CONNECTIVE TISSUE [BONE AND 2.

TRANSIENT CELLS
- free or wandering cells
CARTILAGE] - originate in the bone marrow
- forms a continuum with the epithelial tissue, - circulate in the bloodstream
muscle, and nervous tissue ➢ Plasma cells
- Most generate in the mesoderm ➢ Lymphocytes
- it is where the multipotential cells of the embryo ➢ Neutrophils
“mesenchymal cells” develop. ➢ Eosinophils
(ectomesenchyme- neural crest) ➢ Basophils
➢ Monocytes
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE ➢ Macrophages
➢ Providing structural support
➢ Serving as a medium for exchange of nutrients FIXED CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS
and waste products as well as signaling A. FIBROBLASTS
molecules – The most abundant cell type in the connective
➢ Aiding in the defense, protection, and repair of tissue, are responsible for the synthesis of almost
the body all of the ECM [manufacture and maintain the
➢ Forming a site for storage of fat fibers and ground substance composing ECM]
➢ As a medium for exchange of metabolic waste,
nutrients, and oxygen between the blood and B. MYOFIBROBLAST
many of the cells of the body. – Are modified fibroblast that demonstrate
characteristics similar to those of both fibroblasts
COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE and smooth muscle cells
1. CELLS – Absence of basal lamina
– Fixed – Abundant in areas undergoing wound healing
– Transient
C. ADIPOSE CELLS
2. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX [ECM] – Are fully differentiated cells that function in the
– non-living material synthesis, storage and release of fats
– designed to resist compressive and stretching • White adipose tissue (unilocular fat cells)
forces – Single, large lipid droplet
• Brown adipose tissue (multilocular fat cells)
Ground substance Fibers – Multiple, small lipid droplets
• GAG • Collagen
• Proteoglycans • Elastic D. PERICYTES
• glycoproteins • Reticular – a.k.a perivascular and adventitial cells
– Surround endothelial cells of capillaries and small
CELLULAR COMPONENTS venules and reside outside the connective tissue
1. FIXED CELLS compartment, because they possess their own
- are a resident population of the cells that have basal lamina
developed and remain in place within the
connective tissue. E. MAST CELLS
- are stable and long-lived – Arise from bone marrow stem cells and
➢ Fibroblasts function in mediating the inflammatory process
➢ Adipose cells and immediate hypersensitivity reactions
➢ Pericytes
➢ Mast cells
➢ Macrophages
F. MACROPHAGES ● Collagenous
– Belong to the mononuclear phagocytic system ● Elastic
and are subdivided into two groups of cells: 3. Reticular
• Phagocytes 4. Adipose
• Antigen-presenting cells APC
– Act both as fixed and transient cell B. SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Cartilage (Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage)
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX 2. Bone
1. GROUND SUBSTANCE 3. Blood
– Hydrated, amorphous gel-like material that is
composed of GAG [glycosaminoglycans], C. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUES
proteoglycans and glycoproteins 1. Mesenchymal
– inorganic salts [CaPO4] and some organic 2. Mucous
substances are also present.
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
2. FIBERS 1. Loose
- Most important component of tendons and 2. Dense
ligaments. 3. Reticular
- Osteo-Collagenous fibers / Sharpy’s fibers account 4. Adipose
for the organic components of intracellular
substance. These are the fibers that will bolt into LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
the periosteum. • Composed of loose arrangement of fibers and
dispersed cells embedded in a gel-like ground
COLLAGEN FIBERS substance
– Inelastic and possess great tensile strength • Abundant ground substance with fixed connective
Types: tissue cells (fibroblast, adipose, macrophages,
• Type I: in connective tissue proper, bone, mast cells)
dentin, cementum • Scattered, loosely woven collagen, reticular and
• Type II: hyaline and elastic cartilages elastic fibers
• Type III: reticular fibers Location:
• Type IV: lamina densa of the basal lamina – Spaces of the body just deep to the skin
• Type V: placenta; associated with type I – Lies below mesothelial lining of internal cavity
