§§§§§§§§§산ð§릤ς䨸§§§§§ð䨸산ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 §산ðĐð산䀸ðö§§ 릤ð산§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§ ꮠ 릤 §산릤§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 산ö§
§
ĆĀĐÝ§ 산ö§ð릤 §§§§§§§산ð§ς산§§§§§§§ð릤산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§산ðĐð§산䀸§§§§§ 릤ð 릤䬬䬬§
§§§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 릤䬬䬬ö§
ö§ð릤 §§§§§§산ððς산§§§§§ð릤산 ö§
§§§§ 릤ð갬ꮠ§산ðĐð산䀸§ 릤ð 릤䬬䬬§
§§§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§산䀸ꮠ 갬§ 릤䬬䬬ö§
§
§  산§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤䬬§ 릤§ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§산䬬릤§ 牨§ 릤§릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 릤§ꮠ䬬§
산§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 산릤§ 산䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬산§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬§ ꮠ § 릤§
牨릤§×䬬릤릤§䬬릤ꮠ § 릤䘐Ýö§
§  §×ĆĀnÝî§ §릤 산牨릤î§산갬릤릤牨릤 §ꮠ䬬§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 §§§ § 릤§릤§×lςabÝ§산䬬§산§
ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬§산 ꮠ § × 릤§䬬䨸 ꮠ §䀸ðꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ 갬§릤䬬 §산 §갬릤 릤§ 산 § 릤§䬬䨸 ꮠ ð
䨸§ 릤  ꮠ 갬§ 릤§ 릤산䨸릤§  § 䨸牨릤Ýö§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤산䀸§ ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 § 䀸§
×ĆĀĖÝĺ§§
§
ĆĀĜÝ§ 산ð§ς릤ð䨸ö§ §
산ðĐð牨䬬ö§산䀸ð§
× 릤䀸§산䀸ú§산릤§산䀸ꮠ 갬öÝ§
§
The future tense§
§
릤§§ 䨸䨸릤§릤 䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§牨산 ꮠ 릤䬬릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 §ĺ§
§
ĆĀĢÝ 릤ꮠ 갬§산ꮠ릤§è§×ð§릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 릤牨산ꮠ§Ý§
릤§§ 릤ꮠ 갬§산ꮠ릤§䨸 §릤§gað§§ gadi §³䘐ꮠ³⦜§산 § 릤§산ꮠ릤§g산ð§牨산䀸§

§
릤§  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 § 산䬬§ 산 § 산릤ꮠ산ꮠ §  § g산 ꮠ§ ꮠ § 산산릤§ 䘐ꮠ § 릤§ 산ꮠ릤䬬§ sað§§§

산 §sawfa ³䘐ꮠ³§ꮠ §⟴Şö
ĆĀĨÝ g산ðð 䨸ö§

§§§§§§§ꮠðnð牨䬬ö갬§䨸§
§§§§§§§꺸�䨸§䘐ꮠ§갬§䨸§
ĆĀĮÝ g산 ꮠ§§ð 䨸䨸§

§
§§§§§§§ꮠðnð牨䬬ö갬§䨸ð§
§§§§§§§꺸�䨸§䘐ꮠ§갬§䨸ö§
Syntax ĴĨ
§ §
릤§§ 䨸䨸릤§牨산䀸§릤§ 릤䀸릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ 牨§ § 릤§ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤ĺ§§
䬬산 릤§ g§ 산 산§ðð산ţ§
§
ĆĀĴÝ§
산릤§牨䘐§ð 릤§ 산산§
§ 꺸 산릤§牨䘐§§ 산산ö§
§
§ § 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 릤 § 산§ 䨸䨸ꮠ䀸§ ꮠ § ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§ 牨䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 §
䬬릤牨산 ꮠ산䀸§ ×산 § § § 牨 갬ꮠ산䀸Ý§ 릤산䨸䬬릤§ 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ 牨§산 § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤 §
ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ § § 릤 䬬릤î§ 릤 î§ꮠ䬬§ 릤§䀸릤§ §산 릤䬬ĺ§ ꮠ § 䘐릤§䬬산䀸§ gadi§³䘐ꮠ³§ 릤§

§ 릤 릤§ § 릤§ 산䬬î§ 산䬬§ 牨릤 ꮠ 릤 § 릤산ꮠ릤ö§  산§ 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤 릤 §
ꮠ 릤 릤 § 릤 䬬릤§ 䘐䨸 § 릤§ 릤§ 䨸䨸릤ö§ 鯈 § 릤§  릤§ 산 î§ ꮠ § 䘐릤§ 䬬산䀸§ l-bareħ§

³䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸³î§ 릤§릤 䬬릤§§릤§ 릤䀸릤 § 䘐䨸 §릤§ 릤§산䬬§ĺ§§
§
ĆĆĀÝ산ö§䬬산 릤§§§§§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§§§§ð산릤ħ§§§§ðð§산 §§
§§§§산릤릤 §§§સ 산牨릤 §§§§§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ð 릤ð 산산§
§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §산릤릤 §§ 산산§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
ö§䬬산 릤§§§§§/산§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§§§§g 산§§§§ðð§산 §
§§§§산릤§산§સ 산牨릤 §牨䘐§ð 릤ð 산산§
§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 § 산릤§牨䘐§§ 산산ö§
§
§ ⟴牨릤ꮠ牨릤䬬î§ 산 릤䬬§  § ꮠ牨릤§ 산릤§ 릤§ 릤릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 릤릤牨릤 䬬§ §  § 릤§
릤 䬬릤§§릤 릤䬬䬬릤 §䀸§ 릤§릤§ĺ§§
§
ĆĆĆÝ§ 䬬산 릤§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §ð산릤ħö§§ ×산䬬Ý§
§§§§산릤릤 §સ 牨릤 § 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§§
§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 §산릤릤 §䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
ĆĆnÝ§ 산ð§§릤§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § 산산ö§ § ×릤䬬릤 Ý§
§ 산ðĐö牨䬬ö䘐ꮠ릤䬬§ §સ 산牨릤 § 䘐§
§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §ꮠ䬬§䘐ꮠꮠ 갬§ 䘐ö§
§
ĆĆĐÝ§ 䬬산 릤§/산§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §g산 산ö§ § §× 䨸䨸릤Ý§ §
§ 산릤§산§સ 산牨릤 §牨䘐§ §
§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 § Űꮠ §牨䘐ö§
§
ĆĆĖÝ§ 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § § § 산§ §ð산릤ħö§
§ સ 산牨릤 §산 ð牨䬬ö䬬갬§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 §산 §䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
ĆĆĜÝ §§§§§산§§ 산산ö§§
§§§§§§산 ð牨䬬ö䬬갬§ 䘐§
§§§§§§꺸릤§ 산䬬§䨸䬬§䨸 ö§
§
ĴĮ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĆĆĢÝ §§§§§§ꮠ§§g산 산§
§§§§§§§䨸 ðnð䬬갬ö§ 牨䘐§
§§§§§§§꺸 䨸 §牨䘐ö§
§
Agreement
§
Ş갬릤릤牨릤 §ꮠ §સŞ§ꮠ䬬§릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § § 릤§산䬬ꮠ䬬§ § 릤§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§릤산ꮠ §§
산§  䬬§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 산갬䨸牨릤 䬬§ 산 § 릤산 䬬§ ꮠ § 산§ 갬ꮠ릤 § 䬬䨸䨸산§ 牨산ꮠ î§ ꮠ §
산ꮠ䨸산§ 릤§릤산ꮠ §릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§䬬䨸릤§산 § 릤§릤ö§
§ Ş갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 䨸䀸§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § 䘐 릤 § ꮠ§ 릤  릤䬬§ 릤§ 릤산䨸릤䬬§  § 릤䬬 î§
갬릤 릤§ 산 § 䨸牨릤§ 릤䬬릤§ 릤산䨸릤䬬§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 䬬릤릤 § 䨸§ 갬릤 릤§ ×산䬬§ 산§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ Ý§
§ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬䀸§ ×릤 ꮠ § ð§ § ð§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ Ýî§ 릤릤 ꮠ 갬§  § 릤§ 릤牨산§
ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ §§ § 릤§릤ö§§
§  릤 § 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ릤 § è§ 산䬬㮴î§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § § ꮠ䬬§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § 산䬬§ 산§
䬬䨸 ꮠ î§䘐 ꮠ §䨸 §릤§  갬ꮠ산䀸§§릤 릤䬬䬬릤 §§릤牨䀸§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
ĆĆĨÝ산ö§ § /산 산§ §릤ðö§
§
ꮠ산§릤릤ðö§ § § § § § § § § § § § § §
§ §§䘐릤ð§䬬갬§ 䬬 릤§䘐릤§ðĐð 릤牨ö䬬갬§ §
§ § § §꺸§䘐릤ö§ § § § § §꺸⟴
§ 릤§䘐릤ö§ § § §§§
§§§§§§ö§§ ð 산§§릤ð䨸ö§§ 䨸牨산§릤ð䨸ö§
§ § 릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§䘐릤ð§§§§§§§§§§ 릤䀸§䘐릤ð§
§ §§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ䬬§䘐릤ö§§§§§§§꺸 릤䀸§䘐릤ö§
§ § § §ö§
§ ð 산ꮠ§릤ð䨸ö§ § § § 䨸䘐산§릤§ð§Ǿö§
§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 § 䘐릤ð§ § 릤ð䘐릤§ð䬬갬ö牨䬬ö§
§ 꺸 릤§ § ꮠ 릤 §䘐릤ö§ § 꺸릤§䘐릤ö§
§§§§§ ö§ ð䨸牨산§§릤ð䨸ö§§ §§ħ 산§×산Ý§릤ð 산ö§
§ 䀸䨸ð§䘐릤ð§×牨䬬ú 릤牨Ý§䘐릤§䘐릤ð§
§ 꺸�䨸§䘐릤ö§ § §§꺸릤§䘐릤ö§
§
§ 릤§ 산 § 牨산릤§ 䘐§ 䬬릤산ꮠ 䬬§ 牨§ 릤§ 산릤§ 릤 산牨릤䬬ĺ§ ꮠ䬬î§ 산§
산갬릤릤牨릤 § 릤산䨸릤䬬§ 산릤§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 §산䬬§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬§ 䬬릤 î§ 릤§ 릤산䨸릤§ §릤䬬 § 산䬬§
산 §ꮠ 䨸릤 릤§ § 릤§䬬䨸䨸릤§ § 릤§릤§䘐 릤 §ꮠ§䬬§ꮠ 릤릤 §ꮠ § 릤§䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산î§산䬬§
ꮠ §ĺ§
§
ĆĆĮÝ§산ö§䬬산 릤§ Ǿ →§×è§䬬ꮠ 갬î§è§ ꮠ §릤䬬 î§ð§牨산䬬Ý§
§ §산릤릤 ðĐð牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§ §
§ §꺸릤§산릤릤 §
§§§§§§§§ö§䬬산 산§§→§§×è§䬬ꮠ 갬î§è§ ꮠ §릤䬬 î§è§ 릤牨Ý§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 산릤릤 ðĐð§ 릤牨ö§䬬갬ö§§§
ꮠ릤§ 릤§ ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ § §  § 릤§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § § 牨산릤ð§ 산§ ꮠ § 릤 §산릤 § §산 §䬬ꮠ릤 §
䘐릤§㽌Ǿ㧌§ꮠ §×ĆĆĮÝö§
§ 릤§ 릤산䨸릤§  § 릤䬬 § ꮠ䬬§  갬ꮠ산䀸§ 䨸 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § 䘐 릤 § 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§
 ð䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산î§ ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬릤§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 릤§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤§ 산 § 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§
릤䨸산ꮠ䬬릤 §×ꮠ § 산î§산§䨸산§릤산§ 牨䬬§산䀸§산§牨산䬬䨸ꮠ 릤§갬릤 릤Ýö§
Syntax ĴĴ
§
ĆĆĴÝ§ ð 산§䬬산 ð䨸ö§ § § ð 산ꮠ§䬬산 ð䨸ö§
§ 릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§산릤릤 ð§ § 릤ð䀸䬬§산릤릤 ð§
§ 꺸 릤§ §갬ꮠ䬬§산릤릤 Ýö§ § 꺸 릤§§䀸䬬§산릤릤 ö§
§
§ 䬬산 릤ð 산ð§ö§ § § 䬬산 릤§䨸ö§
§ 산릤릤 ðĆð§ § § 산릤릤 §ðnð§
§ 꺸릤§산릤릤 ö§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸�䨸§산릤릤 ö§
§ §
§  릤 § 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤î§ 릤§ 릤§ 릤산ꮠ 䬬§
산§ ꮠ䬬§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § 릤산䨸릤䬬§ 릤갬산 릤䬬䬬§  § 䘐 릤 릤§ 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ 䘐䬬§ 릤§ 릤§
§릤릤 릤䬬§ꮠö§
§
ĆnĀÝ§ 산ö§§릤ð§§§§§§§§ Œ산 산§§§ð산릤ħö§
§ §§§§䘐릤ðĆö䬬갬ö§§§§§§§§§§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§ §§§§꺸§䘐릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§ ö§릤ð䨸§§§§§ð 산ö§
§ §§§§§䘐릤ð§§ 릤ð갬ꮠ䬬§§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§갬ꮠ䬬§䘐릤ö§
ö§릤ð䨸§ ð 산ꮠ§§ð산릤ħö§
§§§§䘐릤ð§ 릤ð䀸䬬§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§§§§꺸 릤§§䀸䬬§䘐릤§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
 릤 § 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ §  ð산䬬î§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § 산䬬§ 산§ ꮠꮠ§
×릤 ꮠ 릤䬬§산 §䬬䨸 ꮠ 릤䬬Ý§산䬬§ꮠ ĺ§
§
ĆnĆÝ §§§산ö§산ð§ð§ς산§§§§§→§산ð§ððς산§
§§§§산ðnð산䀸§§→§산ð䀸䨸ð산䀸§
§§§§
§§§산ð§ððς산§§§§§§§→§산ð§ððς산§
§§§산ðnð산䀸ð䬬갬ö→§산ðnð산䀸ð䬬갬ö§
§
ö§산ðð릤ςð䨸§ § § § § →§산ðð릤ςð䨸§
§§§산ðĐð산䀸ððö§→§산ðnð산䀸ðö§
§ § §§§ § §
§§ §산ð§ððς산§§§§§§§→§산ð§ððς산§
§ §산ðnð산䀸§§§§§§→§산ðnð산䀸§§§
§ §꺸�䨸§산䀸§ú산릤§산䀸ꮠ 갬ö§
§
 § 릤䬬릤§릤 산牨릤䬬§ 산 § 䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산§  릤䬬î§ 릤§릤 ꮠ §  릤 § 릤 릤䬬§ § 릤§ 릤산䨸릤䬬§  §
릤䬬 §산 §갬릤 릤§䘐 ꮠ릤§ 릤§䬬䨸 ꮠ §릤  릤䬬§ 릤§ 릤산䨸릤§ § 䨸牨릤ö§§
§ 릤§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § 산릤 䬬§ ꮠ䬬산䀸릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 릤䬬§ ꮠ § 릤§ 산䬬§ 산 § 릤§
䨸䨸릤§산릤§䬬䨸牨牨산ꮠ 릤 §ꮠ § 릤§산ꮠ산§산산 ꮠ갬牨§×ĆnnÝĺ§§
§
ĆĀĀ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§§è§산䬬§§ § ð§산䬬§
§
ĆnnÝ산. 1 Form sing. + masc kteb-t/ti n-kteb
. 1 Form pl. + masc fem kteb-na n-ketb-u
 .2 Form sing. +masc. kteb-t ta-t-kteb
. 2 Form pl. + masc. /fem kteb-tu t-ketb-u
§
§  산§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 릤䬬§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ § ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 牨䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§
산䘐산䀸䬬§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § 산䬬§ 산§ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬§ 산 ꮠ § ꮠ § 릤§ 산䬬릤§  § 릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 牨䬬î§
䘐릤릤î§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 䨸䀸§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § 산䬬§ 산§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ ö 릤 § 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ § 릤§
䬬ꮠ 갬䨸산úĆ§ 牨§산 §ꮠ § ꮠ §릤䬬 î§산갬릤릤牨릤 § 릤䬬§ §䨸ö§
§
Negation
§
릤갬산ꮠ § ꮠ § સŞ§ ꮠ䬬§  릤 § 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § 䀸§ 牨릤산 䬬§  § 산§ 牨 릤牨릤§ 산§
䨸 § 릤§ ꮠ䬬ð ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬§ ×牨산⦜Ý§ §  ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬§ ×牨산Ýî§ 릤릤 ꮠ 갬§  § 릤§
䬬䀸 산ꮠ§ 릤 § ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ§䨸䬬ĺ§
ð 릤§ § 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 牨 릤牨릤§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 § 산䬬§ 산§ ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬§ 산 ꮠ § 䘐 릤 § ꮠ§
䨸䬬§§䘐ꮠ §산§릤산§§산 릤ꮠ산§릤 ꮠ산릤§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
§
ĆnĐÝ 릤갬산ꮠ §è§릤§ú§Ş 릤ꮠ릤§
§
ĆnĖÝ§ 산ö§V산ꮠ§牨산ð牨산ð§ð 산䬬ö§§
§ §§§§Şꮠ§ 릤갬ö§䘐릤 ð 릤갬§ð 릤䬬§
§ §§§§Şꮠ§ ꮠ § §갬§§ 릤䬬ö§
öV산ꮠ§牨산§ð§ 산 산牨ð§§牨릤 산 ö§
§ § § § § § § § § § § Şꮠ§ 릤갬ö䘐ð 릤갬ð§䘐릤§
§ §§§꺸Şꮠ§ 릤䬬§ §䘐§ 산 ö§
§ ö§V산ꮠ§牨산ð 䘐ꮠ ð§§릤 산 ö§
§ §§§§Şꮠ§ 릤갬ö§갬 ð 릤갬ö§ 牨䨸 §
§ § § § § 꺸Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ § 산 䬬牨릤§릤 䨸갬 ö§
§ ö§V산ꮠ§牨산ð牨릤ɬ䨸ð§ ð릤ς산ö§
§ §§§§꺸 릤 산§ 릤갬ð 릤산 §ð 릤갬§§䘐ꮠ §ð 산ꮠ갬䨸릤§
§ §§§§꺸 릤 산§ꮠ䬬§ § 릤산 䀸§ꮠ릤 ö§
§
ð§릤갬산ꮠ §산 §릤§릤 릤䬬䬬릤 §䘐ꮠ §산§릤䬬î§ꮠ § 릤§산䬬§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĆnĖÝî§ 산 §ꮠ § 릤§
䨸䨸릤ö§ § 릤§산릤§산䬬릤î§ 릤§ 릤갬산ꮠ §릤릤牨릤 §§ꮠ䬬§산릤 §릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§ 릤ꮠ 갬§
릤§산 § 릤§牨산ꮠ §릤î§산䬬§ꮠ §§ 릤§ 릤 §×ĆnĜÝ§릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 䀸§×ĆnĢÝ§ĺ§§
§
ĆnĜÝ 릤갬산ꮠ §§è§× 릤ꮠ 갬§릤§è§릤갬산ꮠ §Ý§牨산ꮠ §릤§×§ð§릤 öÝ§
§
ĆnĢÝ§ 산ö§ς산ꮠ§牨산ðg산 ꮠð§ð릤牨ꮠö§
§ §§§§Şꮠ§ð§ 릤갬ö䘐ꮠð 릤갬ðĐð갬§§
§ §§§§꺸Şꮠ§§䘐ꮠ§ §갬ö§
Syntax ĆĀĆ
§§ ö§ς산ꮠ§§§牨산§ς산䘐 ð§ðꮠö§
§ §§§§Şꮠ§ 릤갬ö§산갬산ꮠ §ð 릤갬öðĐð§牨릤§
§ §§§§꺸Şꮠ§§䘐ꮠ§ §牨릤§산갬산ꮠ ö§
§ ö§ς산ꮠ§§§牨산§§ 릤䬬䬬䨸ð§§ð릤牨ꮠö§
§ §§§§Ş牨릤 §§Şꮠ§ð 릤갬ö§ 릤릤 ð 릤갬ðĐð§ 갬§
§ §§§§꺸Şꮠ§§ 릤릤 § §갬ö§
§
ꮠ §ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤§릤䬬î§ 릤갬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 §산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§
§
ĆnĨÝ§ 산ö§牨산ðð牨ꮠð§§§§§§§§§ú§牨산ðð 䨸ð§§§§§§§§§ú§牨산ðg산 ꮠð§ð릤牨ꮠ§
§ §§§§릤갬ö§nð갬ð 릤갬ö§ú 릤갬önð릤 릤ð 릤갬ö§ ú 릤갬ð䘐ꮠ§ ð 릤갬ðnð갬§§
§ §§§꺸Ű§ §갬§§§§§§§§ú§Ű§ §릤 릤§§§§§§ú§�䨸§䘐 Ñ§갬§
§
ð§릤갬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§릤 릤䬬䬬릤 §산䬬§산§ 䬬ꮠ 갬릤§×ꮠö릤ö§ ꮠ 䨸䨸䬬Ý§牨 릤牨릤§ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 §
 §䬬§산 §䬬ĺ§
§
ĆnĮÝ§ 산ö§ 산ꮠɬ§ 牨 § 산ꮠ§ § ð 산ö§ §
§ §§§ 산ꮠ§§§§ §§ꮠ § 릤ð 䨸䬬릤§
§ §§§꺸 산ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ §산§ 牨릤ö§
§ ö§산䬬ꮠ §牨산ꮠ ţ산ꮠ§
§ §§§§�산䬬䬬ꮠ 릤§§ §§䬬䨸 릤 §
§ §§§§§꺸�산䬬䬬ꮠ 릤§§ꮠ䬬§ §산§䬬䨸 릤 ö§
§
 § ×ĆnĮ산ðÝî§ 릤§ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 牨산릤§ maši ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ牨牨릤 ꮠ산릤䀸§ 䘐릤 § 䀸§ 산§ § 산 §
䀸§산§§릤䬬릤ꮠ릤䀸ö§§
§
Interrogative sentences
§ §
§ 릤릤§ 산릤§ 산ꮠ䨸䬬§ ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 䘐 䬬§ ꮠ § સŞö§ Ŷ산 § 牨§
릤䬬 䬬§ § 릤§ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 릤 § 릤릤牨릤 î§ 䘐 ꮠ § 䨸 § 릤§ 산§ 䬬䨸릤î§ 산 § 릤î§
산 § 산 릤§  § § ꮠ牨릤§ § 산릤î§ 산 § 산 릤ꮠ릤§ î§ 릤ö§ § § 릤§ 산䬬ꮠ§ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §
牨 릤牨릤䬬§ꮠ 䨸 릤§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§ĺ§§
§
ĆnĴÝ§䨸 §ú§ 䨸§§§ú/산§§ú§ς산§§ú§ꮠ §§úħ산산§ú ꮠ §§§§ú 䨸ɬ산§§ú§ꮠ 산⦜§
§§§§§§§§䘐 §ú§䘐 산§ú䘐 산§§ú§䘐䀸§ú§ 䘐§ú§ 䘐§§§ú䘐 릤릤ú§䘐 릤 §§ú§ 䘐§
§
§ 릤§릤 산牨릤䬬§ ꮠ §×ĆĐĀÝ§ ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ § 릤§
䬬䨸릤§산 § 릤§릤§ 산릤§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 릤 ĺ§§
§
ĆĐĀÝ§ 산ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §Ű산§ ꮠ산牨ö§
§§ §§§§સ 산牨릤 §릤산§ꮠ 산牨§
§§§§§ 꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산§ꮠ 산牨ö§
§ ö§䨸 §Ű산§ ꮠ산牨Œ§ § § ×⟴䨸릤Ý§
§ §§§§䘐 §릤산§ꮠ 산牨Œ§
ĆĀn§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§ §§§§꺸 §릤산§ꮠ 산牨Œ§
ö§䨸 §§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §Ű산Œ§§ § ×鯈릤Ý§
§§§§䘐 §સ 산牨릤 §§릤산Œ§§
§§§§꺸 § ꮠ §સ 산牨릤 §릤산Œ§
ö§䨸 §Ű산ð䨸§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 Œ§
§§ §§§ §릤산§ð ꮠ牨§સ 산牨릤 Œ§
§ §§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 î§䘐 §릤산§ ꮠ牨Œ§
§
 릤갬산ꮠ릤§䬬䨸䨸릤䬬§ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ § 릤§산 릤ꮠ릤§ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 릤 §릤릤牨릤 §산릤§
ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §䀸§×ĆĐĆÝĺ§§
§
ĆĐĆÝ §§§§산ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§산 §§§ς산䀸䀸산 §§§릤 산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 §§䘐산䬬§§§ꮠ릤 ð牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§牨䨸 §
§§§§§§§§§§§§ö§ꮠ 산§§산 §牨䨸ħ산牨릤 Œ§
§ §§§꺸䘐§§䘐산䬬§§સ 산牨릤 Œ§
§
ĆĐnÝ§ 산ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§§산ς§§§§§§§§§ħ산§§§§ 䨸ð ö§
§ §§§§સ 산牨릤 §§§릤䨸 릤 §§ꮠ릤§§§§ 릤ð ꮠ䬬§
§ §§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산牨릤§ꮠ릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤ö§
§ ö§ꮠ 산§§산ς§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 Œ§
§ §§§§䘐§릤䨸 릤 §સ 산牨릤 Œ§
§ §§§§꺸䘐§ ꮠ §સ 산牨릤 §릤牨릤Œ§
§
 릤 § 릤§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§산䨸§ 릤§䬬산릤§ §산§릤䬬 î§䘐릤§䬬산䀸ĺ§§
§
산ö§ꮠ §ħ산릤ðŒ§
§§§§ 䘐§䬬산릤ð䀸䨸Œ§
§§§§꺸䘐§산릤§䀸䨸Œ§
§ö§牨산ð릤Œ§
§§§§ 산§䀸䨸ð 산릤Œ§
§§§§꺸 산Ñ䬬§ 릤§牨산릤§䘐ꮠ §䀸䨸Œ§
§ö§牨산ð릤§산ðg산䘐ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐 산ð䀸䨸§ 산릤§산ð䬬 䨸ð 릤牨§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 䀸§산릤§䀸䨸§䬬 䨸ꮠ 갬Œ§
§
 릤 § 릤§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §§ꮠ䬬§산䨸§릤산䬬 §§산 §릤î§䘐릤§䨸䬬릤§ 릤§ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§
䘐 䬬§ςlaš§×䘐䀸Ý§산 §šnu§§§×䘐 산Ýö§
§
ĆĐĐÝ§ § 산ö§ς산§ꮠðꮠŒ§
§§§§䘐䀸§산牨릤ð䀸䨸Œ§
§§§§꺸 䀸§ 산릤§䀸䨸§牨릤Œ§
ö§ 䨸§gꮠðꮠŒ§
§§§§䘐 산§䘐산 ð䀸䨸Œ§
§§§§꺸 산§ §䀸䨸§䘐산 Œ§
Syntax ĆĀĐ
§
 릤 § 릤§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§산䨸§산릤î§䘐릤§䨸䬬릤§ 牨䬬§ꮠ릤§ĺ§§
§
ĆĐĖÝ 산ö§ꮠ §g산 ꮠŒ§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐 릤릤§갬ꮠ 갬Œ§
꺸 릤릤§산릤§䀸䨸§갬ꮠ 갬Œ§
§§§§§§§§ö§牨 ꮠ §산Œ§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 牨§䘐 릤릤§산牨릤ð 릤Œ§
꺸 릤릤§ ꮠ § 릤§牨릤§ 牨Œ§
§§§§§§§§§ö§ ꮠ §牨䬬산 릤Œ§
䘐 릤릤§산릤ð䀸䨸Œ§
꺸 릤릤§산릤§䀸䨸§산릤ꮠ 갬Œ§
§§
§ Ş䬬§산 §릤§ ꮠ릤 § 牨§ ꮠ䬬§䬬릤§ §ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬î§ 릤§
ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §䘐 §ꮠ §સŞ§î§산䬬§ꮠ §Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 î§䨸ꮠ릤䬬§산§䬬릤 릤 릤§ꮠ ꮠꮠ산§䬬ꮠꮠ §×䬬릤릤§
Ŷ 산ꮠ§ĆĴĮĜ§ §牨릤§ 릤산ꮠ䬬Ýö§§
§ §䬬䨸牨§䨸î§ 릤§牨산ꮠ § 릤 § § ꮠ䬬§䬬릤ꮠ § 산䬬§릤릤 §§릤䬬릤 § 릤§
牨산§䀸릤䬬§ §䬬ꮠ牨릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞö§산ꮠ䨸산§산릤 ꮠ § 산䬬§릤릤 §산ꮠ §§
릤§산䬬ꮠ§ 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§×§산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬Ý§ 산§牨산릤§䨸§ §릤산§산 § 牨ꮠ 산§
䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§ 릤§ 䨸䬬§ 산䬬§릤릤 §산릤 § §䘐 § 릤î§릤산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ §î§ 릤§
릤산ꮠ䬬산ꮠ § §산䬬릤î§릤 䬬릤§산 §산갬릤릤牨릤 î§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ § 牨산ꮠ î§ 릤갬산ꮠ §산 §
 ꮠꮠ 산§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§릤§산䬬§牨산 릤§릤 릤릤 릤§§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ § §
릤牨 䬬산ꮠ릤§ 䨸䬬î§Ş䬬î§䬬§산 §Ş 䬬§ꮠ § 牨ꮠ 갬§ 牨ꮠ 산§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§
ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§산갬䨸 §ꮠ §牨ꮠ î§䘐릤§䘐ꮠ§䬬 ꮠ § 릤§산릤 ꮠ §§牨릤 §
䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 §䬬릤ꮠ ö§§
The complex sentence
Ş§牨릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤§ 䬬ꮠ䬬䬬§ § 牨릤§ 산 § 릤§산䨸䬬릤ĺ§산§ 牨산ꮠ § 산䨸䬬릤§

