UCSP REVIEWER
Sociology – is the study of human societies. It is a branch control over those with less power in the society. Conflict theorists
of social science that uses various methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a body
of knowledge about human social structure and activity. Its
subject matter ranges from the micro level of face – to – face
interaction to the macro level of societies at large. It is a broad
discipline in terms of both methodology and subject matter.
– It studies human social behavior. Social Interaction is how
people relate to one another and influence each other’s
behavior.
– Its traditional focuses have included social stratification,
social relations, social interaction, religion, culture and
deviance.
The Nature of Sociology
A perspective is a particular point of view. We all see what is
happening around us through our own perspective.
The Discipline of the Social Sciences
Social Science is a branch of learning that deals with human
society.
Sociological Perspective
The sociological perspective helps you see that all people are
social beings. It tells you that your behavior is influenced
by social factors and that they have learned from your
behavior.
Theoretical Perspective
Three broad theoretical perspective form the basis of modern
sociology. These are the functionalist perspective, the
conflict perspective and the interactionalist perspective.
Essentially, each one is a lens that presents a slightly
different image of society or focuses on different aspect
of social life.
1. Functionalist Perspective focuses heavily on the structure of
society, it is also called structural functionalism. According to
functionalists, society is held together through consensus. Most
people agree on what is best for the society and work together to
ensure that the social system runs smoothly. Topics of interest to
functionalist sociologists include the functions that family, religion,
education, and the economy serve in society.
According to Robert Merton (1996), there are two kinds
of functions:
a. Manifest Function is the intended and recognized consequence
of some elements of society. For example, the manifest function of
the automobile is to provide speed and transportation from one
place to another.
b. Latent Function is unintended and unrecognized consequences
of an element society. A latent function of the automobile is to gain
social standing through the display of wealth.
c. Dysfunction is the negative consequence an element has for the
stability of the social system. Dysfunctional elements such as
crime, disrupt the working society as a whole and create social
problem. Dysfunction can lead to social change, because to re-
establish social stability, the various elements of the society must
adopt and adjust.
Assumptions of Functionalism
a. A society is a relatively integrated whole.
b. A society tends to seek relative stability.
c. Most aspect of the society contribute to the society’s well-being
and survival.
d. A society rest on the consensus of its members.
2. Conflict Perspective focuses on the force in the society that
emphasizes conflict, competition, change, and constraint within the
society (Giddens, 1987, 2005) Conflict theorist s are interested in
the how those who possess more power in the society exercise
do not limit their intention to acts of violent conflict. They are also
interested in the nonviolent competition between various groups in
the society, men and women of different ages, or people of
different racial or national backgrounds. Some of the topics that
conflict sociologists research include decision making in the
family, relationships among racial groups and disputes between
workers and employees.
Assumptions of the Conflict perfective
a. A society experiences inconsistency and conflict everywhere.
b. A society is continually suspected to change.
c. A society involves the constraint and coercion of some members
of the society.
3. Symbolic Interactionalist Perspective focus on how the people
use symbols when interacting. This involves imagining how others
see things. Interactionist see social interaction, as more individuals
reacting to each other’s action. Rather, it involves individuals
constantly defining and interpreting each other’s action.
Essential Elements:
a. Meaning -The individual respond to people and things based on
the meanings he or she gives to those people or things.
b. Language- Meanings arise out of the social interaction through
the vehicle of language that the individual has with others.
c. Thought – The individual adjusts and modifies meaning through
thought - a kind of internal conversation.
Assumptions in the Symbolic Interactionalist Perspective
a. People’s interpretations of symbols are based on the meaning
they learn from others
b. People base their interaction on their interpretation of symbols
c. Symbols permit people to have internal conversation. Thus, they
can gear their interaction to the behavior that they think others
expect of them and the behavior they expect from others.
ANTHROPOLOGY The etymology or origin of the term
anthropology can be traced back to two Greek words, ‘anthropos’
and ‘logos’. When translated into English, ‘anthropos’ means
human’ while ‘logos’ refers to ‘knowledge’. In this sense,
anthropology can be understood as the ‘knowledge about
humans’ (Ibid.). It has its intellectual origins in both natural
sciences and the humanities. Its basic questions concern, “What
defines homo sapiens? Who are the ancestors of modern Homo
sapiens? “What are our physical traits?” “How do we behave?”
“Why are there variations and differences among different group of
humans?” ”How has the evolutionary past of homo sapiens
influenced its social organizations and culture?”, etc.
POLITICAL SCIENCE is a social science concerned with the
theory and practice of politics and the description and the analysis
of political system and political behavior. It is often described as
the study of politics defined as “who gets what, when and how.”
Political Science has several subfields including political theory,
public policy, national politics, international relations and
comparative politics.
It is methodologically diverse, to the discipline include classical
political philosophy. interpretivism, structuralism, and
behavioralism, realism, pluralism and institutionalism. It uses
methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought:
primary sources such as historical document and official records,
secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey
research, statistical analysis, case studies and model building.
It is a social science concerned with the theory and practice of
politics and the description and analysis of political systems and
political behavior.
As one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that
relate to the kinds of inquiries sought.
Sociological Approaches to the Study of Society
Sociologists use three theoretical approaches: the structural-
functional approach, the social-conflict approach, and the
symbolic-interaction approach. A theoretical approach is a basic
image of society that guides thinking and research (Macionis 2012:
12)
Structural-Functional Approach
Structural-functionalists view society as a “complex system whose
parts work together to promote solidarity and stability”
(Macionis 2012: 12). It involves an analysis of social structure,
“any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social structure
gives our lives shape—in families, the workplace, the classroom,
the community.” The approach seeks to identify a structure’s social
functions, or “the consequences of any social pattern for the
operation of society as a whole” (Ibid). It is an approach that is
influenced by the ideas of Auguste Comte (1798–1857) who
coined the term sociology in 1838, and Emile Durkheim
(18581917).
Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) also made significant contributions
by distinguishing between “manifest functions, the recognized
and intended consequences of any social pattern and latent
functions, the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any
social pattern. He also recognized social dysfunction, any social
pattern that may disrupt the operation of society” (Macionis
2012:13).
Social-Conflict Approach
The social-conflict approach sees society as an “arena of
inequality that generates conflict and change” (Macionis 2012:
13). It therefore highlights inequality and change. In contrast to the
structural-functionalist approach, it does not see the social structure
as promoting the smooth operation of society. Instead, it focuses on
how social patterns benefit the dominant groups in society.
Typically, “people on top try to protect their privileges while the
disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves”(Ibid).
Symbolic-Interaction Approach
The symbolic-interaction approach sees society as the “product
of the everyday interactions of individuals” (Macionis 2012:
16). Human beings live in a world of symbols. In the process of
social interaction, they attach meaning to everything.
Macro and micro levels of analysis
- It should be noted that the Structural-Functional and
Social-Conflict Approaches Have a macro-level orientation, or a
broad focus on social structures that shape. Society as a whole. In
contrast, the Symbolic-Interaction Approach uses a micro level
orientation a close-up focus on social interaction in specific
situations (Macionis 2012: 16).
Compare and contrast
Branches of Anthropology
1. Physical - Racial history - Paleontology -Human
Genetics
2. Cultural - Ethnography – Ethnology- Social
Anthropology
3. Archaeology
4. Linguistic
Culture-the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of
a racial, religious, or social group
Human Cultural variation- refers to the differences in social
behaviors that different cultures exhibit around the world, ex.
Good etiquette in one culture may be considered bad in another.
Ex. Smiling in the Philippines is a good etiquette while in Japan
smiling is showing shyness.
Subculture – is a part of the dominant culture but differs from it in
some important respects.
Example: Residents of Manila Chinatown in Binondo, Manila have
many broad Phil. Cultural traits, such as going to public school,
playing with toys and working at similar jobs, it also includes the
Chinese language and specific foods and celebrations that are not
shared by most Filipinos.
Counterculture – is a subculture deliberately and consciously
opposed to certain central belief or attitudes of the dominant
culture.
 Examples of primary teenage counter cultures include
the “goth” and the “punk” scenes.
Cultural Change-is a term used in public policy making that
emphasizes the influences of cultural capital on individual and the
community behavior.