collagen – Adventitia of blood vessels
• Type VII: attaching the basal lamina to the – Parenchyma of glands
lamina reticularis
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ELASTIC FIBERS • Greater abundance of fibers and fewer cells
– Composed of elastin (responsible for than loose connective tissue
elasticity) and microfibrils (responsible for
stability) A. DENSE IRREGULAR TISSUE
– Mostly coarse collagen fibers interwoven into
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE: meshwork
A. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER – Fibers are packed so tightly that space is limited
– mature connective tissue for ground substance and cells
1. Loose (Areolar) – Fibroblasts are the most abundant cells
2. Dense – Location: dermis of the skin, the sheaths of
a. Dense Irregular nerves, and the capsules of spleen, testes, ovary,
b. Dense Regular kidney, lymph nodes
 B. DENSE REGULAR COLLAGENOUS
– Composed of coarse collagen bundles densely
packed and oriented in parallel cylinders
– Location: tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis
C. DENSE REGULAR ELASTIC
– Coarse branching elastic fibers with only few
collagen
– Location: large blood vessels, ligamenta flava of
vertebral column and suspensory ligament of the
penis
RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Major fiber component is type III collagen
• Interspersed with fibroblasts and macrophages
• Location: liver sinusoids, adipose tissue, bone
marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, smooth muscle
and islets of langerhans
ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. WHITE (UNILOCULAR) ADIPOSE TISSUE
– Single lipid droplet
– Present in the subcutaneous layers throughout
the body
– Common in adult human than brown adipose
B. BROWN (MULTILOCULAR) ADIPOSE TISSUE
– Multiple lipid droplet
– Heavily vascularized thus brown in color
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. MESENCHYMAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE
– Present only in the embryo and consists of
mesenchymal cells
2. MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
– Loose, amorphous connective tissue exhibiting a
jelly-like matrix composed of hyaluronic acid
and populated with type I and type III collagen
fibers and fibroblasts
– Location: Wharton’s Jelly of the umbilical
cord and subdermal connective tissue of the
embryo
PERICHONDRIUM
• Is a connective tissue sheath covering that
overlies most cartilage
• Has outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer
• Vascular, supplies nutrients to cells of cartilage
• Present in hyaline and elastic cartilages only
CARTILAGE
- firm extracellular matrix which contains
collagenous elastic or elastic fibers
- forms most of the skeleton in early fetal life
- Plays role in the elongation of the bones.
TYPES OF CARTILAGE
I. HYALINE CARTILAGE
• Translucent in fresh state
• Most basic, fundamental and abundant
cartilage
• Forms the template of endochondral bone
formation
• Contains type II collagen and perichondrium
• Chondrocytes, collagenous fibers, ground
substances (chondroitin sulfate)
Location:
– Articular ends of long bones
– Nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, ventral ends of
ribs
II. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• Greatly resembles hyaline cartilage, except that
its matrix and perichondrium possess elastic
fibers
• Somewhat yellow and more opaque than
hyaline
• Chondrocytes are more abundant and larger
than hyaline
• Contains type II collagen and perichondrium
Location:
– Pinna of ear
– walls of auditory canal
– auditory tube
– Epiglottis
– cuneiform cartilage of larynx
III. FIBROCARTILAGE
• occurs when tough support is required
• Does not possess a perichondrium
• Includes type I collagen [abundant]
• Chondrocytes are often aligned in alternating
parallel rows
Location:
– Intervertebral disks
 – Articular discs
– Pubic symphysis
– Insertion of some tendons (grooves)
DEVELOPMENTAL CARTILAGE CELLS
CHONDROGENIC CELLS
– Spindle-shaped, derived from mesenchymal
cells
– Can differentiate into both chondroblasts and
osteoprogenitor cells
CHONDROBLASTS
– Derived from either mesenchymal of
chondrogenic cells
CHONDROCYTES
– Are chondroblasts that are surrounded by matrix