산 § 산§ 릤산䬬§  릤§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산릤§ 산䨸䬬릤ö§ ⟴䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ § 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § 䀸§
牨릤산 䬬§  § ꮠ 릤릤 § 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬§  䨸 ꮠ 䬬î§ 릤릤 ꮠ 갬§  § 릤§ 산䨸릤§  §
릤§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산릤§ 산䨸䬬릤ö§ 릤§ 산릤§ 䨸 § 릤§ 릤산산ꮠ릤î§ § ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤î§
산 릤ꮠ산î§릤ö§鯈 릤§릤산릤 §산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산§䘐ꮠ§릤§ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬릤 §ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤 §산릤§
릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬î§䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤䬬§산 §릤 §䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§
§
The complement clause
§
§ Ş§䬬䨸 ꮠ 산릤§§산䨸䬬릤§牨산䀸§ 산릤§ 릤§ 䨸 ꮠ § §산§ 牨릤牨릤 §§ꮠ § 릤§
䬬릤 䬬릤§ 산§ꮠ§牨릤릤䬬§ 릤§牨릤산 ꮠ 갬§䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§䀸§ 릤§릤§ § 릤§牨산ꮠ §산䨸䬬릤ö§
ꮠ䬬§ 牨릤牨릤 산ꮠ § § ꮠ䬬§ 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䬬릤릤ꮠ 산§ 릤ꮠ릤䬬§  § 릤§
牨산ꮠ §릤ö § 릤 §산릤 §산䬬 § 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬 § 릤 § 산䨸릤 § § 릤 §산䨸䬬릤 § § §릤 §
릤牨릤 릤 î§ 산䬬§ 䘐릤§ 산䬬§ 릤§ 릤 산§ 릤 䬬릤§ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤 ö§ § 䬬 䨸 § 릤§ 릤 § 산§ ꮠ䬬§
ꮠ § 산§ 산§ 牨릤牨릤 §산䨸䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§ § 산§ 릤䀸§ §릤䬬§§ 릤§릤 䨸䬬ꮠ § §
 릤§ 䬬䀸 산ꮠ§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ 䬬䨸 § 산䬬§ 䨸䬬î§ 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ 산 § 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬ö§
ĆĀĖ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
릤릤 릤î§ 䘐릤§ 릤 릤§ 산ꮠ䨸䬬§ 䀸릤䬬§  § 牨릤牨릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬§ 릤§
䘐ꮠ 갬ĺ§§§
§
Declarative complement clauses
§
Ű릤산산ꮠ릤§ complement clauses§ 산릤§ 갬릤 릤산䀸§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ 릤§
릤 ꮠ산§牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬§ blli§§ billa§× 산Ýö§  § ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬릤§î§ 릤§릤牨릤 릤 § 릤§
ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ ꮠ릤ĺ§§
§
ĆĐĜÝ§산ö§산 §Ű䨸 §×ꮠÝ§§§ς산ꮠ§ 릤ħ§ §ð牨ꮠħ산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§릤ꮠ릤릤§× 산Ý§Şꮠ§산䬬䬬릤 § 릤§릤 산牨§§
§§§§§§§§ö§갬산§§§ς산ꮠ§§§§§×ꮠÝ§ð牨ꮠħ산 §산 §䬬산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䬬산ꮠ ð牨䬬§Şꮠ§ 산§ 릤ð릤 산牨§䘐산䬬§릤산䬬䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§䬬산ꮠ § 산§ 릤§릤 산牨§䘐산䬬§릤산䬬䀸ö§
§§§§§§§§ö§ς산 §§§§×ꮠúꮠ산Ý§§§ς산ꮠ§산䀸§䀸ð 릤牨§牨릤 ꮠ산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ 릤䘐§ 산§Şꮠ§䘐䬬§ 산 ö§
§
ĆĐĢÝ§§§산ö§䘐⟴릤ð ꮠ§ð 산§×ꮠÝ§§ς산ꮠ§ 릤ħö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§산ꮠ릤 ð牨릤§ 릤ð 릤䘐䬬§ 산§Şꮠ§산䬬䬬릤 § 릤§릤 산牨§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§릤릤ꮠ릤 § 릤§ 릤䘐䬬§ 산§Şꮠ§산䬬䬬릤 §§ 릤§릤 산牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ö§§䬬牨릤ςð§ðŒꮠ산§§×ꮠÝ§§ς산ꮠ§g산 ꮠ§䀸ð䬬산 릤§ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ 릤산 § 릤§䨸牨䨸§ 산§Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§갬ꮠ 갬§§산릤§산산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ö§§⟴릤 릤ɬð§ð ꮠ산§×ꮠÝ§§§ς산ꮠ§g산 ꮠ§䀸ðɬ산§ §ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§릤ꮠ릤릤 § 릤§ꮠ 릤산§ 산§Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§갬ꮠ 갬§§䬬산䀸§산산 ö§
§
ĆĐĨÝ§§산ö§Œ산 산§牨䀸릤ɬɬ릤 §×ꮠÝ§§§ς산ꮠ§牨산ð§g산ðꮠð릤릤ς§ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§산牨§䬬䨸릤§ 산§Şꮠ§䘐ꮠ§ §牨릤§산ö§
§§§§§ö§ς산ꮠ§牨Œ산릤 §×ꮠÝ§g산ðð䬬ꮠ§ð 산 牨산ö§
§§§꺸Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§릤산ꮠ § 산§ 릤§䘐ꮠ§ ꮠ §䘐ö§
§§§§§§§§§§
ĆĐĮÝ§ς산ꮠ§산§ 릤릤§ §ꮠ 산䬬§ðɬ산§산§牨산ð릤 릤牨ö§
§§Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ꮠ § 䘐§ 릤§䬬䨸 ꮠ릤䬬§䘐ꮠ 䨸§ §䘐䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 䘐§§䬬䨸䀸§䘐ꮠ 䨸§§䘐ꮠ 갬ö§
§
 § 릤䬬릤§릤 산牨릤䬬î§ 릤§릤牨릤 릤 §산䨸䬬릤䬬§산䬬䬬䨸牨릤§ 릤§갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§ 䨸 ꮠ §
 § Ñ牨릤牨릤 Ñ§ 산䬬§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䬬릤릤ꮠ 산§ 릤ꮠ릤䬬§  § 릤§ 릤릤산 §
 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬ö§ §䬬䨸 §산䨸䬬릤䬬§산릤§牨ꮠ릤 §î§ 릤§䬬䨸䨸릤䬬§䘐ꮠ§릤§ꮠð 牨릤 ö§
§
ĆĐĴÝ§ã§산 §Ű䨸 §§§§§§§§§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§릤ꮠ릤릤§§
§
§ 릤§ 산䬬§ ꮠ릤§ 산§ 䬬䨸 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산릤§ ꮠ ꮠ릤§ સ릤릤î§ 릤䀸§ 산릤§
ꮠ 산䀸§ 릤릤 릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ blliö§ 릤§ 산릤§ 산䬬§ 릤§ 䨸 ꮠ §
Syntax ĆĀĜ
 § ꮠ  䨸ꮠ 갬§ 산§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤§ 䘐릤릤î§ ꮠ䬬§ 牨ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ § 릤䬬§ § 릤산 § §
䨸 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산ꮠ䀸ö§
§ 릤릤§ 산릤§ 䬬牨릤§ § 릤산산ꮠ릤§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬 산§ 산릤§ 릤릤 릤 §
䀸§ 릤§牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬§산§ 산§牨산䀸§릤 릤䬬䬬§ 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§§䨸䬬릤§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§§
§
ĆĖĀÝ§ς산ꮠ§ 릤牨§牨릤 ꮠ산 §산§ 릤ħö§
§Şꮠ§䘐릤 §䘐릤§§ 산§䬬䨸릤릤 릤 ð§ 릤§§
§꺸Şꮠ§䘐릤 §䬬§ 산 § 산§ 릤§䬬䨸릤릤 릤 ö§
§
ĆĖĆÝ§ς산ꮠ§牨산§ð 산ꮠ§산§ð릤 릤牨ö§
Şꮠ§䘐릤 § §산산 §ꮠ § 릤§§䘐ðĐð牨䬬ð䬬갬§
꺸Şꮠ§䘐릤 §산산 §ꮠ § 릤§§䘐ö§
§
§ 䘐릤릤î§ 릤릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 산䬬䬬§  § § 릤䬬§ 산§ 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸§ 䬬릤릤§ 릤§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ blliî§ 䘐 ꮠ § 산 § 릤§ ꮠ 릤 산 갬릤 § 䘐ꮠ § baš§ 산§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤䬬§
 䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§§ 릤䬬䨸§ 䬬䨸 §릤䬬§ꮠ 䨸 릤ĺ§Saab§× ꮠ Ýî§nkar§× 릤 䀸Ý§산 §taaq§
×䨸䬬Ýö§
§
ĆĖnÝ§산ö§ 산§§§ς산ꮠ§ꮠ§g산 ꮠ§䀸ð릤牨ꮠ§䀸릤 릤牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤 ꮠ릤 §Şꮠ§ 산§ 릤§䘐ꮠ§갬§§䘐ö§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§ 릤 ꮠ릤 § 산§ 릤§䘐䨸 §갬§×산산 Ý§§䘐ö§
§§§§§§§§ö§ 산§릤 산§ꮠúã§산§g산 ꮠ§䀸릤䬬산ɬö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤 ꮠ릤 §§ 릤§ ꮠ릤 § 산§䘐ꮠð 릤§䬬릤산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§ ꮠ릤 § 릤 ꮠ릤 § 산§ 릤§䘐ꮠ§䬬릤산ö§
§§§§ö§산산ɬ§§ς산ꮠ§ꮠ§úã산§ðɬ산䀸산§䬬산 산§ §ð 산ꮠö§
릤ꮠ릤릤 § Şꮠ§ 산§䬬䨸䀸ꮠ 갬§§릤산䬬䀸§산산 §
꺸Şꮠ§릤ꮠ릤 § 산§䬬䨸䀸ꮠ 갬§산산 §ꮠ䬬§릤산䬬䀸ö§
§§§§ ö§ş산산§§§ς산ꮠ§ꮠ§úã§산§ðɬ산䀸산§ ðð 산ꮠ§ħ䬬릤 §×릤릤Ý§
§ 䨸 §Şꮠ§ 산§䬬䨸䀸ꮠ 갬§산산 §릤릤ö§
꺸Şꮠ§ 䨸 § 산§䬬䨸䀸ꮠ 갬§산산 §䘐산䬬§릤릤ö§
§
Ū牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ want§산 § begin§ð§ 䀸릤§릤䬬§  䬬ꮠ䬬§  § 산§
릤§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산䘐산䀸䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ 릤 䬬릤§ § ꮠ䬬§
산 산 ꮠî§ 산䬬§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤산릤 § § 릤§ 릤 릤릤 ꮠ산§ § 릤 䬬릤§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§  릤䀸릤 § 䀸§ 릤§
牨산ꮠ §릤ĺ§
§
ĆĖĐÝ§g산§§ς산ꮠ§䀸ð䬬산 릤§ð 산ꮠö§
§§䘐산 릤 §Şꮠ§산릤ðĐ§ð산산 §
§§꺸Şꮠ§䘐산 릤 §§산릤§산산 ö§
§
ĆĖĖÝ§§ 산§§§ς산ꮠ§䀸릤ς산릤牨§§×ꮠ 산Ý§ð䬬䨸갬§ ð 산牨䨸ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§릤갬산 §Şꮠ§릤산 §Đ§× 䘐Ý§ ꮠ릤§ꡘ§
§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§릤갬산 §§릤산 §× 䘐Ý§§ ꮠ릤ö§
§
ĆĀĢ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĆĖĜÝ§ħ산䘐릤§§§ς산ꮠ§×산Ý§ð릤 §ð릤牨ꮠ§ §䬬䬬산 ö§
§§§§§§§ꮠ릤 §Şꮠ§× 산Ý§갬릤ðĐ§ 릤§ð ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§ꮠ § 릤§䬬䨸牨牨릤§
§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§ꮠ릤 §§갬릤§ 릤§ ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§ꮠ § 릤§䬬䨸牨牨릤ö§
§
ĆĖĢÝ§ħ牨릤 §䘐산ς릤 § ς산ꮠ§×산Ý§ðꮠ䨸§ 䨸牨䨸ꮠö§
§§§§§§Ş 牨릤 §牨ꮠ䬬릤 §Şꮠ§× 산Ý§Đ牨䬬ö䨸䀸§§ ꮠ牨§산§
§§§§§꺸Ş 牨릤 §牨ꮠ䬬릤 §Şꮠ§§䨸䀸§ ꮠ牨§§산§산ö§
§
ĆĖĨÝ§ħ牨릤 §ɬ 릤ς§§§§§ς산ꮠ§××산Ý§牨산ð䬬산 릤ð§ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§Ş 牨릤 § ꮠ 릤 § Şꮠ§ 산§ 릤갬ö§산릤§ð 릤갬§§§§§ð산산 §
§§§§§§꺸Ş 牨릤 §릤䬬䨸산 릤 §Şꮠ§ §§산릤§산산 ö§
§
ĆĖĮÝ§산ö§ɬ 릤 ħ牨릤 §릤ɬ 릤ς§§§§ς산ꮠ§×산Ý§牨산ð§䬬산 릤ðö§
§§§§§§§§§§䨸 §Ş 牨릤 §릤䬬䨸산 릤§Şꮠ§ 산§ 릤갬ð산릤§ð 릤갬§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸Ş 牨릤 §䨸 §릤䬬䨸산 릤§Şꮠ§ §§산릤ö§
§§§§§§§§ö§ 릤䬬䬬§§ς산ꮠ§ð릤ς산 §ð䬬䨸갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤릤 §ŞꮠðĐö牨䬬§ 䘐§Đö牨䬬ö ꮠ릤ö§
§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§ 릤릤 䬬§§ 䘐§× 䘐Ý§§ ꮠ릤ö§
§
ĆĖĴÝ§§§ħ牨릤 §牨䬬산ς릤 §×산Ý§ðς산䘐릤 §§§ς산ꮠ§§§§§ð산 䨸 §§ð릤牨ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§Ş 牨릤 §릤산 䀸§× 산Ý§ 릤§Şꮠ§§§§§§§§갬릤§ 릤§ ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§
§§§§§§§§§꺸Ş 牨릤 §ꮠ䬬§릤산 䀸§§ 릤§Şꮠ§§갬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤ö§§§§§§§
§
 § 산§ 릤§ 산릤§ 릤 산牨릤䬬§ ×ĆĖĐðĆĖĴÝî§ 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § § 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸 ꮠ 牨䀸§
ꮠ 릤릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§산䬬릤î§ 䘐 ꮠ § 䨸갬 䀸§릤䬬 䬬§ § ꮠ ꮠ ꮠꮠ산§§
牨䬬§ ꮠ § Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 § î§ 릤  § 산 § 䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬ö§ 䨸䬬î§ ꮠ § ×ĆĖĐðĆĖĜÝî§ 릤§
릤䬬 §g산§ ×䘐산 Ý§ 산 § ħ산䘐릤§ ×䀸Ý§ 산牨 갬§  릤§ 릤䬬§ § 䬬릤릤§ 산§  § ꮠ ꮠ릤§
산䨸䬬릤ö§ 릤§ 릤 䬬릤§  § ꮠ䬬§ 산䨸䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸 릤䬬 § 牨§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ §  § 릤§
牨산ꮠ §릤ö§ ⟴î§ 릤§ꮠ 릤 릤 §릤 䬬릤§  § 릤§릤牨릤 릤 §릤§ ꮠ §×ĆĖĐÝ§ ð§ ×ĆĖĖÝ§ ꮠ䬬§
릤§산䬬ö§ § 䨸 §산䬬§릤§ 릤§릤䬬릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ꮠ  䨸ꮠ 갬§릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ § 릤§릤䬬릤 §
牨î§산䬬§ꮠ §ĺ§
§
ĆĜĀÝ§§/산 산§산gꮠ§§§ς산ꮠ§§ðɬ산§§牨ς산ð 산ö§
§§§§§§§§䘐산 §Şꮠ§䬬산䀸§䘐ꮠ ð䨸䬬§
§§§§§§§꺸§䘐산 §Şꮠ§§䬬산䀸§䘐ꮠ §䨸䬬ö§
ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤§릤䬬§ bda§×릤갬ꮠ Ý§산 ħawel§×䀸Ýî§ 䨸 ꮠ릤§bga§×䘐산 Ýî§