 All cultures around the world are constantly changing
Reasons for change
1. Discovery – the process of finding something that already exist
2. Invention – the creation of something new
3. Diffusion- the borrowing aspects of culture from other
cultures.
Society-a community, nation, or broad grouping of people having
common traditions, institution and collective activities and
interests
Social Differences - are the situations where people are
discriminated against on the basis of social, economic, and racial
inequality.
Social Change- refers to any significant alteration over time in
behavior patterns and cultural values and norms, the
transformation of culture and social organization/ structure over
time.
Characteristic of Social Change
• It happens everywhere, but the rate of change varies
from place to place.
• It is sometimes intentional but often unplanned.

Sociology Anthropology
Other Areas of Sociology:
 Focuses on social process  Focuses on culture
1. Social Organization
 Recent social science  Recent social science
2. Social Psychology
3. Social Change and Social Disorganization  Understands way of life,  Understand way of life,
4. Human Ecology society culture society culture
5. Population and Demography  Complimented by  Complimented by
5. Sociological Theory and Method anthropological research sociological
6. Applied Sociology research
 Originated from Western  Originated from primitive
civilization (historical) groups
( pre historic)
 Method: particular  Methods: generic (holistic)
( sampling)
 • Social change often generates controversy.
• Some changes matter more than others do.
Causes of Social Change
1. Cultural change – a system that constantly loses and gains
components.
 Invention – produce new products, ideas and
social patterns
 Discovery –finding something that has been
found before or finding something new in
something that already exist.
 Diffusion – spreading of ideas and objects to
other societies, involve trading, migration, and
mass communication
2. Conflict- to come into collision or disagreement; be
contradictory, at variance, or in opposition; clash
3. Idealistic Factors – include values, beliefs and ideologies
Ex: Freedom and Self – determination, Material growth and
security. Nationalism, Capitalism, Marxism
6. The Need For Adaptation
a. Ex: the development of efficient bureaucracies is an adaptive
response of firms to competitive economic environment.
5. Environmental Factors-(ecological factors) is any factor, abiotic
or biotic, that influences the living organisms
Ex. Drought and famine external elements e.g. Economy, politics,
regulations, climate, geography, technology, cultural trends, etc.
6. Economic & Political Advantage – international shifts in
economic and political gain (ASEAN SUMMIT)
7. Demographic Change – occurs from an increase in the
population or human migration between the areas.
8. Social Movements and Change – type of group action; defined
as organizational structures and strategies that may empower
oppressed population to mount effective challenges and resist the
more powerful and advantaged elites
9. Consumerism- is a social and economic order and ideology that
encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-
increasing amounts
10. The Role of Values and Ethics
Values – are central organising principles or ideas that govern
and determine human behaviour.
Ethics-a system of moral principles; the rules of conduct
recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a
particular group culture, etc.
11. Religion- a cause, a principle, or a system of beliefs held to
with ardour (passion) and faith
12. Technology and Information-involves the development,
maintenance, and the use of computer systems, software, and
networks for the processing and distribution data.
Cultural Relativism – the belief that culture should be judged by
their own standards rather than by applying the standard of another
culture.
The idea of cultural relativism underscores the impression that the
culture in every society should be understood and regarded on its
own terms. Societies are qualitatively different from one another,
such that each one has its own “unique inner logic” (Eriksen 2001:
14). Cultural traits can only be known and valued in the context of
the society by which they emerge and are practiced. Cultural
relativism promotes the idea that a society has to be viewed from
the inside so that inner logic can be better explained. A society’s
idea of a good life will not likely be shared by another society that
interprets the notion of “good” from a sharply different social
perspective. In other words, each society has a different yardstick
in appreciating the value of its own cultural trait. Cultural
relativism, however, cannot be regarded as the flip side of
ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism is more
analytical and methodological rather than being a moral principle.
Anthropologists apply the concept of cultural relativity in
investigating and comparing societies without declaring one being
better or more preferable to the other. Moreover, appreciating and
accepting the uniqueness of one society’s cultural trait does not
mean that universal human moral traits of right or wrong no longer
apply. For instance, cultural traits that promote subjugation of
women by hurting or killing them do not necessarily mean that
they are right by virtue of one society’s inner logic. There are
underlying patterns of human cultural traits that are common and
universally acceptable to humanity.
Ethnocentrism – One people learn their culture, they tend to
become strongly committed to it. In fact, they often cannot imagine
any other way of life, they may judge others in terms of their own
cultural standards, this tendency to view one’s culture and group as
superior.
When people find cultural practices and values not their
own as disturbing and threatening, that can be regarded as
ethnocentrism. A literal meaning of ethnocentrism is the regard
that one’s own culture and society is the center of everything
and therefore far more superior than others (Kottak 2012: 39;
Eriksen 2001:7). It is understandable that people laud and hold
importance to the cultural values that were taught them by their
parents, elders, and other institutions of their society. The problem
is when a person or groups of people regard their own society’s set
of cultural values as the only agreeable, acceptable, and highly
respectable set of convictions. Such a perspective can harden into
chauvinism, a position that everything about the other culture is
wrong, unreasonable, detestable, and even wicked. From this
perspective, the practices and institutions of people from other
societies are regarded as inferior, less intelligent, and even vicious.
An ethnocentric attitude can be an obstacle to understanding each
other culture and foster tensions within or between societies.
A Cultural explanation of human behaviour
- The people of different societies have different beliefs
and customs, and these influences their behavior.
THE FILIPINO CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
– Filipinos place a high premium on personality.
- Personality of person might be described as warm or
despicable, aggressive or low – keyed: weak or strong, or
authoritative or withdrawn.
- Personality as the general impression a person projects to
others.
Some Filipino Character Traits
1. Bahala na Attitude –Is always hopeful in the supreme power
which is expressed by the Bahala na Attitude.
2. Hospitality - It is a pleasure and an honor to accept visitors, local
or foreigners, to build genuine relationships and friendship with
them.
3. Peace loving citizen- unity minded people thus causing peace
among groups.
4. Religiosity- often consider religious practices and rituals as
symbols of faith.
5. Loyalty- trustworthiness and faithfulness are shown in many
form, in marriage, politics etc.
6. Debt of Gratitude- Filipinos are grateful and can easily show
gratefulness in a thankful manner.
7. Adaptability- the quality of being able to adjust to new
conditions especially in many trials.
8. Resiliency- the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties,
toughness especially in times of calamities.
9. Respect for Elders- it is very important to treat elders or elderly
people with respect.
Defining Culture and Society from the Perspectives of
Anthropology and Sociology
The study of culture was first used by the pioneer English
Anthropologist Edward B. Taylor, he said that culture is the
complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, law,
morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits, acquired
by man as a member of society.
Elements/Components of Culture
1. Tradition –refers to custom, rituals, belief, folklore, and habits
in a given ethic group.
2. Beliefs – are the ideas, viewpoints and attitudes of the particular
group of society.
3. Values – are the common ethical standards in a civilized society
wherein group members have the ability to distinguish what is right
or wrong.
4. Norms - are the proper conduct of social behavior that should
be followed in the society.
Types:
Folkways – are the expected behavior being participated in certain
ethnic groups.
Mores – are the long – established customs and traditions that have
bearing in moral and ethical values of the society.
i. Language – is a form of communication that represents the
spoken and written words to convey information to an individual or
group of people.
ii. Laws –are the rules, regulation and guiding policies of societal
institutions.
Aspects of Culture
a. Dynamic, flexible and adaptive
The cultural adaptation is the evolutionary process that
modifies the social life of the people in the given natural
environment.
• The social evolutionary process is created by the
condition of the natural environment that human
being constantly adapting on any changes.
• The biological modifications and adjustments are
always flexible to adapt even in the harsh conditions
of the environment.
• The human adaptations use innovative way to create
new cultural dimension on its way of life from the
cultural transformation of clothing, food shelter,
music, arts including the beliefs, traditions and
history.
b. Shared and Contested ( Given a Reality of Social
Differentiation)
Culture works by social dynamism using language,
communication technologies and commercial trade.
• The use of language as a form of social communication
such as group communication, informal communications,
discussion and public speaking.