TWO CARTILAGE GROWTH METHODS
INTERISTIAL GROWTH [Endogenous]
– As the cells of isogenous group manufactures
matrix, they are pushed away from each other,
forming separate lacunae and thus enlarging
cartilage from within
– Chondrocytes undergo mitosis and lay down a
new matrix.
– There is a continued deposition of matrix which
forms a capsule that leads to the separation of
the cells.
APPOSITIONAL GROWTH [Exogenous]
– Chondrogenic cells undergo division and
differentiate into chondroblasts, which begin to
elaborate matrix. In this way cartilage grows by
adding to its periphery
– the osteogenic cells in the chondrogenic layer of
the perichondrium multiply and differentiate into
chondroblast which deposit matrix around them
thus adding or increasing the size of cartilage.
BONE
- Bone tissue is a specialized form of connective
tissue characterized by a mineralized extracellular
matrix.
- rigid form of connective tissue that constitutes
most of the skeleton of higher vertebrates.
Mineral = calcium phosphate in the form of
hydroxyapatite crystals [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]
(INORGANIC)
- Calcium Carbonate: CaCO3
- Magnesium Hydroxide: Mg(OH)2
- Fluoride and Sulfate
Matrix = mainly collagen (type I, VI) along with
other matrix proteins (ORGANIC)
• All collagen molecules ~ 90% of total weight of
bone matrix
The four main groups of noncollagenous proteins
found in the bone matrix are the following:
➢ Proteoglycan macromolecules contribute to
the compressive strength of bone, responsible
for binding growth factors and may inhibit
mineralization
➢ Multiadhesive glycoproteins responsible for
attachment of bone cells and collagen fibers to
the mineralized ground substance.(osteonectin,
sialoproteins such as osteopontin)
➢ Bone-specific, vitamin K–dependent proteins
osteocalcin, protein S, matrix Gla-protein
(MGP)
➢ Growth factors and cytokines = IGFs, TNF-α,
TGF-β, PDGFs, bone morphogenic proteins
(BMPs), and interleukins (IL-1, IL-6)
BONE FUNCTION
1) storage for elements and minerals-homeostatic
regulation of blood calcium levels
2) mechanical structures for movement and
protection of viscera,
3) a home for hematopoietic tissue, and
4) Storage of adipose tissue: yellow marrow
BONE CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO TYPE
COMPACT BONE (DENSE)
– dense layer forms the outside of the bone
– solid and external in location
– has no bone marrow cavities.
SPONGY BONE (CANCELLOUS BONE)
– not visible to the naked eye
– spongelike meshwork consisting of trabeculae
– The spaces within the meshwork are
continuous and occupied by marrow and blood
vessels.
– Composed of empty spaces which are
interconnecting between the bony trabeculae or
spicules.
 BONE CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
SHAPE/MORPHOLOGY
The location of spongy and compact bone varies
with bone shape.
LONG BONES
– longer in one dimension
– e.g., humerus, femur, tibia, fibula, radius, and
ulna
SHORT BONES
– nearly equal in length and diameter
– Have compact, spongy bone and a marrow
space on the inside
– Articular surfaces are covered with hyaline
cartilage
– e.g., carpals, tarsals, patella
FLAT BONES
– Thin, usually curved and platelike
– e.g., parietal bone, scapula, sternum, ribs
IRREGULAR BONES
– primarily spongy bone that is covered with a
thin layer of compact bone.
– e.g., vertebrae, hip bones, ethmoid bone
SESAMOID BONES
– tendons
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF BONES
PERIOSTEUM
• Is an outer fibrous sheath of dense regular
connective tissue covering of the bone except the
articular surface.
• Two layers
– outer fibrous layer
– an inner cellular (osteogenic) layer
➢ is well defined If active bone formation is in
progress
• The relatively few periosteal cells are capable of
undergoing division and becoming osteoblasts
under appropriate stimulus.
• Sharpey’s fibers
– Collagen fibers from ligaments and tendons
extend directly into the bone tissue, where they
are continuous with the collagen fibers of the
extracellular matrix of the bone tissue.
BONE CAVITIES
• The marrow cavity and the spaces in spongy
bone contain bone marrow
a. Red bone marrow
• normally restricted to the spaces of spongy
bone in the adult
b. Yellow marrow – consists mostly of fat cells