§
§
릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § 䬬䨸릤§ 릤§  갬ꮠ산䀸§ 䨸 릤산ꮠ䬬릤 ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§
산䬬릤§ꮠ §Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 §산 §牨산 䀸§§ 릤§ 산䨸산§산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬§×䬬릤릤§ 릤§갬䬬䬬릤䬬Ýö§ 䨸䬬§䘐릤§
산 § 산릤§산§䬬릤 릤 릤§ꮠ릤§×ĆĜĆÝ§䨸§ §ꮠ릤§×ĆĜĐÝö§
§
ĆĜnÝ§ħ牨릤 §§g산§§ς산ꮠ§§ðɬ산§§牨ς산ð ö§
§§§§§§Ş 牨릤 §䘐산 릤 §산ꮠ§䬬산䀸ðĐ§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ牨§
§§§§§꺸Ş 牨릤 §䘐산 릤 §Şꮠ§§䬬산䀸§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ牨ö§
Syntax ĆĀĨ
§
ĆĜĐÝã§ħ牨릤 § ħ산䘐릤§§§§ς산ꮠ§§ðɬ산§§牨ς산ð ö§
§§§§§§Ş 牨릤 §ꮠ릤 §Şꮠ§䬬산䀸ðĐ§䘐ꮠ § ꮠ牨§
릤§ 䨸 릤§ § 산§ bga§ 산 § bda§ 䬬릤릤§ 산§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤§ 䘐ꮠ § 산§ 䨸§
§§§§§§§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤ö § § 릤 §산䬬릤 § §릤䬬 §ꮠ릤 §ħawel ×䀸Ýî§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 릤§

牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ baš§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 산§§산䬬§ꮠ ꮠ산릤 §䀸§산릤 릤䬬릤䬬ö§
릤§ 릤 산牨릤䬬§ ×ĆĖĢÝð×ĆĖĨÝ§  䬬ꮠ䬬§  §  § 릤䬬§ waςed§ Ñ牨ꮠ䬬릤Ñ§
산 § qneς§ § Ñ릤䬬䨸산 릤Ñ§ 산§ 䬬릤릤§ 산§ ŪŪ§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ ꮠ牨산§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ baš§§Ñ 산Ñ§ 䘐릤 §䀸§§산§ 䨸§ 牨ꮠ 산§䬬䨸릤ö§  §×ĆĖĮ§산ð
Ýî§ 릤§산䨸 ꮠꮠ산䀸§ qder§ Ñ산 Ñ§ 산 § xess Ñ 릤릤 Ñ§ § 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § § 릤§
릤§ꮠ 릤릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§§ 牨ö§ 䨸䬬î§ 릤§牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ꮠ §䬬䨸 §
릤 산牨릤䬬§ 산릤§ 산䬬§  ð ꮠ ꮠ릤ö§  § 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § 릤§ 산ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 산䬬§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ î§
릤§䬬䨸䨸릤§䘐䨸 §릤§䨸 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§산䬬§산 §릤§䬬릤릤 § 牨§×ĆĜĐÝĺ§
§
ĆĜĐÝ§ã§ 릤䬬䬬§§§ς산ꮠ§§ɬ산§
§§§§§§§§§ 릤릤 䬬§Şꮠ§䬬산䀸릤 ð 릤§
§
§ ×ĆĜĀ산Ý§ ꮠ䬬§ 산 § 릤 산牨릤§  § 산§ 䨸산§  䬬䨸ꮠ § 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 §
릤§牨䨸䬬§§산릤산§§ꮠ §산 §ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 牨§×䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§j-bqa Ýö§  §×ĆĖĴÝî§ 릤§
산 릤ꮠ릤§ mstaςed§§䬬릤릤䬬§산§  ð ꮠ ꮠ릤§牨릤牨릤 §산䨸䬬릤ö§
§
Interrogative complement clauses
§
§ Ť䀸§ ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 䘐릤§ 牨릤산 § ꮠ ꮠ릤§ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬î§
䘐 ꮠ § 산릤§  § 䘐§ 牨산§ 䀸릤䬬ĺ§ ×іÝ§ �릤䬬ú § ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬î§ 䘐 ꮠ § 산릤§ ꮠ갬산ꮠ䀸§
ꮠ  䨸릤 §䀸§ 릤§ 릤䨸산§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§§ wašî§산 §×ііÝ§ 䘐 ðɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬î§ 䘐 ꮠ §
산릤§ꮠ  䨸릤 §䀸§ ꮠ 릤릤 § 䘐 ð牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬ö§
§
ĆĜĖÝ§§§§산ö§牨산ðς산 ð§§䘐산§§ 산 §ð 산§şħꮠ ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§ § 䘐§§䘐 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤ð 릤䘐䬬§릤§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§  Ñ§ 䘐§䘐 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 牨산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§릤ö§
§§§§§§§§§ö§䬬릤䘐䘐릤ð ꮠ§§§ς산ꮠ§§䘐산§§산§şaħð䨸ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§산䬬릤 ð牨릤§Şꮠ§䘐 릤 릤§산牨릤§ ꮠ릤 ð ꮠ䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§산䬬릤 §牨릤§䘐 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤 §산牨릤ö§
§
릤§ 牨산ꮠ § 릤䬬§ ꮠ § ×ĆĜĖÝ§ 䬬릤릤§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ waš,§ 릤§ 산䬬릤 릤§  §
䘐 ꮠ §릤산 䬬§§䨸 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산ꮠ䀸ĺ§§
§
ĆĜĜÝ§§§ã§䬬릤䘐䘐릤ð ꮠ§§§ς산ꮠ§§ðððððð§산§şaħð䨸ö§
§§§
§ ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ waš§ ꮠ § ×ĆĜĖ산Ý§ 산 § 릤§ ꮠ 릤 산 갬릤 §
䘐ꮠ §blli§산 § 릤§牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤§릤牨릤䬬§  ðꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ĺ§§
§
ĆĀĮ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĆĜĢÝ§§牨산ð§ς산 ð§ꮠ§ 산 §ð 산§şħiħö§
§§§§§§§꺸§  Ñ§ 䘐§ 산§ ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 牨산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§릤ö§
§
 § ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬릤î§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤§ 릤 산ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤§ ꮠ 牨산ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤î§
䘐 ꮠ릤§ ꮠ § ×ĆĜĖ산Ý§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤§ 릤 산ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤§ ꮠ 牨산ꮠ § 牨산䀸§ 릤§
릤§§ ö§䘐릤릤î§ꮠ § 릤§산䬬릤§ §×ĆĜĜÝ§î§ 릤§ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§릤§ sewwel§§
 seqsa (산䬬Ý§ 릤䬬§ § 릤牨ꮠ§ 릤§ 䨸릤 릤§  § blli§ î§ 䘐 ꮠ § 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸§
산릤산䬬§䘐ꮠ § 릤산산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬ĺ§§
§
ĆĜĨÝ§䬬릤䘐䘐릤ð ꮠ§§§ς산ꮠ§§䘐산§§산§şaħð䨸ö§
§§§§§§§§逄Şꮠ§산䬬릤 §牨릤§䘐 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤 § 산䬬§牨릤ö§
§ §
§ Ş䬬§ § 䘐 ðꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬î§ 릤䀸§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 § § 䀸§ 릤§
䘐ꮠ 갬§䬬䨸䨸릤䬬ĺ§§
§
ĆĜĮÝ§ 산ö§牨산ðς산 ð§䨸 ħ산§ð산ö§
§§§§§§§§§ § 䘐§§䘐 §릤 릤 § 릤§ §
§§§§§§§§꺸§  Ñ§ 䘐§䘐 §릤 릤 § 릤§ ö§
§§§§§ö§산 § 산牨牨릤牨§ς산§§산gꮠ§ð牨ꮠ§ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐 릤§䘐䀸§§Şꮠ§䘐산 䬬§§갬§산산 ö§
§§§§§ö§§산 §䬬산Œ릤§ 䨸ɬ산úꮠ 산§§§ς산ꮠ§g산 ꮠ§ð牨ꮠ§ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐 릤§䘐 릤 §§Şꮠ§䘐산 䬬§§갬§산산 ö§
§§§§§ ö§산 §䬬산Œ릤§ 䨸ɬ산ú릤릤 úꮠ 산§§§ς산ꮠ§g산 ꮠ§ð牨ꮠ§ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐 릤§䘐 릤 ú䘐 릤릤ú§ 䘐§Şꮠ§䘐ꮠ§갬§산산 ö§
§
§  䀸§  § ꮠ릤§ 릤릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § 䬬䨸릤§ ꮠ § 릤§
ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤§산 §릤§릤ð릤산§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĆĜĮ§ðÝ§§䬬ð릤산§산䬬§ꮠ ĺ§
§
ĆĜĴÝ§§§§§§§§산 § 산牨牨릤牨§ 䨸§g산ð䀸 ꮠ§§§ς산ꮠ§ §ð 산ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§䘐 릤§䘐 산§䘐ꮠ§ §Şꮠ§ꮠ § 릤§산산 §
§§§§§§꺸§䘐 릤§䘐 산§Şꮠ§䘐ꮠ§ §산산 ö§
§
ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䬬ꮠꮠꮠ䀸§  § 산ꮠ 갬§ 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ 릤 릤§ § 산 릤§ 릤§ 릤§ 䘐䬬§ 牨§
릤§ 산§ 산§ સŞ§산䘐䬬§  §⟴鯈§ 산 §⟴鯈§ 릤䬬ö§ 䨸䬬§ 산î§ 䘐릤§ 산릤§䬬릤릤 §
䘐§산䬬ꮠ§ 䀸릤䬬§  § 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬ĺ§ 릤산산ꮠ릤§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산§
䨸 § 릤§ ꮠ ꮠ릤§ §  ð ꮠ ꮠ릤§ 산 § ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ö§ Ŷ산 § 䀸릤§  § 릤䬬릤§
산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 산ꮠ䨸산§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤î§ 릤릤 ꮠ 갬§  § 릤§ 䬬릤릤ꮠ 산§
릤ꮠ릤䬬§  § 릤§ 牨산ꮠ § 릤ö§ 䨸䬬î§ 릤§ 릤䬬§ 산§ 산릤§ ꮠ ꮠ릤§ 릤산산ꮠ릤§
牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ 䨸 릤§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬î§ 䘐ꮠ § 䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ§ 릤 릤릤 릤§ §
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬§×䬬릤릤§Ŷ 산ꮠ§ĆĴĮĜĺĖnĐÝĺ§
§
§ § સŞ § § § blli§
§
ĆĢĀÝ산öς산릤 §§§× 릤䬬䬬Ý§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ갬산䀸§
Syntax ĆĀĴ
ö§ 산§ § § §×§ 릤 䀸Ý§ § § 逄§
ö§ ⟴산ħ§§§§§×산 ꮠ䬬릤Ý§§ § ꮠ 산§
§§§§§§§ ö§산 ɬ§§§§§§×산갬릤릤Ý§§ §§§§§§§§§§§§逄§§ § §
릤ö§ς산릤§× 䬬ꮠ 릤Ý§§ § 逄§
ö§ 䬬산§§§§§§× 갬릤Ý§§ § ꮠ갬산䀸§
갬ö§Ű牨산 §§§§§§Ñ갬䨸산산 릤릤Ñ§§§§§§ ꮠ 산§
§
§ § સŞ § § § Ū牨ö§blli / baš§
§§§§§§§
§ §ĆĢĆÝ§ §산ö§ħ산䘐릤§Ñ䀸Ñ§ § §§§§§§§§§§§ðð§§§§§§§ꮠ 산§
§§§§§§§§§§§ö§g산§ Ñ䘐산 Ñ§ § § ðð§§§§§§逄§§§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§ ö§ɬ산릤ħ§Ñ䬬䨸갬갬릤䬬Ñ§ § ðð§§§§§§§逄§
§§§§§§§§§§§ ö§ 릤릤§Ñ ꮠ Ñ§§ § ðð§§ðð§§ꮠ 산§
§§§§§§§§§§§릤ö§ɬ산릤§Ñ 릤ꮠ 릤Ñ§§ § ðð§§ðð§§逄§
§§
ĆĢnÝ§§§§§ 산§§Ñ릤갬ꮠ Ñ§ § § 牨§Ǿ§
§
§ ꮠ § 릤갬산 § § ꮠ ꮠ릤§ ꮠ 릤갬산ꮠ릤§ 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬î§ 릤§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬§ꮠ 릤 § 산릤§ §䘐§牨산§䀸릤䬬§ĺ§§
§
�릤䬬ð§§ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬§ ©§ waš§
 ðɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬§©§§§䘐 ð릤릤牨릤 䬬§ ×škun, šnu,fejnî§ςlaš, kifašî§릤öÝ§
§
릤§ ꮠ䬬§䀸릤§ §ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ  䨸릤 §䀸§waš. 릤§산릤§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 산§䘐 릤 §
릤§ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 䬬ꮠ牨릤§ ×릤ö갬ö§ ×waš§ Ý§ 䬬산 릤§ 牨 산牨릤 Œ§ 逄산䬬§ સ 산牨릤 §
산릤릤 § 릤䬬䨸䬬§ ma-ςraft-š waš 牨 산牨릤 § 䬬산 릤§ 逄§  §  䘐§ 䘐 릤 릤§
સ 산牨릤 § 산䬬§ 산릤릤 ö§Ş䬬§ §䘐 ðɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬î§ 릤䀸§산릤§ꮠ갬산ꮠ䀸§ ꮠ  䨸릤 §
䀸§ 산§ 䘐 ð릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ릤䬬릤ꮠ릤§  § 䘐 릤 릤§ 릤§ ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤§ § ꮠ ꮠ릤§ ×§
⟴릤릤§×nĐÝð×nĖÝ§䬬릤릤§산䬬§Ŷ 산ꮠ§×ĆĴĮĜÝ§ §牨릤§ 릤산ꮠ䬬Ýö§
§
Adverbial clauses§
§
§ Ş 릤ꮠ산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§  䬬ꮠ䬬§  § 산 § 산 릤§ 䘐 䬬릤§ 䨸 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ § 䬬릤ꮠ 䀸§ §
릤§ 牨 릤§  § 산ꮠ §  § 릤§ 릤ö§  § Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 § î§ 牨산 䀸§ 산 릤䬬§ 산릤§
牨 갬ꮠ산䀸§ 䬬ꮠ갬 산릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 릤§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ ð䀸§ 릤 ꮠ 갬î§ 릤ö갬ö§ 逄ɬ䨸ꮠ䀸î§
× ö§Ū䀸䬬산§ĆĴĮĀ§ĺ§ĆĢÝö§ §⟴Şî§ 릤릤§산릤§ 릤§䘐산䀸䬬§§릤 릤䬬䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§牨 릤§
릤 릤䬬䬬ꮠ 䬬§䬬䨸 §산䬬§degya/ b-zzerba§Ñɬ䨸ꮠ䀸î§b-šwiya §Ñ䬬䘐䀸Ñ§î§릤ö§