• The use of communication technologies through
powerful media tools such as computers, television, DVD
and cell phones.
• The commercial trade and global enterprises provide the
better social exchange through the manufactured goods
and services provide in the public and private enterprise.
c. Learned through socialization and enculturation
The cultural transmission or enculturation is the best
way to describe culture is learned.
• The members of the group learn to understand and apply
certain ideals, values. Expectations, beliefs and traditions
to the society.
• The younger generations readily accept the norms of the
society as a part of their education to sustain the societal
system within their family or tribe.
• The culture is only learned by the language, literature,
arts, music and local history that are passed across
generation.
d. Patterned social interactions
Culture is patterned by specific dimension of social life
such as the economic and political activities, and social
activities:
• The economic activities are patterned by the innovation
and inventions of cultural groups that need to be
integrated by the social life of the members of the
society.
• There are activities that we always do such as going to
toilet, washing the hands, cleaning the house, driving the
car etc.
• There are cultural values that are patterned to be followed
to live on specific group of people with unique cultures
that individual must also follow to integrate similar social
life.
e. Integrated and at times unstable
Culture is different from each other as we must consider
the social experiences, traditions, norms, mores and other
cultural ways in the community.
• The group members of the conformed with the ways of
living within the bounds of beliefs, expectations, and
norms
• The behavioural conformity is expected to follow any
violations within the norms have specific sanctions as to
the provisions of law or even a given set of norms in the
social context.
• The social interaction of ma follows the collective
activities with common goals including specific norms,
traditions and beliefs which is followed as a blueprint of
its distinct cultural existence in the society.
f. Transmitted Through Socialization / Enculturation
 The cumulative culture may be passed from one houses, or fine clothing, are considered status symbols. Where
generation to the next generation. warriors are respected, a scar can represent honor or courage.
Generally, the group product usually done by cultural diffusion, Society prepares individuals to occupy statuses and roles (Macionis
innovation and amalgamation of cultures. 2012: 127–128).
• The group product is made through the social interaction Status refers a social position that a person holds.
among the members of the group to form a unique life in An ascribed status is a social position a person receives at birth or
a given geographical location. takes on involuntarily later in life.
Examples of ascribed statuses include being a daughter, a Filipino,
• The group product is multi – dimension activities that
a teenager, or a widower.
provide the understanding and learning the elements of
Achieved status refers to a social position a person takes on
culture such as values, beliefs, norms, language,
voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort. Achieved
folkways, mores, laws, material culture and technology.
statuses include honors student, athlete, nurse, software writer,
• The group products primarily use language and education and thief. Role refers to behavior expected of someone who
of the offspring to ensure the survival of the culture and holds a particular status.
tradition of the tribe.
Sex refers to the biological characteristics distinguishing male and
g. Requires Language and Others Forms of Communication female (Macionis 2012: 169). Sex is based on chromosomes,
The communication process uses symbol to identify the anatomy, hormones, reproductive systems, and other physiological
given actions, attitudes, and behaviors of the people. components.
• The use of language has varied types of symbols
depending on its natural environment, exposure, and Gender refers to those social, cultural, and psychological traits
education to groups or tribes, the social experience and linked to males and females through particular social contexts. Sex
influence. makes us male or female; gender makes us masculine or feminine.
All the major agents of socialization—family, peer groups,
• The social experiences as a whole provides specific
schools, and the mass media—reinforce cultural definitions of
communicative symbols along arts, music, literature,
what is feminine and masculine. (Dionisio 1992: 1-2; Macionis
history and other forms of societal actions.
2012: 170).
• The abstract knowledge is reinforced in the way they
understand and learn the feelings, ideas and behaviors of
•
Socialization – Perucci ( 1983) defines socialization as the process
certain group of people in the society.
through which a person acquires the behavior and skills that are
essential for social existence, it occurs when a person has learned
Symbols are the basis of culture. A symbol is an object, word, or
to develop his potentials and has adapted to his society and culture
action that stands for something else with no natural relationship
in order to exist. It is the process by which a person learns and
that is culturally defined. Everything one does throughout their life
generally accepts the established ways of a particular social group
is based and organized through cultural symbolism.
or society. It encourages desirable behaviour and discourages
Symbolism is when something represents abstract ideas or
objectionable acts.
concepts. Some good examples of symbols/symbolism would be
Socialization
objects, figures, sounds, and colors. For example, in the Hawaiian
The Importance of Socialization
culture, the performance of a Lua is a symbol of their land and
- Socialization is the cultural process of learning how to participate
heritage which is performed through song and dance. Also, they
in group life. The role of socialization is to acquaint individuals
could be facial expressions or word interpretations. Symbols mean
with the norms of a given social group or society. It prepares
different things to different people, which is why it is impossible to
individuals to participate in a group by illustrating the expectations
hypothesize how a specific culture will symbolize something.
of a certain group. Socialization is very important for children, who
Some symbols are gained from experience, while others are gained
begin the process at home with family, and continue it at school.
from culture. One of the most common cultural symbols is
-
language. For example, the letters of an alphabet symbolize the
Personality –is the sum total of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs and
sounds of a specific spoken language. Symbolism leads to the
values that are characteristic of an individual, our personality
“Layers of Meaning” concept. Culture is the meaning that is shared
determines how we adjust to our environment and how we react in
to provide guiding principles for individual meaning.
specific situations.
It is important for anthropologists to consider their own cultural
Factors in Personality Development
background when looking at symbolism in a different culture. This
1. Heredity- First used in the 1530s, the noun heredity comes
is because many symbols, though similar in appearance, can mean
from the Latin word “hereditatem”, meaning "condition of being an
drastically different things. These symbols can best be understood
heir." It can refer to inheriting characteristics from your parents, or
or interpreted though the eyes of the culture that they pertain to,
it can refer more broadly to the passing on of genetic factors from
otherwise they may lose their unique significance. One example of
one generation to the next.
a misinterpreted cultural symbol is the “whirl log” symbol
2. Birth Order- (Birth order theory) was developed by Alfred
commonly used in Southwestern Native American blanket
Adler in the twentieth century; it stated: the order in which a child
weaving. This symbol is almost identical to the Nazi Swastika, and
was born impacted his or her personality.
therefore brings a negative response from many Americans.
3. Parental Characteristics - are important for explaining a series
Although the Native American symbol has nothing to do with Nazi
of outcomes for children, such as, health, education, and
or Germanic symbolism, this design is rarely used on blankets
occupation. These are also central because they help to define a
today because of the symbolic misinterpretation.
child's group membership.
Status symbols also indicate the cultural values of a society or a
4. The Cultural Development- Culture is a powerful driver
subculture. For example, in a commercial society, having money
for development, with community-wide social, economic and
or wealth and things that can be bought by wealth, such as cars,
environmental impacts. Peoples' lifestyles, individual behaviour,
consumption patterns, values related to environmental stewardship
and our interaction with the natural environment are mostly
influenced by their cultures.
Social Interaction –a form of action and function through which
people and organization relate to one another. It is an exchange
between two or more individuals and is a building block of
society. It can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three
(triads) or larger social groups. By interacting with one another,
people design rules, institutions, and systems within which they
seek to live.
Social process – refers to the repetitive forms of behavior, which
are commonly found in social life. By social processes we mean
those ways in which individuals and groups interact and
establish social relationships. There are various of forms
of social interaction such as cooperation, conflict, competition and
accommodation etc.
Some Theories of Socialization
1. Personal Identity Theory: The Tabula Rasa (John
Locke )–refers to the state of mind in its hypothetical
primary blank or empty state before receiving outside
impressions. John Locke a philosopher in the 1600s
claimed that each of us is born without personality. John
Locke speaks of personal identity and survival of
consciousness after death. A criterion of personal identity
through time is given. Such a criterion specifies, insofar
as that is possible, the necessary and sufficient conditions
for the survival of persons. John Locke holds that
personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity.
He considered personal identity (or the self) to be
founded on consciousness (viz. memory), and not on the
substance of either the soul or the body.
The issue of personal identity and its determents has
always been of concern for many philosophers.
Questions are raised as to what does being the person that
you are, from one day to the next, necessarily consist of.