• can revert to red marrow e.g. extreme
blood loss
MATURE BONE/LAMELLAR BONE
• composed of cylindrical units called Osteons or
Haversian systems
• functional unit of a compact bone cylindrical
branching tubes which is arranged around the
canal, haversian canal, which contains blood
vessels and nerves.
• Osteons consist of concentric lamellae of bone
matrix surrounding a central canal, the osteonal
(Haversian) canal, which contains the vascular
and nerve supply of the osteon.
• Within the bone matrix are spaces called
lacunae, each containing an osteocyte.
• The osteocyte extends numerous processes into
small tunnels called canaliculi.
– communicate by gap junctions with other
osteocytes
• canaliculi generally arranged in a radial pattern
with respect to the Haversian canal
– serves for the passage of
substances between the osteocytes and
blood vessels
• Between the osteons are remnants of previous
concentric lamellae called interstitial lamellae
• Circumferential lamellae follow the entire inner
and outer circumferences of the shaft of a long
bone
• Perforating canals (Volkmann’s canals)
– blood vessels and nerves travel from the
periosteal and endosteal surfaces to reach
the osteonal canal; they also connect
osteonal canals to one another
– not surrounded by concentric lamellae
 CELLS OF BONE TISSUE
TYPES OF BONE CELLS
1. Osteoprogenitor Cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteocytes
4. Bone-lining cells
5. Osteoclasts
The list above are differentiated forms of the same
basic cell type.
Bone tissue cells are surrounded by matrices.
- 25% water
- 25% protein
- 50% mineral salts
OSTEOPROGENITOR CELLS
• derived from mesenchymal stem cells
• is a resting cell that can differentiate into an
osteoblast and secrete bone matrix
• Morphologically, they comprise the periosteal
cells that form the innermost layer of the
periosteum and the endosteal cells that line the
marrow cavities, the osteonal (Haversian) canals,
and the perforating (Volkmann’s) canals.
• can multiply and become osteoblast,
chondroblast, or osteoclast.
OSTEOBLAST
• is the differentiated bone-forming cell that
secretes bone matrix /type I collagen and bone
matrix proteins (BMPs)
• Osteoblast processes communicate with
other osteoblasts
and with osteocytes by gap junctions.
• associated with bone formation
OSTEOCYTES
• Are mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts
that became trapped in lacunae
• They are responsible for maintaining the bone
matrix.
– synthesize new matrix, as well as participate
in matrix degradation → maintain calcium
homeostasis
• arranged with their long axes in the same
direction as the lamellae.
• from osteoblasts which has become imprisoned
with in bone matrix
• responsible for maintaining the integrity of the
bone matrix.
OSTEOCLASTS
• Are multinucleated cells originating from
granulocyte-macrophage progenitors
• Play a role in bone resorption
• Are bone-resorbing cells present on bone
surfaces where bone is being removed or
remodeled
– A shallow bay called a resorption bay
(Howship’s lacunae) can be observed in the
bone directly under the osteoclast.
FORMATION OF BONE IN AN EMBRYO
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
» Flat bones of the skull and mandible are formed
in this way
» “Soft spots” that help the fetal skull pass
through the birth canal later become ossified
forming the skull
» bone starts to form an ordinary mesenchymal
tissue
» the area of the mesenchyme becomes highly
vascularized and cells undergo change (center
of ossification)
» bones of the skull.
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
» The replacement of cartilage model by bone
» Most bones of the body are formed in this way
including long bones
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
• An ossification center appears in the fibrous
connective tissue membrane
• Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix within the
fibrous membrane
• Osteoblasts mature into osteocytes
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION BONE GROWTH IN LENGTH
Step 1 I. ZONE OF RESERVE CARTILAGE
Chondrocytes at the center of the growing cartilage ▪ Chondrocytes randomly distributed throughout
model enlarge and then die as the matrix calcifies. the matrix