 § 산ꮠ î§ 릤ö갬ö§ musriςan§ § bi- surςah§ Ñɬ䨸ꮠ䀸Ñö § §સŞ §î §䘐릤 §䨸䬬릤 §䬬牨릤 §
§ Ş 릤ꮠ산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산릤§  § 산ꮠ䨸䬬§ 䀸릤䬬§ ĺ§ ꮠ牨릤î§ 산릤î§  ꮠꮠ î§

 릤䬬䬬ꮠ î§  䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤î§ 䨸䬬릤î§ 릤ö§ Ş 릤ꮠ산§ § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§  § ꮠ牨릤§ 산릤§
ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ 䬬䨸 § 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산䬬§ 산䬬§ melli§ Ñ䘐 릤 Ñî§ hettaî§ Ñ䨸 ꮠÑî§ ħit§ Ñ䬬ꮠ 릤Ñ,
qbel Ñ릤 릤Ñ beςd Ñ산 릤Ñ§î§릤ö§
§
§
ĆĆĀ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
ĆĢĐÝ§산ö§䬬릤 ꮠ§ð산§ 릤산§산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐산ꮠ릤 § § 릤§산 §䨸 ꮠ§牨릤ðꮠ§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§䘐산ꮠ릤 § § 릤§산 §䨸 ꮠ§ꮠ§牨릤䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§§ö§牨릤ꮠ§§산䘐§ 䀸산 î§ ꮠð 䨸牨§ðɬ산 䘐산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐 릤 §산牨릤§ 릤ð갬䨸릤䬬䬬§ð§ 릤牨§ 릤ð산 䨬§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤 § 릤§갬䨸릤䬬䬬§산ꮠ릤 î§§§ 릤牨§§ 릤§산 䨬ö§
§§§§§§§§§ö§ ꮠ 산§산 ꮠ§§ħꮠ§䨸 산§䬬산§ꮠ 산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§ð䘐릤§산§산 ꮠ§䬬ꮠ 릤§䘐릤릤ð䘐릤§䬬ꮠ §䘐ꮠ §䨸䬬§
§ §꺸릤§§산§산 ꮠ§䬬ꮠ 릤§䘐릤§䘐릤릤§䬬ꮠ §릤䬬 䬬ö§§
§§§§§§§§§ ö§ɬ릤§牨산§§䀸ð릤릤牨§牨䨸§ðɬ산 䘐산§ 산牨§§ 䨸§산䀸§§ɬ䬬릤 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§릤 릤§ 릤ð산䬬§䘐 릤§ 릤ð산 䨬§䨸 릤䬬 ð§䘐 산§§ 릤ð牨릤산 §§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Ť릤 릤§ 릤§산 䨬§牨산 산갬릤§산릤 î§§䨸 릤䬬 §§䘐 산§ 릤§牨릤산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§릤ö§릤ς §牨산§§§릤牨牨릤ð§ð 산 牨산î§ð 산릤§ ðð ꮠ牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§산 릤§§산ö§§§§§§ ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤 §§ 릤ð§§䘐§§䬬산䘐ð§ 릤§ ꮠ牨§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Ş 릤§§ 산 § ꮠ ꮠ䬬 릤 §牨䀸§䘐î§§䘐산 릤 §산§ ꮠ牨ö§
§
Adverbial clauses of place
§
릤䀸§산릤§ꮠ  䨸릤 §䀸§ 릤§산 릤䬬§fin / fey §Ñ䘐 릤릤Ñî§finma§Ñ䘐 릤릤릤Ñĺ§
§
ĆĢĖÝ§§§§§g산§§§ς산ꮠ§䀸릤 릤牨§ ꮠ §牨산§산 ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐산 릤 §Şꮠ§䘐§䘐 릤릤§䘐산䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§䘐산 릤 §§䘐§䘐 릤릤릤§䬬䬬ꮠ릤ö§
§
Adverbial clauses of condition and concession
§
릤䀸§산릤§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§§ ?ila§ ×ꮠ Ýú lukan§ ×ꮠ § ꮠ§䘐릤릤Ýî§ waxxa§ ú§ walaw§
꺸릤릤 §ꮠ §
§
ĆĢĜÝ§§§§산ö§g산 ꮠ§䀸ð䬬산 릤§§§ς산ꮠ§§Œꮠ산§ 릤ħö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§䘐ꮠ§§§§산릤§§§Şꮠ§§ꮠ §䬬䨸릤릤 릤 §
§ §꺸Şꮠ§䘐ꮠ§산릤§ꮠ § 릤§䬬䨸릤릤 䬬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§ö§䨸산 §§§산§§§§ð牨䨸 ꮠî§§§§§ð牨릤 §ðħ䨸§§§§牨䨸ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ §䘐산䬬§牨릤§ 릤ð ꮠ릤§牨산䀸ðĐ§䬬릤§§ 릤§릤牨§
§ §§꺸 § 릤§ ꮠ릤§䘐릤릤§ 릤릤î§ 릤§䨸 §䬬릤§ 릤§릤牨ö§
ö§䘐산 산§§牨산§ 릤牨ð§§ς산ꮠ§§牨릤 ꮠ산 § 릤ħ§ ðð牨ꮠħ산 ö§
릤릤 §ꮠ § §䘐§§Şꮠ§䘐릤§䬬䨸릤릤 릤 § ꮠ § 릤§릤 산牨ö§
꺸Ŷ릤 §ꮠ §Şꮠ§ ꮠ § §䘐§ 산 î§ 릤§산䬬䬬릤 § 릤§릤 산牨ö§
§§§§§§§§§ ö§§牨산ɬ 릤§ς산ꮠ§䀸산 䨸 §ðꮠ䬬산§䘐산산䘐§산 ς산 䨸§ð 䨸䬬§ 릤 §
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ ð산 §Şꮠ§갬릤§ 릤§ꮠ䬬산§릤릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ 산 §牨 릤䀸§牨䨸 §
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§䨸 §갬릤§ 릤§ꮠ䬬산§릤릤 §ꮠ § 릤§ 산 §산§§ §牨 릤䀸ö§
§
§
§
Syntax ĆĆĆ
§
Adverbial clauses of consequence/ purpose
§
Ş 릤ꮠ산§산䨸䬬릤䬬§ § ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§산릤§§ꮠ  䨸릤 §䀸§ 릤§牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ baš§
Ñ䬬§ 산Ñ§ú§§Ñꮠ § 릤§Ñĺ§§
§
ĆĢĢÝ§산ö§§ς산ꮠ§§牨릤ς§§§§§ð 䨸䬬§§§§§§§§§§§산§§§§§ 릤䘐䘐릤 §§§ð릤牨ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§Şꮠ§갬산 릤릤 § 릤ð牨 릤䀸§䬬§ 산§산䬬䬬릤 § 릤§ ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§갬산 릤릤 §牨 릤䀸§䬬§ 산§ 릤§䨸 §산릤§ 릤§ ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§릤䬬ö§
ö§ς산ꮠ§ 산§ð릤牨ꮠ§산§䀸ð䨸갬§§ð䨸牨牨䨸ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§Şꮠ§§ 릤ð ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§ꮠ § 릤§ ꮠ릤ðĐ§ 릤§산§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§갬§산§ ꮠꮠ 갬§ꮠ릤 릤§ꮠ § 릤§§ ꮠ릤§ 릤§산ö§
§
Ş 䨸갬 § 산 릤ꮠ산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§  §  䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§ 산 § 䨸䬬릤§ 산릤§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§
릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬§  䨸 ꮠ § bašî§ 릤䀸§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§  § ꮠ 릤릤 §
릤 䬬릤䬬ĺ§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산§ 릤 릤䬬䬬§  䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§  䬬ꮠ䬬§  § 산§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 § ꮠ §
릤§릤 릤ꮠ릤§산䬬릤§§ ú§ 산䬬§ 릤 䬬릤î§ 䨸䬬ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤§릤§ 릤§
ꮠ 릤릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§산䬬릤§ú§릤䬬릤 §릤 䬬릤ö§
§
Relative clauses§
§
릤§릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤§§ 牨산䀸§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 䨸 § 산䬬릤§×Ý§ 산 § 릤§
䘐 릤§ 䬬䨸䨸릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬산 산 䀸§ ꮠ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 산䬬§ 산§ 牨릤 § ö§ § 릤릤§ 산릤§ 릤릤§
牨산§䀸릤䬬§ §릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬ĺ§릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤î§  ð릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§×§ 산䬬ꮠꮠ릤Ý§산 §
릤릤§릤산ꮠ릤䬬ö§ 릤䬬릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산릤§ 릤§䬬䨸䨸릤§ ꮠ䬬산䀸릤 §ꮠ §×ĆĢĨÝĺ§§
§
§牨§⦜㮴㮴㮴§
§§§§§§§§§§ ⟴§§§§§§§⟴§
§§§§§§§§§§§ Ū©§Ū牨릤 §䨸 § 산䬬릤§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ꮠ䬬§ 䨸§ꮠ § 릤릤§릤산ꮠ릤䬬ö§§
§
§ સŞ§ 牨산릤䬬§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤§ lli “ 산§ ꮠ § 릤§
牨산ꮠ §  § 릤§ 릤릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤ð䀸릤䬬§ 牨릤 ꮠ 릤 § § 산릤ö§ § 릤산䬬릤§  §
릤 䬬ꮠꮠ î§ 䘐릤§ 䘐ꮠ§ 䬬산§ 䀸§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤䬬§ 산 § 䬬 䘐§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ §  §
lli,§산䬬§䘐릤§산䬬§ꮠ䬬§䬬산ꮠ릤 §§§牨 ð䬬䀸 산ꮠ§릤ꮠ릤䬬ö§§
§
Restrictive relatives
§
릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 䬬릤릤§ § 릤䬬ꮠ§ 릤§ 산 갬릤§ § 릤 릤릤 릤§  §
릤§牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§ö§ ꮠ䬬§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §§䀸§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§릤 산牨릤䬬§ ĺ§§
§
§§ĆĢĮÝ§§§산ö§§ð산릤§ꮠ§산§䬬릤䘐䘐릤§ ꮠðö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð牨산 § 산§산牨릤ð牨䬬ö§Ş䬬릤 ð牨䬬§ꮠ ð䀸䨸§
§ §§§꺸 릤§§牨산 §§䘐 §산牨릤§ꮠ ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 §산䨸§䀸䨸ö§
ĆĆn§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§ ö§ð牨산§ꮠ§산ð§§䬬릤䘐산ð§ ꮠðö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð䘐牨산 § 산§산牨릤ö§ 牨ö§산䬬릤 ð §ꮠ ð䀸䨸§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§䘐牨산 §䘐 §산牨릤§ꮠ ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 §산䨸§䀸䨸ö§
§ ö§ð산§ꮠ§산ð䘐§§䬬릤䘐ð䨸§ ꮠðö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð牨릤 §§ 산§산牨릤ð§§ꮠ ð䀸䨸§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§牨릤 §䘐 §산牨릤§ꮠ ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 §산䨸§䀸䨸ö§
§ ö§ðς䀸산산§ú§ ð 䬬산§ꮠ§산䘐§§§§§䬬릤䘐ð䨸§ ꮠðö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð䘐牨릤 §§§§§§§ 산ð산牨릤§산䬬릤 ð§ꮠ ð䀸䨸§
§ §§§꺸 릤§§䘐牨릤 §䘐 §산牨릤§ꮠ ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 §산䨸§䀸䨸ö§
ĆĢĴÝ§ 산ö§산ɬꮠ§ §ð산릤§ꮠ ς산 §ðꮠ§× Ý§ §ðħ산 산§ § § § § §
§ §§§§牨릤ð§ 릤ð牨산 § 산§ꮠ ꮠ릤 ð䀸䨸§ð ꮠ牨§§ 릤ð산䀸§
§ §§§꺸§牨릤§ 릤§牨산 §䘐 牨§䀸䨸§ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§ 릤§산䀸ö§
§§ ö§ɬꮠ§ð䨸산§ꮠ§릤릤牨ꮠ§ςꮠð 䨸牨§
§ §§§§§릤산 ð§ 릤ð䬬§ 산§산릤 ð䀸䨸§ §ð 릤牨ð牨䬬ö§
§ §§§§§꺸§× 산릤Ý§릤산 § 릤§䬬§ 산§䀸䨸§산릤 §산䨸ö§
§
§ Ş§ 릤䬬릤§ 릤 산牨릤䬬§ ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ 䘐§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산릤§
牨릤 §ꮠ §સŞö§ 릤산ꮠꮠ䬬산ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§산§ 䬬䀸 산ꮠ§릤산ꮠ §§ 산§䀸ꮠ릤 䬬§산§ ³牨릤 §
䬬릤 릤 릤³§산䬬§ 산 §䨸䨸ö§ 릤§䘐 릤§ 䬬䨸ꮠ § 산ꮠ 䬬§ 䘐§릤䬬§ î§ 릤산 §  §
䘐 ꮠ § 牨䬬 §산 § § 릤 §릤 ꮠ산릤 § §ꮠ䬬 §䘐 §산䨸䬬릤ö §  §릤 산牨릤î §ꮠ §×ĆĢĮÝî §
릤§ 䬬릤 릤 릤§ 산§  산ꮠ 䬬§ sewwel§ ³산䬬³§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 牨산ꮠ § 산䨸䬬릤§ 산 § 릤§  릤§ 산§
 산ꮠ 䬬§ a ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산릤§산䨸䬬릤ö§ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 산릤§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 산䬬§ 산§
릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§  § 산䨸䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䀸 산ꮠ산䀸§ 릤릤 릤 §  § 릤§ 릤산 §
䨸 § ×릤ö갬ö§ r-rael§ ꮠ § ×ĆĢĮÝö§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 산䬬§ ꮠ ꮠ산릤 § ×ꮠ § 牨䬬§
산䬬릤䬬Ý§ 䀸§ 릤§ ꮠ갬산䀸§ § 릤䬬릤 릤§  § 릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ § 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤§ ÑlliÑö§ 릤§§
산릤§ 릤산ꮠ 䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§  릤 §×산 § 릤䨸산Ý§ 牨§릤갬산 릤䬬䬬§ § 릤§ 산䨸릤§산 §
갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§ 䨸 ꮠ § § 릤§牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 䨸 § 산䬬릤ö§ 䨸䬬§ ꮠ §×ĆĢĮ산Ýî§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§
산 § ꮠ 䬬산 릤§  § 䬬䨸릤§ § 릤산ꮠꮠ 산ꮠ î§ ꮠ§ 릤䬬§ § 䬬 䘐§ 산 䀸§ 산갬릤릤牨릤 § 䘐ꮠ §
릤§ 릤산 § 䨸 r-rael ³ 릤§牨산 ³ö§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ § 산갬릤릤牨릤 §릤牨릤䬬§릤산§ 䘐ꮠ §
릤§ 릤§릤 산牨릤䬬§ꮠ §×ĆĢĮðÝî§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§䬬䨸릤§ꮠ䬬§ 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ 릤§ꮠ § 릤§산䬬릤§산 §
䨸산§ ꮠ § 릤§  릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 § 牨§ ⟴산 산 § Ş산ꮠ§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ llaðii§ × 牨§ 䘐 ꮠ § lli§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ산䀸§ 릤ꮠ릤 Ý§ ꮠ䬬산䀸䬬§
산갬릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ §릤䬬 î§갬릤 릤§ 산 § 䨸牨릤§ 䘐ꮠ § 릤§牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§ĺ§§
§
§
ĆĨĀÝ§ § 산ðꮠ산산ð䨸§ § § § §산
§ ꮠꮠ 산§§§§§§§§§산산Œð䨸䨸§
§ 릤ð牨릤 ð 䨸 § 산ð牨䬬öö§산牨릤ð牨䬬ö§
§ 꺸 릤§§牨릤 §䘐 §산牨릤⦜§
§
§ 릤§ § 릤 산牨릤䬬§ ꮠ § ×ĆĢĴÝ§ ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ 䘐§ 릤䬬§  § 릤䬬§ 산 §
릤䬬ꮠꮠ 䬬§ 산릤§ 릤산ꮠꮠ䬬릤 ö§  § 릤§ 산䬬릤§  § 릤§ 릤산ꮠꮠ䬬산ꮠ î§ 䘐릤§ ꮠ릤§
䘐§ ꮠ牨산 § ꮠ 갬䬬ĺ§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ lli§ 릤䬬§ § 산䀸§ 산 䀸§
牨 갬ꮠ산§ 䨸릤§ 산䨸§ 릤§ 산䬬릤§  § ꮠ䬬§ 산 릤릤 릤 § 릤 릤î§ ꮠ§ 릤䬬§ § 䬬 䘐§
산 䀸§ ꮠ 릤릤 릤§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤䬬§ 산 § 䬬䨸릤䬬î§  산䀸§ § 릤§ 릤  §
Syntax ĆĆĐ
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬§ 逄ɬ䨸ꮠúɬ䨸릤§ 산 § 릤ꮠ§ Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 § 릤䬬 ꮠ 갬§ 牨䬬§
䘐 ú䘐 牨ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ牨ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 릤§ 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§ 䨸 ꮠ §  § § lli§ 산 §릤 §
릤릤牨ꮠ 릤 §  䀸§ 䀸§ 릤§ 산 릤릤 릤 ö§ ⟴릤 î§ 䨸 ꮠ릤§ Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 § 릤산ꮠ릤§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬î§ સŞ§ lli§ 산 § 䨸§  § 䘐ꮠ § 䨸牨산 § 산 §  ð 䨸牨산 § 䬬ö§
 䀸§  § ꮠ릤§ 릤릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ lli§ 산 § 릤§ 릤릤릤 §
䘐 산릤릤§ 릤§산䬬릤§ § 릤§릤산ꮠꮠ䬬릤 § §䨸 §릤ö§
§ 릤§ 䨸 릤§ 산§ 릤산ꮠꮠ䬬산ꮠ § ꮠ § સŞ§ 牨산릤䬬§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 䘐§ 䬬산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬ĺ§
릤§ 갬산§ 䬬산릤갬䀸§ 산 § 릤§ 릤䬬䨸牨ꮠ릤§ § 䬬산릤갬䀸ö§ 릤§ § 산릤§ ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 䀸ꮠ산䀸§
䨸䬬릤 §䘐 릤 § 릤§ 䬬릤산릤§ 䘐산 䬬§ §릤§牨릤§䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ§ 산 §䬬ú 릤§ 䘐䬬§ ꮠ § 산 산 릤§
릤§릤䬬 §§릤§䬬ú 릤§ꮠ 릤 䬬§ §산§산䨸ĺ§§
§
ĆĨĆÝ§ ð 산䬬§ § § § § § §ꮠ§§§§ð산ɬꮠð×
§§ 䨸牨Ý§§牨릤ςɬ䨸ðꮠ §
§ 릤ð릤릤§ 산ð牨릤§ð§× 릤牨Ý§䬬릤ꮠ䨸䬬ð§
§ 꺸 릤§§릤릤§×䘐 牨Ý§ §牨릤§산릤§䬬릤ꮠ䨸䬬ö§
§
§  릤 § 릤§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § § ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 릤§  § 산§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ § × ö§ ĆĨn§ Ý§ §
䘐 릤 § ꮠ§ 䨸䬬§ ꮠ § 산 § 산 䨸 § 산䨸䬬릤§ ×ĆĨĐÝ§ ð§ 䘐 ꮠ §  䬬ꮠ䨸릤䬬§ 산 § ꮠ䬬산 § §
牨릤牨릤 ð§ 릤§릤䬬䨸牨ꮠ릤§䬬산릤갬䀸§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ갬산䀸§ĺ§
§
ĆĨnÝ§ ð산릤§ § § ꮠ§§§릤릤牨ð§§§牨ς산ð
§§ §§§§§䬬릤䘐䘐릤§ ꮠðö§
§ 릤ð牨산 § 산§산릤 ð§§§§䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨§§§ꮠ ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 §ðꮠ §䀸䨸§
§ 꺸 릤§§牨산 §䘐 牨§§산릤 §§ꮠ ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 §산䨸§䀸䨸ö§
§
ĆĨĐÝ§ ð牨산§ ꮠ§ § 릤䘐䘐릤ð× 산Ý§ 牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § § ɬ릤§ 牨산릤ς산 ð 산§ § § § 牨릤 ꮠ산 㮴 §
릤 산ö§
§ 릤ð䘐牨산 § 산§ 牨산ꮠ릤 ð 릤§ § સ 산牨릤 § § 릤 릤§ 릤ð 䘐䬬ð 릤§ 䘐릤§ § § § § § §
ꮠ릤§
§ 꺸 릤§ § 䘐牨산 § ×䘐 牨Ý§ સ 산牨릤 § 牨산ꮠ릤 § 릤 릤§  䘐ꮠ 갬§ × 릤Ý§
䘐릤㮴§ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ릤ö§
§
§ Ş  릤§ 䬬산ꮠ릤 § 릤䀸§  § 릤산ꮠꮠ 산ꮠ § ꮠ § સŞ§ 산§ 릤䬬릤릤䬬§ § 릤§
ꮠ 릤 §䨸§ 릤산릤䬬§ § 䘐 §  릤ö§ સŞ§ ꮠ䬬§ 산牨 갬§ 릤§䨸§ ⟴䨸릤§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬§
䘐 ꮠ § 산릤§  산산릤ꮠ䬬릤 § 䀸§ 릤릤§ ꮠ 릤䬬ꮠ § ö ꮠ䬬§ 릤䀸§ ꮠ䬬§ 산릤䬬릤 § §  䀸§
ꮠ §䬬ꮠ牨릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬î§ 䨸§산䬬§ꮠ §牨릤 §䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ꮠ 䨸 ꮠ 갬§릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬î§
산䬬§릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 릤䘐ĺ§§
§
ĆĨĖÝ§ 산ö§ð䨸산§ § § § ꮠ§산§§§§§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤
§§ 㮴§g산ꮠ ö§§§§§§§§§×⟴鯈Ý§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð
䬬§ 산§䨸갬 §સ 산牨릤 §§릤 릤 䬬ꮠ릤ð§
§ 꺸 릤§§䬬§ 산§સ 산牨릤 §䨸갬 §산릤§릤 릤 䬬ꮠ릤ö§
§ ö§ð䨸산§§§§§§ꮠ§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §산㮴§g산ꮠ ö§§§ § ×⟴鯈Ý§
§
§
§ 릤§ 䘐릤ð 牨릤 § 산ꮠ§  § 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ 갬ꮠ릤 § 산릤§ 䬬䨸갬갬릤䬬䬬§ 산§
릤산ꮠ릤䬬§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ § સŞ§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 牨릤 § 䘐ꮠ § ⟴鯈§ § § ⟴鯈§  릤ö§ Ť릤 릤§
ĆĆĖ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
䬬 ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 릤§산릤 ꮠ §§  ð릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§릤산ꮠ릤䬬î§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ 䘐 §䬬 䘐ꮠ 갬§ 산  릤§
ꮠ § § 牨ꮠ 갬§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§릤산ꮠ릤䬬§ 䘐 릤 § 릤§릤산ꮠ릤 § § ꮠ䬬§ 릤§릤§  §
산§릤䬬ꮠꮠ ö§ § ꮠ䬬§산䬬릤î§䘐릤§산 §릤ꮠ 릤§ 산릤§산릤 䬬§ꮠ릤§×ĆĨĜ산Ýî§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§
릤䬬ꮠꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 䬬산 릤 § 산 § 산§ 릤䬬䨸牨ꮠ릤§  䨸 § ꮠ䬬§ 산산 릤 § ꮠî§ § 산릤 䬬§
ꮠ릤§ ×ĆĨĜÝî§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 䘐 릤§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산§ 산䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤산ꮠꮠ䬬릤 § ×ꮠ릤 ð
ꮠꮠ 갬Ýĺ§
§
ĆĨĜÝ§ 산ö§ð산릤§ § §ꮠ§§§§§산릤牨䨸§§ςꮠð
§ §§牨ꮠŰö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð牨산 § 산§䀸䨸ð산§ § ꮠ牨§§ꮠö牨䬬§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§牨산 §산䨸§䘐 牨§䀸䨸§산릤§산ꮠ 갬§ꮠ䬬§ꮠö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ö§ð산릤§ς산§牨릤 §산릤牨䨸§牨ꮠŰö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤ð牨산 § 산§䀸䨸§산§ § ꮠ牨§ꮠð牨䬬§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§牨산 §산䨸§䘐 牨§䀸䨸§산릤§산ꮠ 갬§ꮠ䬬§ꮠö§
§
§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 산릤 § ×ĆĨĜÝ§ 릤䬬§ § 산䘐§ 릤§ 䨸릤 릤§  § 산§
릤䬬ꮠꮠ §산 § 릤§릤산ꮠ릤§牨릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤§ lliö§ 산§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤릤 릤 §ꮠ 䬬릤산 §ꮠ䬬§ 릤§
䨸䬬릤§ §䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ§ 䨸䬬§ 산§ 산릤§䨸 §ꮠ §§ 산䨸릤§산 §릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§§릤§산산 릤 §
§산§ 䬬§䬬䨸 §산䬬§ðmen§ꮠ §×ĆĨĢÝ§산 §-aš§§ꮠ §×ĆĨĢ산ðÝö§
§
×ĆĨĢÝ§ 산ö§ð산§§§§§§§ ςð산§§§§§§§§산릤牨䨸§§牨䨸 ꮠ牨ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð§§ §䘐 ꮠ §䀸䨸ð산§§§§§ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§산䨸§䘐 ꮠ §䀸䨸§산릤§산ꮠ 갬§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬ö§
§ ö§䬬ð䬬산䨸§§ð산§§§§§§§§§§§ħ산ꮠ§§§§§§§§§§§§ð산§§§§§§§릤 ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð릤䀸§䘐ꮠ ð䘐 ꮠ § 䀸䨸ð릤 릤 § 릤ð §䬬§
§ §§§꺸 릤§§릤䀸§䘐ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ § 䀸䨸§릤 릤 § 릤§ §ꮠ䬬§䬬ö§
ö§ð牨릤䬬/산산§§牨릤 ð산§산䀸§릤산§ð牨䨸 ꮠöö§
§§§§ 릤ð릤牨§ 牨ð䘐 ꮠ §牨산ꮠ 䬬§ 릤ð ꮠ릤§
§§§§꺸 릤§§릤牨§ 牨§䘐 ꮠ § 릤§ ꮠ릤§牨산ꮠ 䬬⦜§
ö§ð산§§§§§§ ð산§§§§§§§§䬬산 릤ð 산§§§§§§§牨䨸牨산 ö§
§ §§§§ 릤ð䨸䬬§ꮠ §䘐 ꮠ §䘐릤§산릤릤 §䘐 릤 䨸§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§§䨸䬬§ §䘐 ꮠ §䘐릤§산릤릤 §䘐산䬬§䘐 릤 䨸ö§
§
릤§ 䨸 릤ꮠ 릤 § 산 릤䬬§ 릤䬬 § § 릤§ Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 § 䘐 ðꮠ릤牨䬬§ 逄䘐 牨î§
逄䘐 ꮠ î§逄䘐 릤릤î§逄䘐 릤 î§릤ö§
Non-restrictive relatives
§
§  ð릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ § 산䬬ꮠꮠ릤䬬§ 산릤§ 䀸ꮠ산䀸§ 릤산 릤 §
䀸§ 산§ 릤 릤릤 ꮠ산§ § 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 릤 䀸§ ꮠ 릤 ꮠ ꮠ릤 î§ 산 § 산 䀸§ 䨸 릤§
牨 ꮠ ꮠ산ꮠ §  § 䬬䨸 § 산§ 릤산 § ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䨸릤牨릤 산䀸§ ꮠ 牨산ꮠ § 산䨸§ ꮠö§ Ū산䨸䬬릤䬬§
 § ꮠ䬬§䀸릤§산릤î§ 䨸䬬î§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §산릤 릤ꮠ산§䬬䨸䨸릤䬬§䘐 䬬릤§ 䨸 ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§§
갬ꮠ릤§ 산 ꮠꮠ 산§ ꮠ 牨산ꮠ § 산䨸§ 릤§ 산 릤릤 릤 § î§ ꮠö릤ö§ 릤§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 § § §
산䨸䬬릤§×䬬릤릤§Ŷ 산ꮠî§ĆĴĮĜÝ§
§
Syntax ĆĆĜ
ĆĨĨÝ§§§§§산ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 îꮠ§산§ħ산牨䨸ð § ð 산䬬§䨸ð 䨸牨㮴§§§§§§§§牨릤䘐산Ű릤ς§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§સ 산牨릤 î§ 산§릤䬬릤ð ꮠ牨§ 릤ð릤릤ð산ð 릤牨§§ 䨸牨릤§
§ §§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 î§䘐 §산§릤릤§릤䬬릤î§ꮠ䬬§ 䨸牨릤ö§§
§ ö§ 산䬬䨸§§§ ð 산ꮠ§§§§§§§§§§䬬ð䬬산릤牨î§§§§§ꮠ§牨산ðꮠ§§§§§牨산ςɬ䨸§
§ §§§§릤ð§§ 릤ð ꮠ 릤 § 릤ð䘐ꮠ 䘐§ 산§ §갬ꮠ산§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸 릤§§ ꮠ 릤 §릤 § 릤§䘐ꮠ 䘐î§䘐 ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§ §갬ꮠ산ö§
§
§ ꮠ릤§ 산§  ð릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤䬬§ 산릤§ 䬬릤산산릤 § 牨§ 릤§
산 릤릤 릤 § 산 § 릤§ 릤 ꮠ산릤§ 䀸§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 牨牨산䬬§ ꮠ § 䬬릤릤 î§ ꮠ䬬§
 산산릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ ꮠ산릤 § 䀸§ 산§  갬ꮠ산§ 릤산§ ×§ 산䨸䬬릤Ýö§ 릤§ 䨸 릤§
산§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 릤§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 산 § 산䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤䬬§ ꮠ § સŞ§ ꮠ䬬§
릤䨸산ꮠ 릤 §ꮠ 䬬 산§ 산䬬§ 릤§䨸䬬릤§ § 릤§릤산ꮠ릤§牨릤牨릤 ꮠ 릤§ ꮠ§ꮠ䬬§  릤 릤 î§
䬬ꮠ 릤§ꮠ§ ꮠ갬산ꮠ䀸§䬬 䘐䬬§ 䨸§ ꮠ § §䀸릤䬬§  §䬬䨸䨸릤䬬ö§ Ş ꮠꮠ 산䀸î§ 릤릤§
ꮠ䬬§ § 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ산릤 § § 릤§ Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 § 릤산ꮠ릤§ 牨§ Ñ 산Ñî§ 䘐 ꮠ § 산 § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤 § 산䬬§ 산§
릤䬬§×산牨 갬§ 릤䬬Ý§§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 §릤䘐릤릤 § 릤䬬릤§䀸릤䬬§ §릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬ö§
§
Free relatives
§
§ 릤릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤䬬§ 산릤§ 산릤 § 䬬§ 릤산䨸䬬릤§ 릤䀸§ 산 § 䬬산 § 䀸§ 릤牨䬬릤릤䬬§
䘐ꮠ 䨸§ 릤ꮠ 갬§ 릤릤䬬䬬산ꮠ䀸§ 릤산 릤 § 䀸§ 산 § § 산§ 䨸䬬䨸산䀸§ 䨸 ꮠ 䬬§ § 산䬬§ 산 §
산 릤릤 릤 ö§ ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§  § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산 § 릤§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 릤䨸산§
牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ lli§ § 䘐 ð§ 牨릤牨릤 ꮠ䬬릤§ 릤릤 ꮠ 갬§  § 릤§ ꮠ 릤 산§
䬬䨸䨸릤§ § 릤§산䨸䬬릤ĺ§§
§
ĆĨĮÝ§ § 산䘐§ꮠ§§ 산䨸ð㮴㮴ö§
§ §산牨릤§ 산§ꮠ 牨릤 ð 릤䀸ð䀸䨸§
§ §꺸 䬬릤§䘐 §ꮠ 牨릤 §䀸䨸§ 산릤§산ꮠ릤 ö§
§
ĆĨĴÝ§ 산ö§산 § ς산 § §ꮠ§산ð릤牨ð䨸§§ ςꮠ§ 䨸牨㮴ö§§§§§
§§§§§ 䘐§ 산§䀸䨸ð산ð§§ ð 릤牨§
§ §§§§꺸§ 䘐§䘐 §䀸䨸§산릤§산ꮠ 갬§산䨸ö§
§ ö§산 § ς산 §§ς산ð牨릤 §§산ð릤牨ð䨸㮴ö§
§ §§§§§ 䘐§ ð䘐 牨§§䀸䨸ð산릤 ð§
§ §§§§꺸§ 䘐§§산䨸§䘐 牨§䀸䨸§산릤§산ꮠ 갬ö§
§
ĆĮĀÝ§ § 牨ς산ð牨릤 § 산䬬릤牨ðꮠ㮴§牨ꮠ § ×Ŷ 산ꮠ§ĆĴĮĜĺĮĜÝ§
§ §䘐ꮠ ð䘐 牨§ɬ䨸산릤릤 ð䀸䨸§䬬ꮠ§
§ §§꺸 릤§§ 릤§䘐 §䀸䨸§ɬ䨸산릤릤 §䘐ꮠ §ꮠ䬬§䬬ꮠö§
§
ĆĮĆÝ§ 릤ς䬬ð산§ § ꮠ § 릤ς산䬬§ 䨸ð 산㮴ö§
§ 䬬릤ð䬬 릤§䘐 릤릤§䬬릤§§ 릤ð 릤§
§ 꺸⟴ 릤§䬬릤§䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 릤§䬬릤ö§
§
ĆĆĢ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§  § ×ĆĨĮÝ§ 릤§ 릤릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤§ 산䬬§ 릤§ 갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§ 䨸 ꮠ §  §
䬬䨸릤§ 산 § 䨸䬬§ ꮠ § 䬬ð릤산§ 䬬ꮠꮠ § 䘐ꮠ 갬§ 릤§ ⟴鯈§ 산릤 ö§ 릤§ §
䬬산牨릤§산䨸䬬릤§산 §릤§산릤 §릤 릤§ 릤§릤§䀸ꮠ릤 ꮠ 갬§ ⟴鯈§ 릤ö§
§  §×ĆĨĴ산Ýî§ 릤§ 릤릤§릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤§ 산䬬§ 릤§ 䨸 ꮠ § § 릤§ 릤산䨸䬬릤§
ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ 산 산릤 § § 릤§ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤§ ςraf§ × 䘐Ýî§ ꮠ § ×ĆĨĴÝ§ 릤§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산§
산䬬릤§ 산 § 䨸 릤갬 릤§ ꮠ릤 § ꮠꮠ 갬§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ 산§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ § 산 § 릤§ 䬬산 릤 § ꮠ §
સŞö§ 릤§ 릤릤§릤산ꮠ릤§䬬䨸䨸릤§ 䨸 ꮠ 䬬§산䬬§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§릤§ § 릤§릤§ ςraf§
× 䘐Ýö§  § ×ĆĮĀÝ§ 릤§ 릤릤§릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§ 릤산 릤 §䀸§산§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ 산§ 산䬬릤§
䘐 ꮠ § 䨸 ꮠ 䬬§ 산䬬§ 산§ 䬬䨸릤ö§  § ×ĆĮĆÝî§ 릤§ 릤릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ  䨸릤 §
䀸§ 릤§산 릤§ §산릤§fin§×䘐 릤릤Ýö§
§
Small clauses§
§
Introduction
§
쀔 ꮠ릤§  ꮠ 산䀸§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 䘐 ꮠ § 牨산䀸§ 릤§ ꮠ ꮠ릤§ § ꮠ ꮠ ꮠꮠ산î§ 䬬牨산§
산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산§ 산§ 릤§ 릤 릤§ 릤䀸§ 산릤§ 릤 䬬릤릤䬬䬬§ 산 § 䀸ꮠ산䀸§ 䨸§ ꮠ §
릤牨릤 릤 §  릤 䬬§ ×䬬릤릤§ Ū 牨䬬䀸§ ĆĴĮĆî§ ⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ§ nĀĀĆÝö§ ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§  § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§
䘐 ꮠ § 䨸 ꮠ § 산䬬§ 牨릤牨릤 䬬î§ 산릤§ 䬬릤릤릤 § 䀸§ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤䬬§ ꮠ릤§ ςtaber§
§ħseb§× 䬬ꮠ 릤Ýö§
§ Ş 릤ꮠ산§䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞî§산䬬§ꮠ §牨산 䀸§ 릤§ 산䨸산§산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬î§
산§ꮠ § 릤릤§산䬬ꮠ§갬산牨牨산ꮠ산§산ꮠ릤ꮠ릤䬬ĺ§§
ĆĮnÝ산ö§§산 §ς산릤§§ς산ꮠ§牨ţ산䘐䘐릤㮴ö§
 ö§Ū 䬬ꮠ 릤ð§산ꮠ§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ð牨䬬ð䬬갬§