Personal identity theory is the philosophical
confrontation with the ultimate questions of our own
existence, such as who are we, and is there a life after
death? This sort of analysis of personal identity provides
a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for the
identity of the person over time. In the modern
philosophy of mind, this concept of personal identity is
sometimes referred to as the diachronic problem of
personal identity. The synchronic problem is grounded in
the question of what features or traits characterize a
given person at one time. There are several general
theories of this identity problem. John Locke (29 August
1632-28 October 1704) was one of the philosophers who
were against the Cartesian theory that soul accounts for
personal identity. Chapter XXVII on "Identity and
Diversity" in An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (Locke, 1689/1997) has been said to be
one of the first modern conceptualizations of
consciousness as the repeated self-identification of
oneself, in which Locke gives his account of identity and
personal identity in the second edition of the Essay.
Locke holds that personal identity is a matter of
psychological continuity. Arguing against both the
Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the
Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows
basic logical propositions, Locke posits an "empty"
mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience, and
sensations and reflections being the two sources of all
our ideas.
2. The Looking – Glass Self
- Social psychologist Charles Horton Cooley was one of
founders of the interactionist perspective of sociology.
According to him, the development of looking – glass
self is a 3 step process that is constantly taking place.
a. We imagine how we appear to others
b. Based on their reactions to us, we attempt to
determine whether others view us as we view
ourselves
c. We use our perceptions of how others judge us to
develop feelings about ourselves.
3. Role – Taking
- According to George Herbert Mead, seeing ourselves
as others see us is only the beginning, eventually we not
only see ourselves as other see us but also actually take
on, or pretend to take the roles of others.
Agents of Socialization
1. The Family – most important agent of socialization in
most societies.
 Parents – most important socializing agents.
Several Factors explain why socialization is not a
process of direct teaching:
a. Socialization usually involve two parents
b. The direct- teaching of socialization fails to
take into account how persuasive and subtle
socialization is. Socialization occurs as much
by example as direct verbal means.
 Parental Differences in Socialization - Parental
socialization styles are defined more as emotional
context or climate than as a set of
specific parenting practices, meaning that
depending on said context, each parent's individual
practices (affect, communication, strictness, etc.)
would have a different meaning for their child.
 Reverse Socialization: Children Influencing
Parents
- Ex: Children acting to change behaviors, attitudes or
values of their parent
2. The Peer Group – is a primary group composed of
individuals of roughly and similar social characteristics.
3. The School- is an agent of socialization that not only
teach us subject knowledge and life skills but also social
skills through our interactions with teachers, staff, and
other students.
4. The Mass Media - usage cultivates worldviews and
values, for example political attitudes and cultural,
gender, or minority stereotypes. Mass media have been
described in numerous studies as powerful agents of
political socialization
5. Church- Religion is a collection of cultural systems,
belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to
spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values.
Parental religious participation is the most influential part
of religious socialization–more so than religious peers
or religious beliefs
The Process of Socialization
Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which
people develop their human potential and learn culture. Unlike
other living species, whose behavior is mostly or entirely set by
biology, humans need social experience to learn their culture and to
survive. Social experience is also the foundation of personality, a
person’s fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking and feeling
(Macionis 2012: 102). Socialization is also defined as the process
of preparing members for membership in a given group in society.
Through socialization, individuals learn the norms and values of
their society.
Values are culturally defined standards that people use to
decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that serve as
broad guidelines for social living.
Norms are the rules and expectations by which a society
guides the behaviour of its members.
The process of learning culture is something that starts from the
moment we're born and continues throughout our entire lives. The
process of learning our own culture is called enculturation, while
the process of learning another culture is called acculturation.
THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
There are many theories on how the self, as a product of
socialization, is formed. We will examine the work of four
researchers: Sigmund Freud, Charles Cooley, George Herbert
Mead, and Jean Piaget (Macionis 2012: 104–108).
Freud’s model of personality. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
combined basic needs and the influence of society into a model of
personality with three parts: id, ego, and superego.
The id represents the human being’s basic drives, or biological and
physical needs which are unconscious and demand immediate
satisfaction. In the human personality, the superego refers to the
cultural values and norms internalized by an individual. Society,
through its values and norms, opposes the self-centered id. The ego
is, thus, a person’s conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure-
seeking drives (id) with the demands of society (superego).
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. From his studies of
human cognition, or how people think and understand. Jean Piaget
(1896–1980) identified four stages of cognitive development.
Four Stages of Cognitive Development.
Stage one is the sensorimotor stage (first two years of life), the
level of human development at which individuals know the world
only through the five senses. This stage is begins when a baby is
born, he or she starts developing both physically and cognitively.
Physical skills include crawling, grasping, and pulling, as well as
general physical growth. However, as babies develop cognitive
skills, they start thinking about their behaviors and reacting to
different stimuli such as noises, movement, and emotions. This is
what defines the sensorimotor stage. For example, a baby might
giggle or smile because he or she perceived something as funny or
interesting. Giggling or smiling is an example of a reaction induced
by cognitive development, so it would fall under the sensorimotor
stage. To further understand the sensorimotor stage, let's look at
each of its sub-stages.
Stage two is the preoperational stage (about age two to seven) at
which individuals first use language and other symbols. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of this period.
Piaget noted that children in this stage do not understand yet
concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are
unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism. During the preoperational stage, children also become
increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase
in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an
object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a
horse. Role-playing also becomes important—children often play
the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many other
characters.
Stage three is concrete operational stage (between the ages of
seven and eleven) at which individuals first see causal connections
in their surroundings. It is characterized by the development of
logical thought. Thinking still tends to be very concrete, children
become much more logical and sophisticated in their thinking
during this stage of development. While this is an important stage
in and of itself, it also serves as an important transition between
earlier stages of development and the coming stage where kids will
learn how to think more abstractly and hypothetically. Kids at this
age become more logical about concrete and specific things, but
they still struggle with abstract ideas.
The last stage is the formal operational stage (about age twelve)
at which individuals think abstractly and critically. Piaget
(1970) devised several tests of formal operational thought. One
of the simplest was the 'third eye problem'. Children were
asked where they would put an extra eye, if they were able to
have a third one, and why.
Schaffer (1988) reported that when asked this question, 9-year-olds
all suggested that the third eye should be on the forehead.
However, 11-year-olds were more inventive, for example
suggesting that a third eye placed on the hand would be useful for
seeing round corners.
Formal operational thinking has also been tested experimentally
using the pendulum task (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The method
involved a length of string and a set of weights. Participants had to
consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the
heaviness of the weight and the strength of push. The task was to
work out which factor was most important in determining the speed
of swing of the pendulum. Participants can vary the length of the
pendulum string, and vary the weight. They can measure the
pendulum speed by counting the number of swings per minute. To
find the correct answer the participant has to grasp the idea of the
experimental method -that is to vary one variable at a time (e.g.
trying different lengths with the same weight). A participant who
tries different lengths with different weights is likely to end up with
the wrong answer. Children in the formal operational stage
approached the task systematically, testing one variable (such as
varying the length of the string) at a time to see its effect. However,
younger children typically tried out these variations randomly or
changed two things at the same time. Piaget concluded that the
systematic approach indicated the children were thinking logically,
in the abstract, and could see the relationships between things.
These are the characteristics of the formal operational stage.
Psychologists who have replicated this research, or used a similar
problem, have generally found that children cannot complete the
task successfully until they are older. Robert Siegler (1979) gave
children a balance beam task in which some discs were placed
either side of the center of balance. The researcher changed the
number of discs or moved them along the beam, each time asking
the child to predict which way the balance would go. He studied
the answers given by children from five years upwards, concluding
that they apply rules which develop in the same sequence as, and
thus reflect, Piaget's findings.
Like Piaget, he found that eventually the children were able to take
into account the interaction between the weight of the discs and the
distance from the center, and so successfully predict balance.
However, this did not happen until participants were between 13
and 17 years of age.
He concluded that children's cognitive development is based on
acquiring and using rules in increasingly more complex situations,
rather than in stages.
Mead’s Theory of the Social Self. George Herbert Mead (1863–
1931) For Mead, the self is a part of our personality and includes
self-awareness and self-image. It is the product of social
experience, and is not guided by biological drives (see Freud) or
biological maturation (see Piaget). According to Mead, the key to
developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. Infants
can do this only through imitation and, without understanding
underlying intentions, have no self. As children learn to use
language and other symbols, the self emerges in the form of play.