Step 2 II. ZONE OF PROLIFERATION

Newly derived osteoblasts cover the shaft of the ▪ Chondrocytes proliferating, form rows of
cartilage in a thin layer of bone. isogenous cells in parallel direction

Step 3 II. ZONE OF MATURATION AND HYPERTHROPY

Blood vessels penetrate the cartilage. New ▪ Chondrocytes mature, hypertrophy and
osteoblasts form a primary ossification center. accumulate glycogen

Step 4 V. ZONE OF CALCIFICATION

The bone of the shaft thickens, and the cartilage near ▪ Lacunae becomes confluent, hypertrophic
each epiphysis is replaced by shafts of bone. chondrocytes die and cartilage matrix calcified

Step 5 V. ZONE OF OSSIFICATION

Blood vessels invade the epiphyses and osteo-blasts ▪ Osteoprogenitor-osteoblast-osteocyte
form secondary centers of ossification. calcification
▪ Resorption

Replacement of hyaline cartilage with most bones are

formed this way (e.g., long bones)
BLOOD AND HEMOPOIESIS
BLOOD
- a specialized connective tissue which is
composed of cells, fibers, and ground substance
which is liquid.
- light to dark red, viscous
- Slightly alkaline (7.35-7.45 pH)
- 7%-8% of total body weight
- 5L of blood in an average adult
- Composed of formed elements suspended in a
fluid component which is the plasma
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
➢ transports nutrients and waste products
➢ regulates body temperature
➢ assists in the regulations of osmic balance
and acid-base balance.
HEMOPOIESIS: also known as hematopoiesis,
process of blood cell formation
PLASMA: yellowish fluid in which cells, platelets,
organic compounds and electrolytes are suspended
and/or dissolved (accumulates 55% of the blood)
• water 90%
• proteins 9%
• inorg. Salts, ions, gasses, nutrients 1%
MAIN PLASMA PROTEINS:
a. Albumin
b. Globulins
c. Fibrogen
SERUM: straw-colored, blood coagulates leaving
the components suspended into the clot.
- yellowish fluid after the blood has clotted
- lacks fibrogen and other clotting factors
FORMED ELEMENTS
1. Red Blood Cells [Erythrocytes]
2. White Blood Cells [Leukocytes]
3. Platelets [Thrombocytes]
TYPES OF HEMOPOIESIS
1. PRENATAL HEMOPOIESIS
➢ 2 weeks after conception (mesoblastic
phase): blood cell formation begins in the
mesoderm of the yolk sac
✔ Mesenchymal cells aggregate to form blood
islands
✔ Peripheral cells become vessel walls and the
rest become erythroblast, become nucleated
erythrocytes
➢ 6th week of gestation (hepatic phase):
erythrocytes still have nuclei, and
leukocytes appear by the 8th week
➢ 2nd trimester (splenic phase): continues until
the end of gestation
➢ End of 2nd trimester (myeloid phase):
beginning of hemopoiesis in the Bone
marrow
2. POSTNATAL HEMOPOIESIS
➢ Occurs almost exclusively in the bone
marrow
➢ Entire process is regulated by various
growth factors and cytokines that act at
different steps to control the type of cells
formed and their rate of formation
 STAGES OF FORMATIONS OF HEMOPOIETIC ERYTHROCYTES [RED BLOOD CELLS]
CELLS - Completely filled with the O2 carrying protein
PLURIPOTENTIAL HEMATOPEITIC STEM hemoglobin.
CELLS (PHSCs) Shape:
• Where all blood cells arise - Biocave disc with circular outline
• Give rise to more PHSCs as well as 2 types of - anucleated (Abscence of nucleus)
Multipotential Hematopoietic Stem Cells Size:
(MHSCs): - 7.6 - 8.6mm diameter
– CFU-Ly Properties:
– CFU-GEMM - soft, flexible, pliable
- tend to adhere to each other on flat surface
PROGENITOR CELLS like stack of coins (rouleaux formation)
• Unipotential, committed to forming a single cell - life span of 120 days
line
• Only limited capacity for self-renewal HEMOLYSIS
– BFU-E to CFU-E for Erythrocytes - outward passage of hemoglobin
– CFU-Meg for megakaryocytes
– CFU-Eosinophil for Eosinophil CRENATION
– CFU-Basophil for basophil - shrinking
– CFU-GM (CFU-G for Neutrophil, CFU-M for
monocyte) AGGLUTINATION
- clumping of RBC
PRECURSOR CELLS
• Arise from progenitor cells and are incapable ANISOCYTOSIS
of self-renewal - medical term for having red blood cells
• Undergo cell division and differentiation to give (RBCs) that are unequal in size.
rise to a clone of mature cells
MACROCYTES
HEMOPOIETIC GROWTH FACTORS - red blood cells that are larger than normal.
• Most are glycoproteins
• Rapid mitosis and differentiation MICROCYTES
1. Transport via bloodstream (endocrine - red blood cells that are smaller than normal.
hormones)
2. Secretion by stromal cells of the BM ERYTHROPOIESIS
3. Direct cell-to-cell contact • The formation of red blood cells, under the
4. Steel factors or stem cell factors control of several cytokines, namely: steel
5. GM-CSF factor, IL-3, IL-9, GM-CSF, erythropoietin
6. IL-3 and IL-7 • Progenitor cells arising from CFU-GEMM:
7. Cytokines – BFU-E
– IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-11, IL-12 – CFU-E
– Macrophage-inhibitory protein ERYTHROPOEITIN (kidney) with the help of other
– Erythropoietin cytokines induce CFU-GEMM to form BFU-E
Note: cells undergo apoptosis, which is the • The smallest and the most abundant
process of programmed cell death • Have no nuclei
• Functions to transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide to and from the tissue
• Biconcave-shaped disk
• 7um in diameter
 • Salmon-pink color
• Carbonic anhydrase, carbonic acid,
chloride shift
• Glycolytic pathway (Embden-Meyerhoff)
• Pentose monophosphate shunt