꺸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§Şꮠ§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§§§§§§§ö§§산䀸§ 산§ς산ꮠ§牨ţ산䘐䘐릤㮴ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ ö§⟴릤릤牨§Şꮠ§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ð牨䬬ð䬬갬§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§䬬릤릤牨䬬§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§§§§§§§ö§§릤ς ς산ꮠ§牨릤 §ðħ산 산§ 릤ħ산 㮴ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§릤䨸 릤 ðŞꮠ§ 牨§ 릤ð산䀸§× 산䀸ð牨䬬ð䬬갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§릤䨸 릤 § 牨§ 릤§산䀸§ 산䀸ö§
§
§ Ŷ 산牨릤§×ĆĮn산Ý§ꮠ䬬§산§䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤§ 산§산릤 䬬§ꮠ릤§Ŷ 릤ꮠ 산§Ū산䬬릤§
સ산ꮠ 갬§ ×ŶŪસÝ§ Ū 䬬䨸ꮠ 䬬î§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 牨산ꮠ § 릤§ 갬릤 䬬§ 산 § 산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 䬬§
산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤§ § 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § 䬬䨸릤ö§ ⟴릤 릤 릤§ ×ĆĮnÝ§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤§
릤䬬ꮠ § §산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ĺ§ 릤§牨산ꮠ §䬬䨸릤§ ꮠ䬬§ θð牨산릤 §䀸§ 릤§산 릤ꮠ산§릤 ꮠ산릤î§
산 §䀸§ 릤§牨산ꮠ §릤§×⟴䘐릤§ĆĴĴĆĺĆĮnÝö§⟴릤 릤 릤§×ĆĮnÝ§ꮠ䬬§산 §릤 산牨릤§ §
산 䨸 § 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬î§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 § 䬬䨸릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 䨸§  牨ꮠ 산§
릤릤牨릤 § 鯈§䘐 ꮠ §§ꮠ䬬§ 릤 §ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§산䬬릤§䀸§ 릤§牨산ꮠ §䬬䨸릤§ö§
§ 䘐릤릤î§ 䘐§ 䬬ꮠꮠ 갬§ 릤ꮠ릤䬬§  § 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ § સŞ§ 䘐ꮠ§ 릤§
릤릤산릤 § 산 § 䨸䬬ꮠ ꮠ릤 ö§ 릤§ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤䀸î§ 䘐 ꮠ § 䬬릤릤牨䬬§ ×§ 릤Ý§ 䨸 ꮠ 갬§ ꮠ䬬§
산§ 릤§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 䨸 릤§  䬬ꮠ 릤산ꮠ § 산 § 䬬산 § ꮠ 릤릤 릤 䀸§ 산䬬§ 牨산§
䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 䨸릤§ § 릤§ ꮠ § ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산§ 牨 갬䀸§  § સŞö§ 릤§ §
䬬릤 § 릤䀸§  § સŞ§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤䀸§ 산릤§ 릤 䨸䬬ꮠ릤䀸§ 䬬䨸릤ð
Syntax ĆĆĨ
ꮠ ꮠꮠ산§ î§ ꮠö릤ö§ 릤䀸§ 산릤§ § ⟴鯈§ 산릤 § 䨸갬 § 릤§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤§ 산䘐䬬§ ⟴鯈§ § 산 §
⟴鯈§  릤䬬§ ꮠ § 牨산ꮠ § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산 § ꮠ §  릤§ 릤牨릤 릤 §  릤 䬬ö§  § 릤§
ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䬬ꮠ § 산§ 䘐䬬î§ 䘐릤§ 䘐ꮠ§ 䨸䬬§  § 산 릤ꮠ산§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ § 산 §
ꮠ䨸䬬산릤§ 릤ꮠ§牨산§릤ꮠ릤䬬ö§
§
Adjectival small clauses
§ §
§ ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§  § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§ 릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§
×䬬릤릤§⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ§nĀĀĆĺnÝ§§
§
ĆĮĐÝ§산ö§산 §ς산릤§§ς산ꮠ§牨ţ산䘐䘐릤㮴ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§Ū 䬬ꮠ 릤ð§산ꮠ§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ð牨䬬ð䬬갬§
§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§Şꮠ§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§§§§§§§§ö§ã§산 §ς산릤§牨ţ산䘐䘐릤§ς산ꮠ㮴ö§
§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§§§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §牨䬬ö§Şꮠ㮴§
§
ĆĮĖÝ§산ö§ħ䬬릤ð§산ꮠ산§牨ţ산䘐산㮴ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ðĆð䬬갬ö§릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §䬬ꮠ 갬ö§
§ 꺸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§§§§§§§ö§ã§ħ䬬릤ð§牨ţ산䘐산§산ꮠ산㮴ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §ðĆ§䬬갬ö§ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §ð ð䬬갬ö§릤䀸산§ §§§§§§§
§
§ Ş 릤ꮠ산§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ § સŞî§ 산䬬§ ꮠ 䬬산 ꮠ산릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䘐릤ð 牨릤 §
䬬ꮠ 갬䬬§ 릤䘐릤릤 § 산릤䬬§ ꮠ § ×ĆĮĐÝð×ĆĮĖÝ§ ꮠ䬬산䀸§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§ 牨산§
릤ꮠ릤䬬ĺ§§
§
ĆĮĜÝ§§§§§산ö§ 릤䀸§산§릤 䬬릤î§ 䨸릤§§ 릤§산䬬릤 릤§ § 릤§릤ö§
§§§§§§ö§ 릤䀸§산릤§䬬ꮠ䀸§䬬䨸릤ðꮠ ꮠꮠ산§§
§ § § § ö§
§§ 릤䀸§ 牨산䀸§ 䨸§ 산䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ § 산§ 산䬬릤î§ § § § 릤䀸§
릤 산릤§산䬬§ ꮠ 산䀸§§
§§§§§§§§§ 牨ꮠ 산§×ꮠö릤ö§릤릤䬬䬬Ý§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§
§§§§§§ ö§§ 릤§§ 䬬䨸릤§ 산 § 릤§산 릤ꮠ산§§릤 ꮠ산릤§산갬릤릤§ꮠ § 릤§ 릤산䨸릤䬬§  §
갬릤 릤§ 산 § 䨸牨릤§ 릤§ 산䬬릤§  § 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ 산 § 릤§ 릤 ꮠ산릤§ ꮠ䬬§
산䘐산䀸䬬§ 산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬§ 산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤§ 릤§ 릤牨산§
ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ ö§
§ § § § § §릤ö§
§ 릤§ 릤牨산§ ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ §  § 릤§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤§ ×릤ö갬ö§ 릤䬬릤 § §
산䬬Ý§ 릤릤 䬬§䨸ꮠ산䀸§ § 릤§§
§§§§§§§§§§§릤 䬬릤§ § 릤§牨산ꮠ §릤§×§ ö×ĆĮĐÝð×ĆĮĖÝö§
§
Ş산§ 牨§ 릤§³䨸 ꮠ 갬³§릤䀸§ꮠ §×Ý§î§ 릤§릤ꮠ릤䬬§산릤§산릤䬬릤 §
ꮠ § 牨산 䀸§  릤§ 산䨸산§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬§ 䬬䨸 § 산䬬§ 릤  § 산 § Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 ö§ Ş䬬§ 牨릤 ꮠ 릤 §
산릤î§ સŞ§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산 § 䬬산 § 䀸§ 릤牨䬬릤릤䬬§ 산 § 릤 산릤§ 산䬬§ 䨸릤§
牨ꮠ 산§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ § 릤산䨸䬬릤§  § 릤§ ꮠ § ꮠ 릤ꮠ § 산§ ꮠ산릤䬬§ 릤§ 릤릤 § §
산 § 릤䀸§ 릤 릤䬬䬬릤 § 릤§ × 산§ 릤䬬 䬬§ § 릤§ 䨸산§ Ñ릤Ñ§ ꮠ § Ŷ 갬ꮠ䬬 Ýö§
ĆĆĮ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
䨸䬬î§ 릤§ 䘐릤ð 牨릤 § § 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ ꮠ § ×ĆĮĐÝð×ĆĮĖÝ§ 산 § 䨸§ §
ꮠ 릤릤 릤 䀸§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĆĮĢÝĺ§§
§
ĆĮĢÝ§ 산ö§ς산ꮠ§牨 산䘐䘐릤ö§
§§§§§§§§§Şꮠ§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §牨䬬ö䬬갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
ö§§산ꮠ산§牨 산䘐산ö§§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§릤䀸산§§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §ð ð䬬갬ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸릤䀸산§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§ §
§ Ş ꮠꮠ 산䀸 § 릤 § 산 § 산 §䬬牨산 §산䨸䬬릤䬬 §릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤 § 릤 §䬬䨸릤 § §릤 §
ꮠ ꮠꮠ산§ 䘐䬬§ 牨§ 릤§ 䬬산䨸䬬§  § 䬬䨸 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 릤牨䬬릤릤䬬§ 䘐 ꮠ §
䨸 䨸 산릤䀸§ 릤 산릤§ 산䬬§ agreements§  § 릤§ 䬬릤릤ꮠ 갬§ 릤ö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ牨ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§
산갬䨸牨릤  §ꮠ䬬§ 산§ 릤䀸§  § 릤 릤릤 ꮠ산§§䬬§ 산 § §  릤§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§ ꮠ릤§
Ş䬬§ § 䬬ö§ ꮠ § 릤䬬릤§ 䬬릤산ꮠ 䬬§ ꮠ § 牨ꮠ î§ 릤§ 䨸䬬§ 릤 산牨ꮠ 릤§ §  릤§
릤ꮠ릤䬬§ §산 릤ꮠ산§䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞö§
§
Other properties of adjectival small clauses
§
릤 § § ꮠ䬬 §䬬산ꮠ릤 § §릤䀸 § § ꮠ䬬 §䀸릤 § §산䨸䬬릤䬬 §ꮠ䬬 § 산 § 릤䀸 §산릤 §
䬬䀸 산ꮠ§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§ 䘐 ꮠ §  牨§ § 릤§ 산䬬䬬ꮠ§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䀸§ 릤䬬䬬ĺ§
ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ î§ ꮠ 산ꮠ §산 §ꮠ갬 §  릤§산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ö§ ꮠ䬬§ꮠ䬬§릤 릤牨ꮠ ꮠ릤 §ꮠ §×ĆĮĨÝ§
릤䘐ĺ§§× ö§⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ§î§×ꮠꮠ ö§nîĐÝ§ĺ§§
§
ĆĮĨÝ§ 산ö§ħ䬬릤ð§ § §산ꮠ산§牨 산䘐산㮴ö§ §× ö§×Đ산ÝÝ§
§ §§§꺸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§ ö§ħ䬬릤ð§§§산ꮠ산§牨 산䘐산㮴§䨸§ ꮠ §ħ산䨸牨ꮠ䀸산㮴ö§
§ §§§§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ð§ö§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 § ×Đ 䬬Ý§산 §ꮠ §§ꮠ牨ꮠ ð×Đ 䬬Ý§
§ §§§§꺸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §산 §ꮠ §ꮠ牨ꮠ ö§
ö§ 산 §ςꮠ§䨸§ħ릤䬬산ð§ 산ꮠ牨산§산ꮠ산§牨 산䘐산㮴ö§
§§§§§§§릤ꮠ릤릤 §×Đ牨䬬Ý§Şꮠ§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ð×Đ 䬬Ý§ 산ꮠ牨산§릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §×Đ 䬬Ý§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸Şꮠ§릤ꮠ릤릤 §산 § 산ꮠ牨산§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§
§ ꮠ § 릤갬산 § § ꮠ䬬ꮠ䨸ꮠ î§ 릤§ 산릤릤 § 䬬ꮠ 갬§ ꮠ § ×ĆĮĨ산Ý§ §
ꮠ 䬬산 릤î§ 䨸 ꮠ 䬬§ 산䬬§ 산§ 牨릤牨릤 § ꮠ § 릤§䬬산牨릤§䘐산䀸§산 §§ 릤䬬§ 䘐 릤 §ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§
갬릤 릤 §䀸§산§산 䬬ꮠꮠ릤§릤ö§§
§ Ū 릤 ꮠ 갬§ð ꮠ 산ꮠ §산 §ꮠ갬 §  릤§ §산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬î§ 릤䀸§산릤§ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §
ꮠ § ×ĆĮĨÝ§ 산 § ×ĆĮĨÝ§ 릤䬬릤ꮠ릤䀸ö§ 릤§ 산§ 산§ 릤§ 산릤릤 § 䬬ꮠ 갬䬬§ ꮠ §
×ĆĮĨÝ§ 牨산䀸§ 릤§  ꮠ 릤 § § 䬬 갬䀸§ 䬬䨸䬬§ 릤ꮠ§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§ 䬬산䨸䬬§ 갬ꮠ릤 §
산§ 䀸§ 䨸§ 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§牨산䀸§릤§ð ꮠ 산릤 §§×⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ§î§ꮠꮠ ö§ĐÝ§
§  § ×ĆĮĨÝî§ 릤§산릤릤 § 䬬ꮠ 갬§ laila mTawra㮴§ ×릤䀸산§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 § Ý§
ꮠ䬬§ 산§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 § 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 䬬 산릤 § 䀸§  § 릤§ Dan§ § 산 § 릤 §ħseb§ 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬ö§
ꮠ䬬§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ䬬산릤 § § § 릤§ ꮠ갬 § 䀸§ 산§ 산 䬬 牨산ꮠ 산§ 릤산ꮠ §
산 ꮠꮠ 산䀸§산릤 §³ꮠ갬 ð  릤§산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬³ö§§
Syntax ĆĆĴ
§ ⟴䨸 § 산 § 릤산ꮠ § 산릤䬬䬬§ § 릤§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䀸§  § 릤§ 산릤릤 §
릤릤牨릤 䬬§ 릤산䨸䬬릤§ 牨릤牨릤 §  § ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§ ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬䨸ꮠ䬬 ꮠ 갬§ 릤䀸§ §  §
 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬ö§
§ 릤§ §산릤릤 § 䬬ꮠ 갬䬬§ ꮠ § ×ĆĮĨ산ðÝ§ 산릤§ 산䬬§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§ ꮠ § 릤牨䬬§  §
릤牨산ꮠ§ 릤산ꮠ 䬬ĺ§ 릤§ 릤§ ħseb§ × 䬬ꮠ 릤Ý§ ꮠ䬬§ 䀸산 ꮠĺ§ ꮠ§ 산릤䬬§ 산 § 릤 릤 산§
산갬䨸牨릤 § 䘐 ꮠ § 릤릤 䬬§ § § 릤§ 䨸牨산 § × 릤§ 䨸 릤䬬 § 䬬䨸릤§ ³³Ý§ 산 § 산 §
ꮠ 릤 산§산䨸䬬산§산갬䨸牨릤 §×릤䀸산Ýö§
§ 릤§ 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䀸§ § § 릤§산릤릤 §䬬ꮠ 갬䬬§ꮠ § 릤§산릤§릤 산牨릤䬬§산 §
䬬ꮠ牨ꮠ산§  릤䬬§ 산 § 릤§ 䬬䨸릤 § 䨸 릤§ 䀸§ 릤§ 릤 ꮠ䬬릤 릤§  § 산䨸䬬산ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤§
산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 牨릤 §ö§ ꮠ䬬§릤䀸§ꮠ䬬§牨 갬ꮠ산䀸§ꮠ䬬ꮠ릤§䘐 릤 § 릤§䬬䨸릤§ § 릤§
䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§릤산ꮠ䬬릤 §§산䬬§산§䨸 § 䨸 §§×ꮠö릤öî§릤§ꮠꮠÝ§§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĆĮĮÝ§ĺ§
§
ĆĮĮÝ§ ħ䬬릤§ð 산§牨 산䘐산㮴§
§§§§§
 §×ĆĮĮÝ § 릤 §䬬䨸릤 § § 릤 §⟴Ū §ꮠ䬬 § 릤 § §산䀸 §릤ꮠ릤 §산䬬릤 § §䀸 §
ꮠ䨸릤§  § 릤§ 산§ 산§ ꮠ§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬䨸䨸산䀸§ 산 산릤 § § § 산§ 갬릤 ꮠ 갬§ § 산 § 산䬬릤§
산䬬䬬ꮠ갬 ꮠ 갬§릤ö§ 䨸䬬î§ 릤§릤 ꮠ산ꮠ §§릤산ꮠ § 릤䘐릤릤 § 릤§릤§ ħseb§산 §ꮠ䬬§
산䨸䬬산§ 산갬䨸牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§  䬬산ꮠ 릤 § 䀸§ Ū산䬬릤§ 릤䀸§ ×䬬릤릤§ Ū 牨䬬䀸§ ĆĴĮĆî§
산  §ĆĴĮĮÝö§
§ Ş  릤§ꮠ 릤릤䬬ꮠ 갬§산갬䨸牨릤 §ꮠ §䬬䨸§  § 릤§Ū 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 §⟴산䨸䬬§§  §§
䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ § 牨§ 산 릤§ § ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ î§ 䘐 ꮠ § 산䘐䬬§ ꮠ 릤릤 §
ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ 䬬§ 산 ꮠ 갬§ § 릤§  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 § 릤䀸§ 牨 ꮠ 䀸§ ×⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ§ ĆĴĴĨĺ§ Đî§
nĀĀĆĺĜÝ§ĺ§
§
ĆĮĴÝ§§§§산ö§ħ䬬릤ð§§䬬䬬산ħ§§산ꮠ산§牨 산䘐산㮴§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ð§×Ć䬬갬Ý§릤산䀸§릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §×Đ ö䬬갬öÝ§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§꺸§릤산䀸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§ ö§ħ䬬릤ð§§산ꮠ산§牨 산䘐산§䬬산ħ㮴§
§§ §§§§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §×Ć䬬갬öÝ§릤䀸산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 § ×Đö ö䬬갬öÝ§릤산䀸§
§ §§§§꺸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤릤 §릤䀸산§릤산䀸§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 ö§
§
§  § ×ĆĮĴÝ§ 릤§ 산 릤§ bssaħ§ ×릤산䀸Ý§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬§ 릤§ 牨산ꮠ § 산䨸䬬릤§
ꮠ  䨸ꮠ 갬§ 릤§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ ꮠ § ×ĆĮĴÝ§ ꮠ§ 牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬§ 릤§ 산 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ ꮠ§ 䘐䬬ö§
ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ牨ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 산 릤§ 산릤牨릤 § 릤릤牨ꮠ 릤䬬§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤산ꮠ §  § 릤§
牨 ꮠ ꮠ릤 §§ 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 ö§
§ 䨸䬬î§ 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ 산 § 릤§ 릤 ꮠ산릤§ 䘐 ꮠ § 牨§ 산§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤î§
릤릤䬬릤 §산§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§䨸 ꮠ§ꮠ릤§ 릤§ ꮠ 산䀸§산䨸䬬릤䬬ö§ ꮠ䬬§䨸 ꮠî§산 §산䘐§ 릤§
산 릤ꮠ산§ 릤 ꮠ산릤§ § 릤§ 릤 산릤 § 산 § 牨릤 § § 䬬릤 릤 릤§ ð§ ꮠ ꮠꮠ산§ 䬬ꮠꮠ §
ꮠ § 릤§䬬산牨릤§䘐산䀸§산§ 䘐 ð 산䬬릤§§ 릤䬬§ ꮠ § 릤§릤䬬䬬§  §䘐 ðɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §§ 牨산ꮠ §
×⟴산 ꮠɬꮠî§nĀĀĆĺ§ĖÝö§
§
ĆĴĀÝ§§§§§ 산§갬산ς§牨 산䘐산§산ððħ䬬릤§산ꮠ산§Œ§
§§§§§§§§§§§§§ 䘐§산§산§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 §×Đ ö䬬갬öÝ§릤ö§×nö䬬갬ö牨䬬Ý§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§릤䀸산Œ§
§ 꺸䘐§ꮠ 릤ꮠ갬릤 § §䀸䨸§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§릤䀸산Œ§
ĆnĀ§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§
§  §牨산䀸 §릤 §릤산릤 § 산 §산 릤ꮠ산 §䬬牨산 §산䨸䬬릤䬬 §ꮠ §સŞ §산 §䨸 §
ꮠ 릤릤 릤 䀸§ 산䬬§ § 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 䘐 릤릤§ 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤릤牨릤 § 牨䨸䬬§ 릤§ 산 § ö§ ꮠ䬬§
牨산䀸§ 䬬䨸갬갬릤䬬§ 산§ ꮠ䬬§ § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ산ꮠ䬬릤 ö§ 䘐릤릤î§ ꮠ䬬§ 䬬릤산ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ §
산ꮠ §ĺ§ 릤§§ 릤산 ꮠ 갬§ 릤§䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤§ꮠ䬬§산§䨸릤§䬬䀸 산ꮠ§䬬䨸릤§릤산䨸䬬릤§ 릤§
䬬䨸릤§ ð릤 ꮠ산릤§ § 릤산ꮠ § ꮠ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤§  牨䬬§ § 릤§ 牨산§
䘐ꮠ 갬§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤牨릤 䬬§ § ꮠ牨䬬릤 §  § 릤 ꮠ산ꮠ § ×⟴䘐릤§ ĆĴĴĆ§ ĺ§ ĆĮĖî§ ⟴산 ꮠɬꮠ§
nĀĀĆî§ĖÝö§
§
ĆĴĆÝ§§ 산ö§§ 릤§§䬬䨸릤§ꮠ䬬§ꮠ 산ꮠ산䀸§산 §ö§§
ö§ 릤§§릤 ꮠ산릤§ꮠ䬬§牨牨산 릤 §䀸§ 릤§䬬䨸릤§×ꮠ §§§§산 산 릤§䘐ꮠ §
릤§ 릤䬬ꮠ릤 §§ ꮠ릤산 䀸Ýö§
ö§ 릤§§릤 ꮠ산릤§ꮠ䬬§산§牨산 ꮠ牨산§릤ꮠ §×Ýö§
§§§§§§ ö§ 릤§§ 䬬䨸릤§§ ꮠ 䨸릤䬬§ 산ꮠ䀸§ § ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 牨§ 䨸䬬ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ 산䨸䬬릤§
䨸 산䀸ö§§§§§§§
§
ꮠ §릤갬산 §§ 릤§산䬬§§릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤牨릤 § î§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§릤 산牨릤§ĺ§§
§
ĆĴnÝ§ ħ䬬릤§ §ς산ꮠ§산ꮠ산§牨 산 산§ð산䬬ð 산§úãð산䬬ð䨸㮴ö§
§  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 ðĐ牨䬬§ Şꮠ§릤䀸산§§䨸 §䘐ꮠ ð 릤§ ð 릤산 §úã§ ꮠ䬬ð 릤산 §
§ 꺸Şꮠ§ 䨸갬 § 산§릤䀸산§ꮠ䬬§䨸 § § 릤䬬릤 úã ꮠ牨䬬릤 ö§
§
§ 릤§䬬䨸릤§ § 릤§䬬牨산§산䨸䬬릤§laila§산릤§䬬§ 릤§ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ § 릤§
산 산 §ras-u§× ꮠ牨䬬릤 Ý§䀸§ 릤§牨산ꮠ §䬬䨸릤§ςali. Laila§§ꮠ䬬§ 릤§산§ꮠ 릤§
산 § ras-ha§ × 릤䬬릤 Ý§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 산ꮠ산릤§ 산 산 § § 릤§ 䨸 ö§  § 릤§ §
릤산 ꮠ 갬§ 릤§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤§ 䘐릤릤§ § 산§ 䬬䨸릤î§ 릤§ 산 산 ꮠ§ 릤산ꮠ § 릤䘐릤릤 §
ςali§산 § 릤§릤 릤 ꮠ릤§ras-u§× ꮠ牨䬬릤 Ý§䘐䨸 § §릤§릤 ö§
§
§
Cleft sentences§§§ §
§
§ Ş§ 릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤§ ꮠ䬬§ 산§  䬬䨸ꮠ § Ñ䘐 ꮠ § 갬ꮠ릤䬬§  § 릤牨산ꮠ§ 산 §
산§ 牨ꮠ 릤 릤§ § 산§ 산ꮠ䨸산§ 릤릤牨릤 Ñö§ ×꒤䨸ꮠ§ 산 § 릤릤 산䨸牨§ ĆĴĨĐĺ§
ĖĆĖÝö§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ牨ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 䬬䨸䨸릤䬬§  § ꮠ䬬§ 䀸릤§ ꮠ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 §  § 산§
 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 § 牨§ ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ갬ꮠ 산§ 䬬ꮠꮠ § § 릤§ 릤 §  § 릤§ 산䨸䬬릤ö§ Ş䬬§ 산 §
ꮠ䨸䬬산ꮠ î§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ 䘐ꮠ 갬§릤 산牨릤䬬ĺ§§
§
§ĆĴĐÝ§산ö§䬬산ħ§§§§§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§ ð 䨸牨䨸ꮠ§§§ð산릤ħö§ ×⟴鯈Ý§ §
§§§§§§§§§§§§릤산ꮠ릤 §સ 산牨릤 §§§§ 릤ð산§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§§
§§§§§§§§§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산ꮠ릤 § 릤§산§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§§§§§§§§§ö§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§䬬산ħ§§§§§§§ ð 䨸牨䨸ꮠ§§§ð산릤ħö§ ×⟴鯈Ý§
§§§સ 산牨릤 §§§릤산ꮠ릤 §§ 릤ð산§§§§§§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§§§꺸સ 산牨릤 §릤산ꮠ릤 § 릤§산§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§
Syntax ĆnĆ
§ĆĴĖÝ산ö§산 §§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§× 䨸䘐산Ý§§ꮠ§§§䬬산ħ§§§§§ ð 䨸牨䨸ꮠ§§§ð산릤ħö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤릤§સ 산牨릤 §§ 릤§ 산§릤산ꮠ릤 §§ 릤ð산§§ 릤ð§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ꮠ䬬§સ 산牨릤 §䘐 §릤산ꮠ릤 § 릤§산§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§
§§§§§§§ö§산 §§§§§ţðţ䨸牨䨸ꮠ§§× ꮠ䀸산Ý§§§ꮠ§§§§䬬산ħ§§§§§§§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 §§§ð산릤ħö§
§§§§§§§§§§ 릤릤§ 릤ð산§䬬 릤§ 산§§릤산ꮠ릤 §સ 산牨릤 §§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§
§§§§§§§§§§꺸§ꮠ䬬§ 릤§산§ 산§સ 산牨릤 §릤산ꮠ릤 §䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸ö§§§§§§
§ §
§ 릤§䬬䨸䨸릤䬬§ꮠ §×ĆĴĖ산ðÝ§산릤§䬬ꮠ牨릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ 산§ 산ꮠ § 릤§䬬산牨릤§
 䬬ꮠ䨸릤 䬬§ 릤䀸§ ꮠ 릤§  䀸§ ꮠ § 릤§ 䬬ꮠꮠ §  § 릤§ 䬬䨸릤ĺ§ 䬬ð릤산§ ꮠ §
⟴鯈§§ 䬬䨸ꮠ 䬬§산 §릤ð릤산§ꮠ §⟴鯈§䬬䨸䨸릤䬬ö§ 릤䬬릤§ 릤䬬§산릤§䨸䬬릤 §
ꮠ 릤 산 갬릤산䀸§ § 䘐ꮠ 䨸§ 산 䀸§  산 갬릤§  § 릤§ 릤산§ 牨릤산 ꮠ 갬§  § 릤§ 䘐 릤§
䬬릤 릤 릤ö§ 䘐릤릤î§ ꮠ § 릤§ 릤䬬䬬§  § 릤 ꮠ 갬î§ 䘐릤§ 릤릤 § § § ꮠ 䬬릤§ 䬬牨릤§
릤릤牨릤 䬬§×릤ö갬ö§ rah§ÑꮠÑ䬬§산 §lli§× 산ÝÝ§ §ꮠ ꮠ산릤§ 산§ 릤§릤산ꮠ §ꮠ §ɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ §
산䬬§산릤 §산릤ö§ 릤§§ 릤ꮠ릤 §䬬䨸䨸릤§ꮠ䬬§ 산§牨릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤î§산䬬§산 §릤§䬬릤릤 §
ꮠ §×ĆĴĖ산ðÝö§
§ 䨸䬬î§ ꮠ § ×ĆĴĖ산Ýî§ 릤§ 릤 릤 §  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 䬬䨸릤§ ×牨䨸ħ산牨릤 Ýî§
䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ ꮠ갬산䀸§ 릤릤 릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 릤ꮠꮠ§ 산ꮠ릤§ rah§ ×ꮠÑ䬬Ýö§ 릤§ 산릤§
䬬릤릤䬬§䘐§ 䨸 ꮠ 䬬ĺ§×ꮠÝ§ ꮠ§ 산䘐䬬§ 릤§산릤 ꮠ § § 릤§ꮠ䬬릤 릤§§ § 릤§ 䨸䬬릤 §
릤릤牨릤 î§ ×ꮠꮠÝ§ ꮠ§ 산ꮠ 䬬§ 산§ 䨸산§ 릤산 ꮠ 갬§ § 릤§ 릤ꮠ릤 § 䬬䨸䨸릤î§ 갬ꮠ릤 § 산§
䨸산§ 䬬䨸ꮠ 䬬§ 䘐䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§산릤 ö§
§ 릤§ 산䬬§ ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ릤§ ×ĆĴĖ산Ý§ § ꮠ 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ 산§
ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ §  § 릤§ 䬬 갬§  䨸 § huwa§ Ñ 릤Ñî§ 䘐 ꮠ § 릤䬬 䬬§ § 릤§ 䨸산§
Ñꮠ䬬Ñö§ ꮠ䬬§  䨸 § ꮠ䬬§ 䨸䬬릤 § § 릤牨 산䬬ꮠ䬬§ 산 § ꮠ䬬§ 릤릤ꮠ § 릤䬬§ § 산 릤§ 릤§
릤 §릤산 ꮠ 갬§ § 릤§ 릤ꮠ릤 §䬬䨸䨸릤ö§
§ 릤§ ꮠ 산䀸§ 䬬릤릤§ 릤§ ꮠ갬산䀸§ 䨸䬬릤§  § 릤§ 릤산ꮠ릤§ §  䨸 § lli§
Ñ 산Ñî§ 릤§ 牨ꮠ䬬䬬ꮠ §  § 䘐 ꮠ § 䬬§ 릤§ 릤 § 릤산 ꮠ 갬§ §  § 릤§ 䬬릤 릤 릤ö§ 릤§
䬬산牨릤§릤산ꮠ §산ꮠ릤䬬§ 䘐 릤 § 릤§릤 릤 §릤릤牨릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 산§ ꮠ릤§ 릤§ ×ĆĴĖÝî§ 산 §
산 릤§×ĆĴĜÝ§§§산§릤䬬ꮠꮠ § 산䬬릤ĺ§§
§
ĆĴĜÝ§ 산 §ð산릤ħ§ꮠ§䬬산ħ§牨䨸ħ산牨릤 § ð 䨸牨䨸ꮠö§
§ 릤릤§ 릤ð䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§§ 산§릤산ꮠ릤 §§સ 산牨릤 § 릤ð산§§
§ 꺸Ñ䬬§䀸릤䬬릤 산䀸§ 산§સ 산牨릤 §릤산ꮠ릤 § 릤§산ö§
§
ĆĴĢÝ§ 산 §ð牨릤䀸릤牨§ꮠ ςţ산§ς산ꮠ§ð산ö§
§§§§§§§§§§§§ 릤릤§ðસ릤䀸릤牨§§ 산§갬산릤§Şꮠ§ 릤ð§
§ 꺸Ñ䬬§§સ릤䀸릤牨§ 산§Şꮠ§갬산릤§ 릤§ö§
§
§  릤 § 릤§ 릤 릤 §  䬬ꮠ䨸릤 § ꮠ䬬§ 릤§ 牨릤牨릤 §  § 산§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ î§ 산§
릤䬬䨸牨ꮠ릤§  䨸 § ꮠ䬬§ 䬬릤릤 § 䨸î§ 䬬ꮠ 릤§ સŞ§ 릤䬬§ § 산䘐§ 릤䬬ꮠꮠ ð
䬬산 ꮠ 갬ö§ ꮠ䬬§ 릤 牨릤  § ꮠ䬬§ 산릤䬬릤 § ꮠ § 릤 ꮠ 갬§ 산 § 䘐 ðɬ䨸릤䬬ꮠ 䬬§ 산䬬§ 릤䀸§
 §ꮠ 릤§牨릤牨릤 §ĺ§§
§
ĆĴĨÝ§ 산 §§§§ð牨䨸 ꮠ§§§× 䨸䘐산Ý§ꮠ§§§§ð릤牨ð§§牨ς산ð ö§§
§ 릤릤§ 릤ð ꮠ릤§§ 릤§§§§ 산§§ð산릤 §§䘐ꮠ §ð ꮠ牨§
Ćnn§ A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic
§ 꺸Ñ䬬§§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 산§§산릤 ö§
§
ĆĴĮÝ§ 䨸 §ꮠ§ð릤릤牨ðꮠ§牨ς산ð §Œ§
§ 䘐 §§ 산§§산릤 ð䀸䨸§ 䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨Œ§
§ 꺸 § ꮠ §䀸䨸§산§Œ§
§
Ū릤 ꮠ 갬§산 §산䬬§ꮠ 릤§릤산ꮠ릤§산䨸䬬릤䬬î§산䬬§ꮠ §×ĆĴĴÝĺ§§
§
ĆĴĴÝ§ 산ö§䬬산 릤§§ð牨䨸 ꮠ§§§§§§§ꮠ§§§§ð릤릤牨§§§牨ς산ð 㮴ö§
§ §§§§산릤릤 §§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 산§§산릤 ð§§§§䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨ö§
§ §§§§꺸 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 산§§산릤 §§산릤릤 ö§
§ ö§산 §ð牨䨸 ꮠ§§ꮠ§ð릤릤牨ð§牨ς산ð 㮴§ 䨸䘐산§ꮠ§䬬산 릤§
§ § 릤릤§ 릤ð ꮠ릤§ 산§산릤 ð§䘐ꮠ ð ꮠ牨§ 릤§ 산§산릤릤 ö§
§ §§§§꺸Ñ䬬§ 릤§ ꮠ릤§ 산§§산릤 §§䘐 §산릤릤 ö§ §
§
Ū릤 ꮠ 갬§ꮠ §×ĆĴĴÝî§ 산䬬§ ꮠ § 릤§릤 산牨릤䬬§갬ꮠ릤 §산릤î§산䘐산䀸䬬§ 䘐䬬§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§
산릤 î§산䬬§릤 ꮠ릤 §릤䘐ĺ§
§
nĀĀÝ§rah/raha§§×huwa/hijaÝ§lli§⦜§©§î§Şî§î§Ş î§ 릤ö§Ū산䨸䬬릤§
§§§§§§§§ 릤릤ð牨öú ö§§§§× 릤ú䬬 릤Ý§§§§§ 산⦜§©§î§Şî§î§Ş î§ 릤ö§Ū산䨸䬬릤§
Conclusion
§ 릤§牨산ꮠ § 릤 § § ꮠ䬬§ 산릤§ 산䬬§릤릤 §§릤䬬릤 § 릤§牨산§ 䀸릤䬬§
 § 䬬ꮠ牨릤§ 산 § 牨릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ ꮠ § સŞö§ ⟴릤ꮠ산§ 산릤 ꮠ § 산䬬§ 릤릤 § 산ꮠ § §
릤§ ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산§ 牨 갬䀸§  § 릤§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤î§ 䘐 ꮠ § ꮠ䬬§ 릤䬬 䬬ꮠ릤§ § 䘐 §
 릤§ 산ꮠ산ꮠ ö§ 䨸䬬§ 산䬬§ 산䬬§ 릤릤 § 산릤 §  § 䬬牨릤§ 䨸 ꮠ 산§ 산릤갬ꮠ릤䬬§
ꮠ릤§ 릤 䬬릤î§ Ş갬î§ Ş䬬릤î§ 릤갬§산 §Ū牨§ꮠ §ꮠ릤䘐§ § 릤§릤 산§릤§ 릤䀸§산䀸§
ꮠ § 릤§릤䬬䬬§ §䨸ꮠ ꮠ 갬§산ꮠ䨸䬬§ 䬬䨸ꮠ §䀸릤䬬ö§ § 산䬬§릤릤 §䬬 䘐 § 산î§
산산§ 牨§ 산§ 릤䘐§ ꮠ ꮠ䬬䀸 산ꮠ§ 릤ꮠ릤䬬§ 산§ 릤산릤§ 산ꮠ䨸산䀸§ §
ꮠꮠꮠ䬬산ꮠ §산 §§ 릤§릤 산ꮠ䨸§  §䬬牨릤§ 䨸 ꮠ 산§ 릤산 䬬î§ સŞ§산릤 䬬§ꮠ릤§
 릤§ 산䨸산§ 산 갬䨸산갬릤䬬§ ꮠ § 䬬䨸䨸릤§ 䨸ꮠ ꮠ 갬§ 산 § 산 䬬 牨산ꮠ 䬬ö§ 䨸䬬î§ ꮠ§
산䬬§릤릤 §ꮠ䨸䬬산릤 §ꮠ § 릤산ꮠ§ 䘐§䬬ꮠ牨릤§䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ꮠ §સŞ§산릤§ 牨릤 ö§ § 산䬬§
산䬬§ 릤릤 § 릤릤산릤 § 산§ 릤§ 牨산ꮠ §  § 牨릤牨릤 § 산䨸䬬릤䬬î§ 릤산ꮠ릤§
산䨸䬬릤䬬î§ 䬬牨산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§산 §릤 § 䬬릤 릤 릤䬬§ 䘐§䨸갬 䀸§ 릤§䬬산牨릤§ꮠ ꮠ릤䬬§
산䬬§ 䬬릤§ §§⟴산 산 §Ş산ꮠö§
§ ꮠ § 릤갬산 § § 산 릤ꮠ산§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§  §  䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§ 산 § 䨸䬬릤î§ 릤䀸§
산릤§ ꮠ  䨸릤 § 䀸§ 릤§ 䬬산牨릤§ 䬬䨸 ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬§  䨸 ꮠ § § baš × Ýö§ �릤î§ 릤䀸§
릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 릤§ 䨸䬬릤§  § ꮠ 릤릤 § 릤 䬬릤䬬§ 䘐 ꮠ릤§ 산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 산§ 릤 릤䬬䬬§  䬬릤ɬ䨸릤 릤§
 䬬ꮠ䬬§  § 산§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ 릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤ú산䬬§ 릤 䬬릤î§ 䨸䬬ꮠ릤§
산䨸䬬릤䬬§ 릤ɬ䨸ꮠ릤§ 산§ 릤§ 릤§ 릤§ ꮠ 릤릤 § ꮠ § 릤§ ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ릤§ 산䬬릤ú릤䬬릤 §
릤 䬬릤ö§§
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Pleines, J. (1990). La Linguistique au Maghreb. Rabat. Okad.
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Faculty of Letters Dhar El Mehraz.
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Index
Adjective inflection, 42, 91 Geminates, 3