Play involves assuming roles modelled on significant others, or
people, such as parents, who have special importance for
socialization. Then, children learn to take the roles of several others
at once, and move from simple play with one other to complex
games involving many others. This theory also constitutes three
Stage Role-Taking Process
Three Stage Role-Taking Process
Stage 1: The Preparatory Stage The preparatory stage lasts from
the time we are born until we are about age two. In this stage,
children mimic those around them. This is why parents of young
children typically do not want you to use foul language around
them. If your two-year-old can “read,” what he or she has most
likely done is memorized from the book that had been read to him
or her.
Stage 2: The Play Stage This stage is from about age two to six,
children are in the play stage. During the play stage, children play
pretend and do not adhere to the rules in organized games like
soccer or freeze tag. Have you ever played a game with children of
this age? It is far easier to just go with any “rules” they come up
with during the course of the game than trying to enforce any
“rules” upon them. It also in this stage that when they play house,
they are literally pretending to be the mommy or the daddy that
they know.
Stage 3: The Game Stage The third stage is the game stage, which
is from about age seven onwards. In this stage, children can begin
to understand and adhere to the rules of games. They can begin to
play more formalized games because they begin to understand
other people’s perspective–or the perspective of the generalized
other. In this stage, when children play pretend, they may still play
house but are pretending to a mommy or a daddy independent of
the one that resides in their home. The generalized other refers to
the viewpoint of the social group at large. The child begins taking
this perspective into account during this stage.
Cooley’s Looking-glass Self. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)
used the phrase looking-glass self to mean a self-image based on
how we think others see us. As we interact with others, the people
around us become a mirror (an object that people used to call a
“looking glass”) in which we can see ourselves. What we think of
ourselves, then, depends on how we think others see us. For
example, if we think others see us as clever, we will think of
ourselves in the same way. But if we feel they think of us as
clumsy, then that is how we will see ourselves.
Social Organization- is a pattern of relationships between and
among individuals and social groups. Characteristics of social
organization can include qualities such as sexual composition,
spatiotemporal cohesion, leadership, structure, division of labor,
communication systems, and so on. Social organizations or
institutions arise out of social needs and situations of members.
These organizations are the means through which individuals
adjust their behavior to environmental conditions. It consists of all
the ways by which men live and work together, more especially of
all the programmed, ordered and coordinated relations of the
members of the society.” Social organizations at different levels
organize and give expression to collective behaviour. They
coordinate and crystallize numerous interests of individuals and
groups.
Two Broad Types
Kinship- those which grow out of affinity
Family: It is the earliest and the most universal of all social
institutions. It is also the most natural, simplest and permanent
form of social organization. In society, individuals are primarily
organized into separate families and households. Family is
generally composed of husband, wife and their children. It may be
defined as a group of persons, united either by the ties of marriage
or blood relationship, having a common household, a common
tradition or culture. The form and features of family may be
different from place to place and country to country but family as a
social group exists everywhere. It may rightly be described as the
keystone of the social arch. It performs a variety of functions like
biological, emotional, economic, educational and cultural.
Clan: The members of a clan are supposed to be the descendants of
common ancestors. They usually bear common surname. They are
usually found among primitive people and members act through
the guidance of a chieftain. They are associated through common
social, religious and cultural ceremonies. Members practice
exogamy; they do not marry a person belonging to the same clan.
All members worship a totem or a symbolic object like cow, bull,
bird etc.
Tribe: A tribe is a wider social organization than clan and has been
defined as “a social group of a simple kind, and members of which
speak a common dialect, have a common government and act
together for such common purpose as welfare.” Tribe is usually
formed after a stronger clan subordinates a weaker one. Tribe has a
government with a tribal chief as its head. It is organized for
military purposes and has a common dialect and language. Though
devoid of blood relationship, a tribe maintains solidarity among its
members.
Voluntary- those that result from the free and voluntary
associations of members. A brief analysis of a few such
organizations may be given.
Community: One way of organizing individuals on secular lines is
through formation of communities and associations. A community
is defined as “the total organization of social life within a limited
area.” A community is a self-sufficient group based on common
life. The area of a community may range from narrow to very
broad (even global) limits.
Association: A group of individuals who come together for certain
purposes. It has no separate legal personality, unlike a limited
company. It is often regulated by a constitution and rules and run
by office bearers.
Social Categorization – means of classifying people according to
shared trait or a common status. ex. Students, women, teenagers.
Social Networks – is a social structure made up of sets
of social actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of
dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors.
Social Aggregate – when people gather in the same place at the
same time but lack organization or lasting patterns of interaction,
they form an aggregate ex. Passengers on an airplane, the crowd at
a basketball game
Reference Groups –is a collection of people that we use as a
standard of comparison for ourselves regardless of whether we are
part of that group. We rely on reference groups to understand social
norms, which then shape our values, ideas, behaviour and
appearance.
1. Primary Group- is typically a small social group (small – scale
society) whose members share close, personal, enduring
relationships, meet emotional and support needs, characterized by
intimate face - to – face association and cooperation, Cooley
describes the primary groups as the nursery of human nature
because it where the child is first socialized, acquires and
experienced love, affection, tolerance, kindness, loyalty, fairness
and sense of justice. Ex. Family, neighbourhood and play – groups.
2. Secondary Group – are formal, large, impersonal group, which
are formed to accomplish some specific tasks, people interact on a
less personal level than in a primary group and their relationships
are temporary rather than long lasting, is one you have chosen to be
a part of, based on interest and activities. Ex. Employment, vendor-
to – client relationship
3. Informal Group –when 2 or more individuals interact with each
other on issues and concern affecting their interest and welfare.
Ex. Cooperatives, Faculty associations, Parent – Teacher
Associations
4. Formal Group – is a formal organization with an established
philosophy of vision and mission in achieving goals and objectives.
Ex. The Volunteers against Crime and corruption (VACC)
5. In – Group – a social group which a member feels respect and
loyalty, a group that an individual identifies in positive direction.
6. Out – Group –a social group toward which a person feels a
sense of competition or opposition, a group that an individual
identifies in negative direction.
SOCIAL GROUP
“No man is an island.” (English poet John Donne)
“Man is by nature a social animal”. (Aristotle the legendary Greek
philosopher) This only means that man does not live in isolation.
His daily life is made up largely of participating in groups. So, men
everywhere live in groups, such as family, clan, tribe, community
etc. Besides it, people form group consciously to satisfy various
needs. So they live in group, natural and artificial. In short, a social
group in an aggregation of individuals in which: a) Definite
relations exist between individuals composing it and b) Each
individual is conscious of the group itself and its symbols. Viewed
in this way, family, village, school, nation, political party or trade
union etc. are some of examples of groups.
Definitions:
“A group is any collection of human beings who are brought into
social relationships with one another”.-Maclver
“A group is an aggregate of individuals which persists in time,
which has one or more interests, and activities in common and
which is organized”.- A.W.Green:
“Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence
one another, they may be said to constitute social group. - Ogburn
and Nimkoff
“A group is a number of persons, two or more, who have common
objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have
common loyalty and participate in similar activities.”- E.S.
Bogardus
“Groups are aggregates or categories of people who have a
consciousness of membership and of interaction” -Horton and
Hunt
Importance of Groups
1. The group is a transmitter of culture.
Cultural transmission is a one-way system in
which culture is passed onto a person through certain
channels.
2. The group is a means of social control. Social control is
the process of a group regulating itself according to its
beliefs, principles, and values.
3. The group socializes the individual. Group
socialization is the theory that
an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures,
are the primary influence of personality and behaviour in
adulthood.
4. The group is a source of ideas. Sources of
ideas according to a study by Scheer
A group collects ideas together,
5. The group trains the individual in communications.
When communication occurs between two persons, it is
called interpersonal communication. On the other hand,
when more than two individuals are involved, it is
called group communication.
Some examples;
1. Peer Group –a group with members approximately the same
age, social status and interest, people are relatively equal in terms
of power when they interact with peers.