LEUKOCYTES [WHITE BLOOD CELL]

• with nucleus
HEMOGLOBIN • Much smaller than that of RBCs in number
• Large protein composed of four polypeptide • 4,000-11,000/cumm
chains, each is bound to heme group
(iron-containing) DIAPEDESIS
• responsible for the color of RBC - when leukocytes leave the bloodstream by
• vehicle for transporting O2 and CO2 migrating between endothelial cells of the
Normal Value: blood vessels
14 - 17.5 g/dL blood Normal valu range:
4.4-11.3 x 109/L
GLOBIN MOIETY
- is responsible for releasing CO2 MAIN TYPES:
• R state 1. GRANULOCYTES
• T state 2. AGRANULOCYTES
• Both have azurophilic granules
DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN (lysosomes)
- Hb carrying 2,3-DPG
MAJOR GROUPS OF LEUKOCYTES
OXYHEMOGLOBIN I. GRANULOCYTES
- Hb carrying O2 ● Formation of the granulocytes (NEB) under
the influence of several cytokines, GCSF,
CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN GM-CSF, IL-1, IL-5, IL-6, TNF-alpha,
- Hb carrying CO2 ● Descendant of CFU-GEMM to CFU-Eo
(Eosinophil) and CFU-Ba (basophil) forming
HUMAN POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN OF myeloblast as precursor cell
HEMOGLOBIN ● Neutrophil arise from CFU-GM to CFU-G
• α, β, γ, δ forming myeloblast
1. HbF (α2, γ2) [Fetal Hemoglobin]
2. HbA1 (α2, β2) [Adult Hemoglobin] A. NEUTORPHIL
3. HbA2 (α2, δ2) [Adult Hemoglobin] - Also known as Polymorphonuclear
leukocytes
Note: In adult, 96% HbA1, 2% HbA2, 2% HbF - The most abundant of all WBCs (60-70%)
- Multilobed nucleus
 - In females, the nucleus presents a 2. AZUROPHILIC GRANULES:
characteristic small appendages, the lysosomes
“drumstick” which contains the inactive x
chromosome C. BASOPHIL
- One of the first cells to appear during acute - The same function with mast cells but
bacterial infection different origin (initiators of inflammatory
- Phagocytose and destroy bacteria using the process)
contents of their granules - Constitute less than 1% of the WBC
population
NEUTROPHILIC GRANULES - S-shaped nucleus but is commonly masked
1. SPECIFIC GRANULES by the large specific granules
- contain various enzymes and pharmacological
agents in performing antimicrobial function BASOPHILIC GRANULES
1. SPECIFIC GANULES
2. AZUROPHILIC GRANULES - stain dark blue to black pressed against the
- are lysosomes containing acid hydrolases, periphery (roughened perimeter)
MPO, BPI protein, antibacterial agent 2. AZUROPHILIC GRANULES
lysozyme, etc - lysosomes