Adjectival small clauses, 118 Gemination, 21
Adverbial clauses, 109-111 Gender, 43, 52
Adverbial phrases, 92 Gender markers, 53
Adverbial small clauses, 117 Glottal stop, 3
Adverbs, 93
Affixation, 48 Helping verbs, 86
Affixes, 29 Hollow verbs, 34
Agreement, 44, 94, 98
Aspect, 94 Imperative, 82
Assimilation, 19 Inflectional morphology, 29
Attributives, 90 Inflectional forms, 30, 36
Attributive adjective, 44 Infixes, 47
Insertion, 22
Basic stems, 46 Internal plural, 62
Internal structure, 82
Cardinals, 42 Interrogative complement clauses, 107
Case features, 76 Interrogative sentences, 101
Causatives, 45, 49 Intonation, 11, 12
Causative verbs, 48
Cleft sentences, 120-122 Juncture, 7
Clusters, 4
Coda, 6 Lexical categories, 77
Comparative, 41
Complement Clauses, 103-111 Masculine 60, 61
Complementizers, 114 Mixed plurals, 68, 69, 70
Complex sentences, 103 Moroccan Arabic, 1, 25
Conditional sentences, 87 Morphology, 25
Consonants, 2
Nasalization, 19
Declarative complement clauses, 104 Negation, 100
Deletion, 22 Nominal inflection, 52
Demonstrative pronouns, 89 Nominal morphology, 36
Derived stems, 46 Nominals, 56
Dialectal variation, 13 Nominal sentences, 88
Dimunitives, 39 Non-restrictive relatives, 114
Diphthongs, 5 Nouns, 61
Doubled roots, 35 Nucleus, 6
Number, 43, 56
Emphatic consonants,3 Numerals, 41
Ergative verbs, 47, 78
Onset, 6
Feminine substantives, 60 Ordinals, 42
Free relatives, 115
Future, 86, 96 Palatalization, 18
Participles, 36, 37, 38
128 Index
Passive voice, 85 Tense, 94