2. Clique - a group of people that have many of the same interest
& commonly found in High School/ College setting; most of the
time they have a name & rules for themselves.
3. Club - a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a
member. Ex. Sporting Club
4. Cabal – a group of people united in some close design together,
usually to promote their private views or interest in a church, state,
or other community, often by intrigue.
5. Household - all individuals who live in the same home.
6. Community - a group of people with a commonality or
sometimes a complex net of overlapping commonalities.
7. Gang – usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area,
they are usually known in many countries to cause social unrest
and also have negative influence on the members and may be a
target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices.
8. Mob – usually a group of people that has taken the law into their
own hands, groups which gather temporarily for a particular
reason.
9. Posse - was originally found in English common law, generally
obsolete and survives only in America, where it is the law
enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military
purposes, can also refer to a street group.
10. Squad – a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as
a team to accomplish their goals.
11. Dyad – a social group with two members, typically more
intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the
other’s attention with anyone else.
12. Triad – a social group with 3 members, more stable than a
dyad because one member can act as a mediator, the relationship
between the other two become strained.
13. Team – works in a similar way to a squad.
Definition: State
‘The state is a distinct set of institutions that has the authority to
make rules which govern society.’ According to the Oxford
Dictionary of Sociology (1994). These institutions, according to
Miliband (1969), are the government, the administration (the civil
service), the judiciary and parliamentary assemblies. State power
lies in these institutions.
Max Weber defined it as ‘the social institution that holds a
monopoly over the use of force’. It has a ‘monopoly’ of legitimate
violence ‘within a specific territory”. Hence, the state includes such
institutions as the armed forces, civil service or bureaucracy,
police, judiciary and local and national councils of elected
representatives, such as parliament.
It is a set of institutions which describe the terrain and parameters
for political conflicts between various interests over the use of
resources and the direction of public policy. All sociologists have
been particularly concerned with the state, and they have examined
it in relation to society as a whole, rather than in isolation. The
main concern is the description analysis, and explanation of the
state as an institution which claims a monopoly of the legitimate
use of force within a given territory. Different parts of the state
apparatus can have different interests and conflicting preferences.
Because of this, there are frequently conflicts between elected
politicians and nonelected civil servants or the judiciary over
policy and resources.
Moreover, its boundaries have not been clearly defined and are
constantly changing. It is here useful to bear in mind Althusser’s
concept of state apparatuses. The capacity of the state to control the
armed forces and police (repressive state apparatus) as well as the
major means of communication, notably the media (the ideological
state apparatus) is crucial to its power.
‘A state exists where there is a political apparatus of government
(institutions like a parliament, civil services officials, etc.) ruling
over a given territory, whose authority is backed by a legal system
and by the capacity to use military force to implement its policies.’
Anthony Giddens (1997)
Dunleavy and O’Leary (1967) have suggested the following five
characteristics of the modern state:
1. The state is a recognizably separate institution or set of
institutions, so differentiated from the rest of its society as to create
identifiable public and private spheres.
2. The State is sovereign, or the supreme power, within its
territory, and by definition the ultimate authority for all law.
3. The state’s sovereignty extends to all the individuals within a
given territory, irrespective of formal positions held in the
government or rule-making institutions.
4. The modern state’s personnel are mostly recruited and trained
for management in a bureaucratic manner.
5. The state has the capacity to extract monetary revenues
(taxation) to finance its activities from its subject—population.
All modern societies are nation-states, usually having some form of
congressional or parliamentary system. A nation-state is a nation
governed by a state whose authority coincides with the boundaries
of the nation. Their system of government lays claim to specific
territories, possesses formalized codes of law, and is backed by the
control of military force.
Nation-states have come into existence generally after 19th
century. The world today is largely organized into nation-states.
According to Giddens (1997), their main characteristics, viz.,
sovereignty, citizenship and nationalism, are discussed as under:
Sovereignty:
All nation-states are sovereign states. The notion of ‘sovereignty’
refers to the authority of a government over a clearly defined
territory with clear cut borders, within which it is the supreme
power.
Citizenship:
In modern societies most people living within the borders of the
political system are citizens, having common rights and duties and
knowing themselves to be part of a nation. Almost everyone in the
world today is a member of a definite political order.
Nationalism:
A community acquires a distinctive character through its
association with nationalism. Nationalism can be defined as ‘a set
of symbols and beliefs providing the sense of being part of a single
political community’. It is the main expression of feelings of
identity with a distinct sovereign community.
Nationalistic loyalties do not always fit with the physical boarders
marking the territories of states in the world today. While the
relation between the nation-state and nationalism is a complicated
one, the two have come into being as part of the same process.
Nationalism has become an increasingly powerful force in the
world, serving as a basis not only of collective social identity but
also for political mobilization and action, especially through the
use of warfare. The consequences of nationalism often breed
extremism and feelings of ethnocentrism (a tendency to think and
act blindly that our culture is superior to those of others) resulting
into political conflicts. Extreme forms of nationalism have
engulfed many nations into warfare.
In addition, the other definition of nationalism is the 'identification
with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the
exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.
Functions of the State:
The state is organized around a set of social functions as with all
social institutions. It is an important agency of social control
which performs this function through laws.
The main functions are maintaining law, order and stability,
resolving various kinds of disputes through the legal system,
providing common defense, and looking out for the welfare of the
population in ways that are beyond the means of the individual,
such as implementing public health measures, providing mass
education and underwriting expensive medical research. From a
conflict perspective, the state operates in the interests of various
dominant groups, such as economic classes and racial and ethnic
groups.
Lean Mayher (1971) stated the following basic functions of the
state:
1. Limiting internal power struggles to maintain internal peace.
2. Bringing power to bear on other societies in defense of national
interest or in expanding and building empire.
3. Controlling the members of society so as to bind them to the
pursuit of collective goals.
4. Recognizing and implementing the interests and demands of
various groups.
Non-state institutions
These are groups and organizations which operate outside the
support of any state or government.
They are referred to be ‘stateless’ since they are considered to be
independent of any state, although, they usually collaborate with
the government in implementing projects. Non-state institutions
assume different functions and focus on a specific objective. In
general, they develop certain services needed by members of the
society for their progress.
There are different non-state institutions that operate in society.
Two of them are banks and corporations.
Banks
The term ‘bank’ has no single definition, for many authors have
provided their own definition of it. For the purposes of uniformity,
we define a bank as a financial institution licensed to provide
several financial services to different types of customers. Banks are
in operation mainly for their deposit and lending function.
Customers are allowed to deposit their money to banks which grow
through an interest rate. Banks also provide loans, at a higher
interest rate, to customers who need money either for personal
consumption or for investment and businesses. This process of
taking in deposits and lending them to customers in need is called
financial intermediation. This means that the bank serves as a
connecting link between its depositors and borrowers of money.
Banks also act as a custodian of customer’s money, which help
guarantee the safety of each deposit. When a person puts his
money in a bank, the amount given is maintained in a deposit or
savings account which prevents the risk of theft and robbery.
Certain types of bank accounts also make it possible for customers
to withdraw money as needed. This ensures a more secured
transaction of funds. Some secondary functions of a bank include
money remittance, which make it easier for people to send money
from one place to another. This holds importance especially for
overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) who provide financial
assistance to their families in the Philippines. Most banks also
accept payments to house and other utilities such as electricity and
water utility. This function of the bank eases the transaction of its
customers with utility companies.
Other bank functions include currency exchange, allowing
customers to convert foreign currencies to another currency they
need and safety deposit boxes, which provides customers a safe
place to keep their priced possessions (e.g. gold, silver, or
jewelries). Due to the countless services that banks provide, there
are types of bank which only specialize in a specific bank function.
However, there is no clear line categorizing banks to a
classification since one bank may engage itself in several
functions. In this case, a specific bank can be classified into two or
more bank types.
Some of the most common types of banks are as follows:
 A retail bank is a type of bank that focuses on consumers
or the general public as its customers. One’s personal bank
account, like checking and savings account, are usually in a
retail bank. Retail banks can be considered to be the most
common and widespread of all the types of banks.
 A commercial bank also provides the same services as a
retail bank; however, it focuses on businesses and
businessmen as its main customers. Commercial banks
provide short term loans for businessmen to be used for
investment purposes.