3. TERTIARY GRANULES II. AGRANULOCYTES

- gelatinase and cathepsins inserted into
plasmalemma A. MONOCYTES
- The largest of the circulating blood cells, enter
NEUTROPHIL MATURATION the connective tissue spaces, where they are
known as macrophages
- Constitute 3-8% of the WBC population
- Large, eccentric, kidney-shaped nucleus
- Cytoplasm is bluish with numerous azurophilic
granules (lysosomes)
FUNCTION: inflammatory and immune response

MONOCYTOPOIESIS
➢ Share bipotential cell with neutrophil CFU-GM
B. EOSINOPHIL ➢ CFU-M arises after the mitosis of CFU-GM
- Constitutes less than 4%of the total WBCs forming monoblast
- Sausage-shaped, bilobed nucleus
- Helps to eliminate antigen-antibody
complexes and destroy parasitic worms

EOSINOPHILIC GRANULES:
1. SPECIFIC GANULES
- contains crystal-like center called internum,
and surrounded by externum
➢ Internum: major basic protein, eosinophilic
cationic protein, eosinophil-derived
neurotoxin
B. LYMPHOCYTES
- Agranulocytes and form the second largest LYMPHOID ORGANS:
population of WBCs – Spleen
- 20-25% – Lymph nodes
- Slightly indented, round nucleus that occupy
most of the cell THROMBOCYTES [PLATELETS]
- Have no function in the bloodstream but impt in - fragments that arise from megakaryocyte;
CT - anucleated
- Contains few azurophilic granules: B cells, T Function:
cells, Null cells - Play several roles in hemostasis by
producing white thrombus
B CELLS Normal value range:
- responsible for the humorally mediated 127-450 x 109/L
immune system; Bone marrow
• Effector cells to ANTIBODIES 2 REGIONS
1. GRANULOMERE
T CELLS - a darkly stained portion
- cellularly mediated immune response; - basophilic
cortex of thymus
2. HYALOMERE
EFFECTOR CELLS: - pale/clear portion
• Memmory cells
• Cytotoxic cells PLATELETS
• Helper cells • Are small, disk-shaped, non-nucleated cell
• Regulatory cells fragments derived from megakaryocytes in
the BM
NULL CELLS • Functions in limiting hemorrhage to the
➢ Circulating Stem cells endothelial lining of the blood vessel in case
- which give rise to all blood elements of injury
➢ Natural killer cells [NK cells]
- kill some foreign and virally altered THROMBOPOIETIN
cells without the influence of thymus Platelet Formation:
• Under the control of THROMBOPOIETIN
LYMPHOPOIESIS • From multipotential cell CFU-GEMM
COLONY-FORMING UNIT OF B LYMPHOCYTES developing into CFU-Meg further developing
[CFU-LyB] into megakaryoblast
- stem cell which give rise to • Cells undergo ENDOMITOSIS (cells do not
immunocompetent B lymphocytes divide but become larger in size), polyploid
expressing special surface markers 64n
including antibodies
- Occurs in the bone marrow

COLONY-FORMING UNIT OF T LYMPHOCYTES

[CFU-LyT]:
- cells undergo mitosis forming
immunocompetent T cells
- Occurs in the cortex of the thymus
(maturation)
 ERYTHROPOIESIS
Erythrocyte
1. Hemocytoblast - stem cell Lymphocytes
2. Proerythroblast - earliest recognizable cell 1. Lymphoblasts
of erythrocyte series 2. Prolymphocytes
3. Basophilic Erythroblast - smaller
4. Polychromatophilic erythroblast Monocytes
5. Normoblast 1. Monoblasts
6. Reticulocyte - immature RBC 2. Promonocytes
7. Erythrocyte
Platelets
Granulocyte 1. Megakaryocyte
1. Hemocytoblast
2. Myeloblast
3. Promyelocyte
4. Myelocyte
5. Metamyelocyte
6. Granular leukocytes