Past, 82 Triconsonantal roots, 62, 63
Patterns, 26, 28
Pharyngealization, 17,18 Verbal derivational morphology, 45
Phonemic variation, 15 Verbal morphology, 29
Phonetic variation, 13, 14 Verbal nouns, 54
Phonology, 1 Verb stem, 30, 34
Phonological processes, 19-23 Vowels, 4
Plural, 57, 58, 62
Plural stem, 66 Wh-interrogative sentences, 108
Predicatives, 90 Word derivation, 28
Predication, 81 Word order, 73, 74, 75-103
Predicative adjective, 44 Word stress, 9
Prepositional phrases, 92
Present tense, 84 Yes-no questions, 13
Progressive assimilation, 20
Prosodic properties, 15
Quadrilateral stems, 67
Reciprocal verbs, 50
Reflexives, 49
Regressive assimilation, 20, 21
Regular stems, 65
Relative clauses, 111-116
Restrictive relatives, 112-114
Relative markers, 112-113
Root, 26, 27, 28
Rhyme, 6
Secondary Articulation, 17
Second plural stem, 63
Simple sentence, 73, 74, 75-103
Singular, 57
Small clauses, 116-122
Standard Arabic, 76
Stems, 29, 31, 32, 35, 62, 63, 64
Stress, 8
Substantives, 52, 55, 60
Suffixes, 53, 59, 61
Syllables, 6, 10, 16
Syntactic structures, 78
Syntax, 73
This book is a descriptive This book does not claim to offer
grammar of Moroccan Arabic from a an exhaustive description of Moroccan
broad perspective of generative Arabic, nor is it an introduction to a given
linguistics. We have avoided as much as linguistic theory. One of our aims is to
possible the technicalities associated with show the reader how Moroccan Arabic
theory, and attempted to simplify the can be studied in a systematic way. This
terminology and the description because kind of approach allows us not only to
we target primarily undergraduate and describe the language scientifically, but
graduate students of linguistics, and the also to discover and analyse new
general reader who is particularly linguistic facts that were hitherto ignored
interested in the structure of Moroccan or neglected by linguists.
Arabic.
In this book, we study important
phonological, morphological, and Moha Ennaji
syntactic phenomena of the variety of Ahmed Makhoukh
Moroccan Arabic spoken in the areas of Hassan Es-saiydy
Fès and Meknès. To satisfy this aim, the Mohamed Moubtassime
book covers a wide range of empirical Souad Slaoui
data. It does not attempt to offer an
exhaustive survey of the structures of
Moroccan Arabic, however, as it would
be the case in the excellent tradition of
Classical Arabic grammarians such as
Sibawayhi or Ibnu Jinni, to name but two.
Our aim is to provide the reader with a
coherent and systematic approach to the
structures of Moroccan Arabic.
Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah,

Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines,
Dhar El Mehraz, Fès
PARS LETTRES 25

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Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah

Publications of the Faculty of Letters Dhar El Mehraz, Fès

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Simple Nominal Sentences 88

This book is a descriptive grammar of Moroccan Arabic from a

릤  䬬 산 䬬 ฀ V 산릤  䨸릤 䀸 산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬  릤 산䀸 산

릤산ꮠ 갬  릤    릤  갬䨸릤 䘐산  릤 산   릤  산 સ산

䨸ꮠ䬬䬬 䬬릤산䨸 릤 晸ꮠꮠ䬬 䨸 ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 䨸 릤산 䬬௘䬬䨸牨

ꮠ䬬䬬  산 ઈ䬬릤산䨸 릤 晸ꮠ䨸䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 산 산௘

 V산 䘐릤䬬௘  릤산 산䬬௘䬬   ௘

䬬ꮠ 䘐 ௘䬬산 « 릤산䬬䀸௘䬬«䨸 ꮠ䬬릤 ௘

 䨸䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤V  䬬 산牨릤௘苨   ௘ 䬬 릤산 ௘ꮠ䬬

䘐릤䬬牨산䀸 산 갬릤ꮠ  릤ꮠꮠ릤ɬ䨸산ꮠ䀸䘐 릤  릤䀸산릤산 산릤 

The syllable structure

㇀ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 산ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬  릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤  릤䨸릤산 릤

║ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 산산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ꮠ   릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤  릤䨸릤산 릤

ꮠ 산鮼산䀸 « 牨䨸 䘐  릤䀸䘐Ꮰ

산鮼牨ꮠ ㇀䀸䨸 산 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ

⟴릤䬬䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 릤릤ꮠ릤 ꮠ릤 산릤 ꮠ 牨

苨 ꮠ 갬  산 䨸 ퟰ牐௘ સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸

ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 산䬬릤 䬬䀸산릤산릤䬬ꮠꮠ䀸릤산 릤  릤

牨䨸ퟰ 䨸V ꮠ 산䨸산릤 ௘

ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ  릤 ꮠ䬬䘐릤ꮠ䬬산䬬 䘐산산  릤䬬릤  릤

Intonation of declarative sentences

 산 산 䬬䀸산릤 䘐ꮠ 산 䬬 䘐산 « 䘐 ꮠ 산 릤  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 산䬬 릤릤  릤ꮠ

/산산 䨸산산 ꮠ䬬갬릤산

ઈ  릤牨ꮠ 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ

산ઈ « 䨸à « 䨸릤ꮠ 牨릤 ꮠ牨

ઈ⟴산฀ à⟴산฀ 牨 ꮠ 갬

산ઈ䘐«䬬산à䘐«䬬산 릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ  릤 䨸䬬릤

산ઈ산 ઈઈઈઈ산« 릤ꮠ䬬䬬

ઈ 산฀ ઈઈઈઈ 산«฀ 릤ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤䬬䬬 䨸

ઈ 산䬬 ઈઈઈઈ 산䬬« 릤 산ꮠ릤

ઈ 산 牨ઈઈઈઈ 산 «牨 䨸牨산 릤ꮠ 갬

산䬬ꮠ 牨산 䘐산릤௘산 牨릤௘ ¶ ꮠ ௘릤⟴ 갬䬬䘐ꮠ  릤 릤릤 䬬 산 䬬릤

ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ산릤 산릤산릤 逄䬬䨸 산䬬ꮠ  릤릤௘䨸릤䬬 갬䬬산릤 䬬릤

逄䬬ꮠ ¶ 릤䬬릤 ௘

릤 䨸ꮠ산ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ  ¶¶ 릤 산갬갬릤 ௘

ꮠ 䬬산 릤 릤산릤  ¶ 릤䘐릤௘ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤 

ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬 산 䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ 䘐릤 ¶ 릤䘐릤릤  릤 䬬릤 산  릤  ꮠ

牨¶산산 ꮠ산䀸௘䘐 릤릤 릤산릤 산산䨸䬬ꮠ  䨸 ꮠ 䘐ꮠ

 릤릤 ꮠ 牨ઈ 산  릤 䘐릤 ¶  산䬬 릤릤 䨸牨릤 릤 ꮠ 산릤

௘ꮠઈꮠ䬬ꮠ 䬬릤릤 산 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 䬬 산 산䬬ꮠ ฀산 릤 릤릤 릤 ௘

ꮠꮠઈ  릤 䨸ꮠ 갬   릤 牨ꮠ 릤  䬬 산  산䬬 ꮠ ɬ ¶牨 릤

逄䬬¶䬬䨸 䨸䬬䨸䬬௘ 牨逄䬬䬬䘐릤릤 䨸 䬬䘐ꮠ ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산

牨牨 䀸 䨸  릤 산䬬 ꮠ 逄¶V 䬬牨릤௘ 逄¶V  산 릤௘ 逄䨸 산௘

릤 릤 릤산䬬 䬬릤릤 산릤䬬 릤䘐릤 산  릤릤 䬬 산 䬬산䬬ꮠ

릤ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 산䬬 ꮠ 逄牨¶산산 뀨 릤䬬 䨸௘ 逄牨 ¶¶ 갬산 ꮠ䬬 릤 ௘

逄牨g¶ ꮠ 릤ꮠ 갬 릤릤 ௘ 산 逄牨䬬¶牨牨ꮠ  산ꮠ 갬 릤릤

산갬䨸牨릤  䬬௘  릤릤산䘐  릤䀸산牨릤௘䬬산 ¶ 산 산 릤䬬릤 ꮠ䨸䬬௘

ઈ⟴릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 逄¶

䬬ꮠ¶ꮠ 䀸䨸 䬬ꮠ 갬௘ 릤䘐௘ 䬬ꮠ¶ꮠ䘐 䀸䨸 ௘ 릤䘐௘

산 ¶ 䬬 릤䘐산䬬௘

릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬 ꮠ䬬牨산릤 䀸산  릤 ꮠ 릤  릤䬬릤牨산䬬ꮠ 䬬¶ 

䬬릤릤௘¶ 산 䀸䨸 牨산䬬䬬ꮠ 갬௘릤갬ꮠ ௘鯈 릤릤 릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬䘐 릤  릤䬬릤牨릤갬ꮠ 䬬

䘐ꮠ  산䬬ꮠ

䘐릤릤 릤 릤 䬬릤牨䬬 릤갬ꮠ ꮠ 갬 䘐ꮠ 䘐 V  䨸䬬 산   릤

릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸릤산ꮠ 릤 산䬬¶ઈ

ퟰὨ௘ ¶¶ ꮠ릤௘

ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬 릤산䬬릤 ¶䬬¶ 䬬¶䬬 ¶ ¶

䨸 䀸䨸 牨산䬬௘릤 릤௘ ¶ 䨸ퟰ

릤  䬬 산 䬬 ฀ V 산릤  䨸릤 䀸 산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬 릤 산䀸 산

릤산ꮠ 갬 릤   릤  갬䨸릤 䘐산 릤 산  릤 산 સ산

䨸ꮠ䬬䬬 䬬릤산䨸 릤 晸ꮠꮠ䬬 䨸 ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 䨸 릤산 䬬௘䬬䨸牨

ꮠ䬬䬬  산 ઈ䬬릤산䨸 릤 晸ꮠ䨸䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤 산 산௘

 V산 䘐릤䬬௘  릤산 산䬬௘䬬   ௘

䬬ꮠ 䘐 ௘䬬산 « 릤산䬬䀸௘䬬«䨸 ꮠ䬬릤 ௘

 䨸䬬ꮠ 䘐 䬬ꮠ릤V  䬬 산牨릤௘苨   ௘ 䬬 릤산 ௘ꮠ䬬

䘐릤䬬牨산䀸 산 갬릤ꮠ 릤ꮠꮠ릤ɬ䨸산ꮠ䀸䘐 릤 릤䀸산릤산 산릤 

㇀ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 산ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤 릤䨸릤산 릤

║ꮠ䬬산䬬䬬ꮠ산릤 䘐ꮠ 산산ꮠ䬬ꮠ 갬ꮠ  릤산䬬䬬䀸산릤 릤䨸릤산 릤

ꮠ 산鮼산䀸 « 牨䨸 䘐  릤䀸䘐Ꮰ

산鮼牨ꮠ ㇀䀸䨸 산 릤ꮠ䬬ꮠ

⟴릤䬬䬬 ꮠ સ산 苨산ꮠ 산䬬 릤릤ꮠ릤 ꮠ릤 산릤 ꮠ 牨

苨 ꮠ 갬  산 䨸 ퟰ牐௘ સ산 苨산ꮠ ꮠ䬬  산산릤ꮠ 릤 䀸

ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 산䬬릤 䬬䀸산릤산릤䬬ꮠꮠ䀸릤산 릤  릤

牨䨸ퟰ 䨸V ꮠ 산䨸산릤 ௘

ઈꮠ 산 ꮠ䬬䀸산ꮠ䘐 ꮠ 䘐 ꮠ 릤 ꮠ䬬䘐릤ꮠ䬬산䬬 䘐산산 릤䬬릤  릤

산 산 䬬䀸산릤 䘐ꮠ 산 䬬 䘐산 « 䘐 ꮠ 산 릤  䬬ꮠ 릤릤 산䬬 릤릤 릤ꮠ

/산산 䨸산산 ꮠ䬬갬릤산

ઈ  릤牨ꮠ 산䀸 갬릤산ꮠ 산ꮠ

산ઈ « 䨸à « 䨸릤ꮠ 牨릤 ꮠ牨

ઈ⟴산฀ à⟴산฀ 牨 ꮠ 갬

산ઈ䘐«䬬산à䘐«䬬산 릤ꮠ 릤ꮠ 릤 䨸䬬릤

산ઈ산 ઈઈઈઈ산« 릤ꮠ䬬䬬

ઈ 산฀ ઈઈઈઈ 산«฀ 릤ꮠ䬬䬬䨸릤䬬䬬䨸

ઈ 산䬬 ઈઈઈઈ 산䬬« 릤 산ꮠ릤

ઈ 산 牨ઈઈઈઈ 산 «牨䨸牨산 릤ꮠ 갬

산䬬ꮠ 牨산 䘐산릤௘산 牨릤௘ ¶ ꮠ ௘릤⟴ 갬䬬䘐ꮠ 릤 릤릤 䬬 산 䬬릤

ꮠ 릤릤 ꮠ산릤 산릤산릤 逄䬬䨸 산䬬ꮠ 릤릤௘䨸릤䬬 갬䬬산릤 䬬릤

逄䬬ꮠ ¶ 릤䬬릤 ௘

릤 䨸ꮠ산ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ  ¶¶ 릤 산갬갬릤 ௘

ꮠ 䬬산 릤 릤산릤  ¶ 릤䘐릤௘ꮠ䬬 릤ꮠ릤 牨 릤 

ꮠ 䬬릤ꮠ 갬 산 䬬릤ꮠ ꮠ 䘐릤 ¶ 릤䘐릤릤 릤 䬬릤 산 릤 ꮠ

牨¶산산 ꮠ산䀸௘䘐 릤릤 릤산릤 산산䨸䬬ꮠ  䨸 ꮠ 䘐ꮠ

릤릤 ꮠ 牨ઈ 산 릤 䘐릤 ¶  산䬬 릤릤 䨸牨릤 릤 ꮠ 산릤

௘ꮠઈꮠ䬬ꮠ 䬬릤릤 산 릤 릤 ꮠ䬬 䬬 산 산䬬ꮠ ฀산 릤 릤릤 릤 ௘

ꮠꮠઈ 릤 䨸ꮠ 갬  릤 牨ꮠ 릤  䬬 산 산䬬 ꮠ ɬ ¶牨 릤

逄䬬¶䬬䨸 䨸䬬䨸䬬௘ 牨逄䬬䬬䘐릤릤 䨸䬬䘐ꮠ ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산

牨牨 䀸 䨸  릤 산䬬 ꮠ 逄¶V 䬬牨릤௘ 逄¶V 산 릤௘ 逄䨸 산௘

릤 릤 릤산䬬 䬬릤릤 산릤䬬 릤䘐릤 산 릤릤 䬬 산 䬬산䬬ꮠ

릤ꮠ산ꮠ 䬬 산䬬 ꮠ 逄牨¶산산 뀨 릤䬬䨸௘ 逄牨 ¶¶ 갬산 ꮠ䬬 릤 ௘

逄牨g¶ ꮠ 릤ꮠ 갬 릤릤 ௘ 산 逄牨䬬¶牨牨ꮠ 산ꮠ 갬 릤릤

산갬䨸牨릤 䬬௘ 릤릤산䘐 릤䀸산牨릤௘䬬산 ¶ 산 산 릤䬬릤 ꮠ䨸䬬௘

ઈ⟴릤牨䬬릤 ꮠ 갬ꮠ 逄¶

䬬ꮠ¶ꮠ 䀸䨸䬬ꮠ 갬௘ 릤䘐௘ 䬬ꮠ¶ꮠ䘐䀸䨸 ௘ 릤䘐௘

산 ¶ 䬬 릤䘐산䬬௘

릤 ꮠ䬬릤䬬 ꮠ䬬牨산릤 䀸산 릤 ꮠ 릤  릤䬬릤牨산䬬ꮠ 䬬¶ 

䬬릤릤௘¶ 산 䀸䨸牨산䬬䬬ꮠ 갬௘릤갬ꮠ ௘鯈 릤릤 릤ꮠ ꮠ䬬䘐 릤 릤䬬릤牨릤갬ꮠ 䬬

䘐ꮠ 산䬬ꮠ

䘐릤릤 릤 릤 䬬릤牨䬬 릤갬ꮠ ꮠ 갬 䘐ꮠ 䘐 V  䨸䬬 산  릤

릤 ꮠ ꮠ䬬䨸䬬䨸산䀸릤산ꮠ 릤 산䬬¶ઈ

ퟰὨ௘ ¶¶ ꮠ릤௘

ꮠ䬬ꮠ䬬 릤산䬬릤 ¶䬬¶ 䬬¶䬬 ¶ ¶

䨸䀸䨸牨산䬬௘릤 릤௘ ¶ 䨸ퟰ

릤 ꮠ 䀸䨸 릤牨௘릤 릤௘ꮠ ¶ 䨸

릤ꮠ牨릤산ꮠ릤 산䬬산䬬릤ꮠ산ꮠ 릤ꮠ 산 牨ꮠ 릤䬬릤 릤䬬

릤 릤ꮠ牨릤 릤ꮠ䬬V ꮠ 갬ꮠ릤 산 릤௘

V ꮠ 갬ꮠ릤௘

V릤 릤VV산 V산௘

릤갬릤 릤산산릤 ꮠ䬬 산V¶산䬬ꮠ 산¶ 산V¶䬬릤 䨸릤 릤䬬

ħ¶ħ산䘐 릤䬬 䘐릤릤 산릤산 逄 산䬬 릤䬬릤  䬬 산  릤

산릤 산䬬ꮠ 산V산¶V 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬 릤 ꮠ 산逄산ꮠ䬬릤산릤 䀸逄ꮠ

¶ 릤 릤 ௘

릤 갬릤 릤산산릤 ꮠ䬬牨¶ V䨸 산䬬 ꮠ 牨¶䨸  䘐 릤䬬 산 逄

산릤산䬬산䬬 릤䬬릤  䬬 산  릤牨¶䨸Vퟰ 릤 릤ꮠ릤릤䬬 릤

산릤 ퟰ牐௘䬬산릤䬬 산牨릤산䬬䨸릤릤䬬 릤 牨 V산 산௘ 

산ꮠꮠ릤䬬산䬬牨¶¶ 䘐 ꮠ릤 ௘

苨  릤산䬬䬬ꮠ 䨸 릤䬬 릤산ꮠ릤산 산䬬䬬ꮠ릤릤䬬 산산릤 牨릤

릤苨 ઈ 牨 ¶V산

릤䨸䬬䨸산 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬逄牨산 릤 산 牨¶ꮠ 릤 䘐ꮠ 갬 䬬 산 ꮠ䬬逄

逄牨산䬬ꮠ 牨 ¶V ꮠ ௘牨¶牨䨸V ꮠ 릤 ௘

ퟰ牐௘ ¶V산 牨䬬䨸 산릤 산V¶산䬬 릤ꮠ산ꮠ릤산ꮠꮠ릤 牨䬬 ¶V산

산 릤ꮠ릤䬬산릤  䨸牨릤䨸䬬 릤牨䬬䘐ꮠ 릤䀸릤 䨸 릤릤  릤䬬산릤

¶ 릤릤 릤 ௘ ¶ 산  산 ¶ 갬릤ꮠ 갬릤릤 릤 ௘

¶r 산  산¶ 릤ꮠ 갬 산䀸௘

䬬 ¶ 산ꮠ ௘ 䬬¶ 산 䬬산 ¶ 산ꮠ ꮠ 갬௘

䬬¶ ꮠ ௘ 䬬¶산 䬬산¶ 䨸 ௘

릤릤 산릤 䘐 牨䬬  릤 䬬산牨릤 산릤 逄¶산 ¶VV산 

ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산 ¶V산 ɬ䨸산 ꮠꮠ릤산䬬산 䬬 릤逄䘐䘐산 逄䨸 ꮠ 산䬬

ꮠ 䬬산 릤 /ꮠ䬬산牨 䬬산牨௘갬ꮠ릤䬬 /ꮠ䬬산牨ꮠસ ઈ  갬ꮠ산 산 갬릤䬬䨸