 An investment or an industrial bank provide medium and
long-term loans and deposits to business industries.
 Agricultural banks, as the name suggests, caters to the
financial needs of farmers and the farming industry. They
provide short-term and long-term loans to facilitate
agricultural activities. Loans from this type of bank is used
for buying seeds, fertilizers, land, or any materials needed
for farming. An agricultural country such as the Philippines
is unsurprisingly abundant of agricultural banks.
 The central bank is the main financial institution in a
country since it supervises the monetary system in the
country. It functions as a regulating institution to all other
banks in a country and it issues all the bank notes (or money
bills) and coins of the country in which it operates. The
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is the central bank of the
Philippines. A central bank is the only banking institution
established through a special law of the government, which
makes the government of great influence to its central bank.
Corporation
A corporation is an organization, created by a group of people
known as shareholders, which is legally recognized to act as a
single person in carrying out certain goals and objectives. As a
‘legal person’, a corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights,
privileges, and responsibilities of an individual. Using its own
name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, to hire
employees, and to loan and borrow money. It is also authorized to
have its own assets.
Any corporation-owned property belongs to the corporation itself
and not to the owners of the corporation. Like most individuals, a
corporation is also obligated to pay taxes. This non-state institution
is created to operate businesses and to pursue a common objective,
may it be profit oriented or not. Although, many corporations are
usually set up for profit. It is important to take note that a
corporation is a distinct and separate entity from the people who
own it. This enables the corporation to have powers and liabilities
of its own. Any debt of the corporation is the responsibility of only
the corporation itself; shareholders cannot be personally held
accountable for these debts. This feature also enables the
corporation to sue and be sued in behalf of its name. Any lawsuits
directed to the corporation is solely the responsibility of the
corporation itself and not of its owners.
There are different types of corporations that are classified based
on specific factors like the corporation’s purpose.
• A business corporation is created to operate and to
generate profit. Companies like McDonald’s and Starbucks
are examples of a business corporation.
• A non-profit corporation is established with a purpose of
serving the public rather than pursuing profits.
Banks, Corporations and their Social Implications
Banks and corporations both play a part in the economic growth of
society. As mentioned earlier, financial intermediation in a bank
allows the institution to issue loans to borrowing customers
(individual or group) who need money for their investment, at a
higher interest rate. This loan will, then, facilitate businesses and
investments. In short, loans from the bank will keep businesses
going. Continued operation of businesses leads to greater chances
of generating more income for the business and increasing
employment. More income would entail more savings to be
deposited in a bank which will be used to lend to future
customers.In this case, it can be seen that the bank plays a role in
facilitating the cycle of expediting investments and generating
more income and savings.
Cooperatives
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), a
cooperative is “an autonomous association of persons united
voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural
needs and aspirations, through a jointly owned and democratically
controlled enterprise”. Members of a cooperative usually joins
together in order to achieve a specific objective, an objective which
usually benefits the members of the organization itself. In short,
cooperatives are mainly structured to benefit its members and to
satisfy its members’ needs. In a cooperative, the people who use its
products or services are the same people who own and control the
organization. Cooperatives exist among different industries and are
composed of different types of people, may it be farmers,
consumers, or workers.
There are several principles that uniquely characterize this non-
state institution. It is an essential characteristic of a cooperative that
its owners and financers are also the people who use the
cooperative.
Meaning, in a typical cooperative, the customers are also the ones
who own the organization. These members or users are also the
ones who have control over the cooperative. They have the power
to elect a board of directors which will handle the overall operation
of the organization. Users or customers of a cooperative are also
the ones who benefit from it. To have a clearer grasp of these
principles characterizing cooperatives, let us look at an example of
a consumer cooperative. The function of a consumer cooperative is
to provide products and commodities needed by people. A
consumer cooperative may put up a supermarket to satisfy this
necessity for certain products.
The people that serve as primary customers of the supermarket are
usually the people who created the cooperative itself. They created
the cooperative because they needed an organization that would
meet their specific objective. Since these customers are the
financers and owners of the cooperative, they also have the power
and control to elect their board of directors through a democratic
election (i.e. one vote per member). The board is expected to
spearhead the general operation of the supermarket.
Although non-members of the cooperative can also shop and be
customers in the said supermarket, only cooperative members are
entitled to benefits and profits of the organization. Assuming that
the supermarket generated a profitable income, the cooperative
must distribute this profit to its customers who are also members
and owners of the association. Benefits from such profits can be
monetary in form or discounts to products sold.
The International Cooperative Alliance also came up with seven
principles to characterize a cooperative. These principles are as
follows: (a) voluntary and open membership, (b) democratic
member control, (c) member economic participation, (d) autonomy
and independence, (e) education, training and information, (f)
cooperation among cooperatives, and (g) concern for the
community.
There are several types of cooperatives, depending on its specific
function and purpose.
• A credit cooperative provides financial services to its
members, including securing savings and creating funds to
be used for issuing loans.
• A consumer cooperative operates mainly to obtain and
distribute products and commodities to its customers, both
members and non-members.
• Producer cooperatives aids those in the sector of
production, either agricultural or industrial.
A subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives
which help producers or
farmers in marketing their crops as well as in purchasing
supplies needed for further production.
• A service cooperative (or a worker cooperative)
concentrates on helping workers in the service-oriented
occupations (i.e. health care, transportation, labor) by
creating employment opportunities and other benefits to its
members.
• A multi-purpose cooperative undertakes two or more
functions of different cooperatives. For example, multi-
purpose cooperative could act as a consumer cooperative
and establish a supermarket. At the same time, it could also
provide financial services like a credit cooperative.
Trade Unions
Part of the universal human rights of every individual is his right to
organize and form associations that would protect his rights as a
worker; the embodiment of this right is trade unions. A trade
union or labor union is an organization with a membership
composed of workers or employees from related fields, which aim
to represent the interests and rights of its members, both in the
workplace and in the society.
While an individual has the capacity to demand better conditions
from his employer, trade unions recognize that a unity of several
employees would act as a more powerful tool in advancing these
interests. This is how trade unions became the voice of the workers
to the management; they serve as link between employees and their
employers. Trade unions work to improve certain issues like wage
adjustment, good working environment, and rewards and other
benefits.
There are different types of trade unions according to its members.
• General union representation of workers with a range of
jobs and skills, from different industries and companies. An
example of this type of union is a trade union of drivers,
janitors and office workers.
• Industrial unions composition of workers from one
particular industry, across different levels of the hierarchy.
A trade union of all employees who work in the mining
industry (with different levels and positions) is an example
of an industrial union.
• Craft union seeks to represent skilled workers doing the
same work who may be employed in different industries. A
craft union of carpenters is one example.
• A white-collar union is composed of professionals doing
similar jobs across different industries. A trade union of
teachers and professors is an example of a white-collar
union.
Although there are many types of trade unions, these classifications
still perform the same functions expected from a trade union. In
addition, a trade union may not only be limited to a particular
company. Here are unions in the Philippines which are composed
of several workers from different companies.
Defining Transnational Advocacy Groups
To have a general understanding of what a transnational advocacy
group is, it is better to first individually define terms that make of
it. The word ‘transnational’ denotes something that goes beyond
one’s national borders. ‘Advocacy’ can be defined as issues or
causes that are being defended or supported by a certain group of
people known as advocates. A ‘group’, as you were familiarized in
previous lessons, is generally defined as a collection of individuals
with significant relations among each other.
Combining these terms and definitions, we may define a
transnational advocacy group as a collection of actors
(individuals or groups) characterized by their fluid and open
relations with each other, united by their commitment to work on
and defend certain issues and causes that are relevant across
several nations. They “use the power of information, ideas, and
strategies to influence the value context within which states make
policies”. Transnational advocacy groups are also referred to as
“transnational advocacy networks” due to the nature of actors’
connection with each other.
As discussed in a previous lesson, networks are a web of weak
social ties among groups and individuals. This definition may also
apply to the relationship of actors in a transnational advocacy
group. Actors in the group can be a combination of advocates and
activists, non-government organizations, foundations, church,
media, politicians, or corporate business actors. Their relationships
are not highly structured and crystallized but they are loosely
organized and connected as they share values and exchange
information about certain issues which they are committed to
promote.
The word ‘transnational’ characterize this network of actors since
members of a transnational advocacy group come from different
nations involved. In addition, the term ‘transnational’ also
illustrates the group’s involvement to certain ‘trans-sovereign’
issues— issues that exist in multiple countries. These issues
include human rights, women’s rights, environmental protection,
and indigenous peoples’ rights.
Functions and Strategies Roles of Development Agencies
The main function of a transnational advocacy group is the creation As mentioned earlier, development agencies have a range of tasks.
and development of advocacies and campaigns about certain It is, however, important to note that it is up to the organization to
causes, issues, ideas, values and beliefs. These campaigns aim to decide which among the wide array of tasks they will pursue.
motivate changes in policies, which are necessary for the Normally, specific tasks of a development agency are dependent on
betterment of people involved. Since this non-state institution do the aspect of development it focuses on. In a research
not have inherent power to make instant policy changes in the commissioned by the Organization for Economic
state, they use, instead, the power of information dissemination, Cooperation and Development (OECD), the roles of development
together with other strategies, to influence state actors who are in agencies may include;
legitimate position to create such changes. • strategic roles, such as coordinating with local actors and
Keck and Sikkink named four tactics used by transnational international donors, monitoring the local economy, and
advocacy groups to influence the state’s behavior and policy strategic planning for economic and local development;
making. These are information politics, symbolic politics, leverage • asset and investment roles, such as land and property
politics, and accountability politics. management, funding and investing in local development
1. Information politics is the ability to produce and circulate projects, income generation, and provision of grants or
accurate and credible ideas and information to persuade people and donations for other organizations;
motivate them to take action. Transnational advocacy groups do • innovation, enterprise, skills, and employment roles, which
these through campaigns and other ways of communication. include workforce and skills development, employment
2. Symbolic politics is the ability of the group to interpret and use creation, and support of small and medium scale businesses;
symbols or stories in such a way that it would emphasize the issue • promotional roles, like foreign investment promotions and
at hand. They provide explanations about an event and connects it
project management; and
to the specific cause. For example, the death and extinction of
• capacity building roles which include providing technical
certain animal species may be used by environmental advocacy
assistance to other local development organizations and
groups to raise awareness about environmental degradation.
informing them of good practices and models.
3. Leverage politics enables transnational advocacy groups to use
The word international organization is an umbrella term used to
some form of leverage, to tap and influence target actors that are
refer to institutions established by three or more states as voluntary
powerful enough to institute policy changes. These powerful actors
members, formed through a formal agreement or treaty, in order to
may come from the government, larger institutions (e.g. World
promote cooperation and coordination among them. Members of an
Bank), or even corporate business owners.
international organization work together for the development and
4. Accountability politics happens as transnational advocacy
management of their common interests.
groups convince state actors to change their position about certain
The main feature and characteristic of an international organization
issues, and persuades them further to act upon their verbal support
which distinguishes it from other non-state institutions, is that its
about certain issues. Advocacy groups can use their power of
membership is entirely composed of national states or
information to expose the discrepancy between an actor’s words
governments. These member states give power to the international
and his action. Let’s take for example, a senator who verbally
organization which gives the institution some degree of authority
expressed his support about protecting indigenous peoples’ rights.
to manage and govern the same member states. International
In this scenario, the senator has confirmed his position about the
organizations tend to focus on different agendas. The decision of
issue, but he does not make any concrete actions in support of the
what agendas to pursue by an organization exclusively depends on
cause. Because of this, advocacy groups may point out to the
the interests of its members. Some agendas may be economic (e.g.
public, the inconsistency between the senator’s words and his
finance and investments), humanitarian (e.g. human welfare,
actions (or lack thereof). This will then push the senator be true to
human rights), or environmental (e.g. global warming, climate
his word and translate them into concrete operations.
change, biodiversity) in nature.
Development Agencies
Significance of International Organizations
The establishment of development agencies can be found in
International organizations provide an avenue for different
history. In the Second World War, many countries had been
countries and states to connect. This connection among countries
grounds for attacks and bombings which resulted to crises such as
help form international laws, norms, and ideas, which in turn
starvation and food scarcity, among others. Because of these, many
strengthen the relationship among member states. These norms also
European countries saw the need for the creation of an organization
serve as guides on how to regulate and manage these member
that would attend to the crises brought about by the war.
states.
Development agencies were formed as a response to crises like war
Through the development of these norms, states are guided in their
damage and industrial decline. In some countries, such agencies
actions both locally and internationally. Due to the presence of an
were established with the hope of stimulating economic
independent international institution, issues that are present across
development, post- war. Development agencies have come a long
different national borders will be addressed and recognized. There
way since they were first established, as thousands of them are
will be a body to monitor actions of member states and investigate
currently operating within the globe.
those actions against humanity (e.g. human rights violation). In the
Nonetheless, there is still no solid formula to create this type of
end, we can claim that international organizations have been
non-state institution since different development agencies across
embedded in the lives of people, as they perform multiple functions
the world have a range of specific functions and roles. This lack of
— tasks that aim to improve the lives of people by pursuing
common understanding about development agencies makes it more
different development agendas.
difficult to define it. In general, we refer to development agencies
Education – is a social process.
as groups or entities that are tasked and committed to pursue
Function of Education in society (Formal and Informal)
certain developmental agendas of a state. They are an institution
1. Development of personality of individuals- Personality
that provides help in support of a state’s economic growth and
development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament,
social progress.
character, thus the socialization process of an individual continues • Understand the graduate job market.
at school.
2. Transmission of culture- Cultural transmission is the process 7. “An Idle Mind is the Devil’s Workshop.” When an individual’s
through which cultural elements, in the form of attitudes, values, is not busy doing anything, it tends to think of harm or undesirable
beliefs, and behavioral scripts, are passed onto and taught to ideas, more likely disrupting orderliness in an individual’s life or in
individuals and groups the society as a whole.
3. Preservation of culture- It does the overall development of a
human being. In long term education has the power and potential to
change the mind-set of the society across the globe. Education
makes us aware about our culture and heritages. Thus education
has an important impact on the preservation and transmission of
our culture
4. Socialization of young- Justify the importance of socialization
for children, in terms of both primary and the child's family,
school, religious institution, neighborhood, and peer group.
5. Creation of knowledge- Education gives us a knowledge of the
world around us and changes it into something better. It develops
in us a perspective of looking at life. It helps us build opinions and
have points of view on things in life.
6. Productive citizenry- Education also assist in molding a child's
behaviour, social skills, and adjustability. A good citizen is
someone who is deserving of the state's protection and love
because of their behaviour within the state – someone who would
without a doubt- serve their society with the best of the families.
7. Self – actualization - a person's desire to use all their abilities to
achieve and be everything that they possibly can.

Purpose of Education in Society

1. Education is Self-Empowerment- Education is basically self-
empowerment, making you strong enough to look after yourself in
any kind of situation. Once you are enough educated, you can
bring about development for the greater good of mankind.
2. Financial Stability and Dignity of Life - Financial stability
therefore ensures you don't fall victim to money related stress and
mental disorders. Money affords you healthy food and if necessary,
medical care. Even financially strong people experience stress, but
for different reasons.
3. Growth in Personal Aspiration- Educational aspiration reflects
educational goals an individual sets for himself/herself. Students
whose academic self-schema is positive are more likely to have
confidence in their ability to achieve; they tend to value education,
and see the process of education attainment as more positive and
rewarding
4. On the Job Efficiency- Education prepares you for employment
so you can perform the duties that job requires. Then, that
employment gives you experience that is like education, which
makes it possible to get employment at a higher level.
5. Helps Plan Ahead -Those who are successful have planned
ahead, finding many benefits, including the following; assessing
risks and opportunities, becoming proactive, improving
performance, enough time to develop teams, time for revising and
updating the plan, it is a rewarding experience.
6. Job Seeker vs. Job Provider. Here are some tips to help make
yourself more employable and stand out from the crowd after
graduation.
• Get involved in university life.
• Ask careers for professional advice.
• Keep a record.
• Work hard and get good grades.
• Volunteering.
• Work experience.
• Networking.