Experiment No.

3
DETERMINE THE VALUE OF RESISTOR USING COLOR BAND.

 OBJECTIVE:-
 To become able to identify value of resistor using color code.
 To become familiar with the color coding of the resistor and the capacitor.
 To become familiar with the use of multimeter to measure resistance.

 COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-
 Digital multimeter,
 Various Resistors.

 THEORY:-
Resistance is a property of a material that opposes the flow of electric current
through it. It is denoted by R and unit is ohm (Ω). Larger units are kΩ and MΩ. The
value of resistance is either printed on the body of resistor or expressed by using
color codes. The resistance of material depends upon various factors:
R=
‘R’ is the resistance of conductor
‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the material
‘A’ is the area of the conductor

 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE:-
Every resistor has their own resistance. The resistance can be measured
by reading the color code present on the commercial resistor. There are four
or five color bands. According to this method dedicated (four or five) bands of
color are printed on a resistor and hence as name suggested it determine the
tolerance of resistance.
Similarly, the second last band is the multiplier band which determines
the multiplier power of the calculation of the resistance of the resistor. The
same method is implemented either for any of the band system for color
coding.
Further color calculation is done using the following color coding chart:-
Color Significant figures Multiplier Tolerance
0
Black 0 10 = 1 -
1
Brown 1 10 +1%
2
Red 2 10 +2%
3
Orange 3 10 -
4
Yellow 4 10 -
5
Green 5 10 + 0.5 %
6
Blue 6 10 -
7
Violet 7 10 -
8
Gray 8 10 -
9
White 9 10 -
-1
Golden - 10 +5%
-2
Silver - 10 + 10 %

Resistor with 5 color band Resistor with 4 color band

 PROCEDURE:-
1. All the apparatus are brought to the working table.
2. The calculation of resistance of resistor is done using color code of the
resistor.
3. The data we obtain is taken and process is repeated for all resistors.
4. Now, again the resistance is measured with the help of ohmmeter for
their actual resistance for all resistors.
5. Both data of same resistors are verified.
6. Finally, the result and conclusion are found.
 OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.N Color band of given resistor Rth Rp Tolerance Error(%) Remark

A B C D (Ω) (Ω)

 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:-

 Experiment No. 1
ANALYZE THE LOGIC OPERATION OF THE BASIC GATES,
UNIVERSAL GATES AND X-OR AND X-NOR GATES.

 OBJECTIVE:-
 To be familiar with electronics tools.
 To identify the different electronic components.
 To identify and operate with the digital gates.
 To understand the logic levels and states.
 To know about digital signals.

 APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. Digital gate kit,
2. Connecting wires.

 THEORY:-
Logic gates constitute the foundation blocks for digital logic. They are used
to perform logical operation with one or more input signals but only one input.
The relation between the input and the output is based on the certain logic.
Based on logic the gates are named as OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR, X-OR, X-
NOR.

Gate Symbol and function Truth Table

NOT or inverted gate A Y
0 1
A 1 0

AND gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
Y=A.B
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR gate A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
Y=A+B 1 0 1
1 1 1
 NAND gate A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
Y= ̅̅̅̅̅ 1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR gate A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
Y=̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 1 0 0
1 1 0
XOR gate
A B Y
0 0 0
Y=A⊕ A AB 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XNOR gate A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
Y=̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⊕ 1 0 0
1 1 1

 OBSERVATION TABLE:-

INPUT OUTPUT
A B AND OR NAND NOR XOR XNOR
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
 NOT gate
INPUT OUTPUT
0
1

 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:-

 Experiment No. 2
STATE AND PROVE DEMORGAN THEOREM

 OBJECTIVE:-
 To be familiar with electronics tools.
 To identify the different electronic components.
 To identify and operate with digital gates.

 APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. Digital gate kit,
2. Connecting wires.

 THEORY:-
In the electronic and computer engineering, De-morgan’s law consists of
two rules about the boolean algebra and the digital logic. It state as:

First law:- “The complement of product of two variable is equal to the sum
of complement of each variable”.
Then, Accordingly
̅̅̅̅̅= ̅+ ̅

Second law:-“The complement of sum of two variable is equal to the

product of the complement of each variable”.
Then, Accordingly
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅. ̅

 PROCEDURE:-
1. All the apparatus were bought to the working table.
2. All the tools and apparatus were assembled in the proper order.
3. The connection of the circuit has been accomplished as per given
connection diagram.
4. Now the power supply was on.
5. The truth table of the given circuit and the observation table is verified
against each other.
 OBSERVATION TABLE:-
a) For 1st law:

S.N LHS RHS Remarks

A B A.B ̅̅̅̅̅ A B ̅ ̅ ̅+ ̅
1.
2.
3.
4.

b) For 2nd law:-

S.N LHS RHS Remarks

A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ A B ̅ ̅ ̅. ̅
1.
2.
3.
4.

 RESULT AND CONCLUSION:-

 Experiment No. 5
ANALYZE THE OPERATION OF INVERTED OP-AMP

 OBJECTIVES:-
 To understand and investigate an inverting amplifier.
 To understand and investigate a non- inverting amplifier.

 APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. DC power supply 4. Resistors
2. Multimeter 5. Connecting leads
3. Op-Amp

 THEORY:-
Operational amplifier is a very
high gain differential amplifier. It can
be used to perform the operations i1  0

such as addition, subtraction,

vO
integration, differentiation etc. so it
is named operational amplifier. It is
i2  0
direct coupled differential-input
single-ended output amplifier. OP
amp has two input terminals and one
output terminal.

The terminal 1 is an inverting input terminal (-) and terminal 2 is a non-

inverting input terminal (+) and terminal 3 is an output. An input to the
inverting terminal (-) results in an opposite polarity output. The non-inverting
input terminal (+) produces an output that is in phase with the signal applied.

 IDEAL OP-AMP:-
1. Infinite voltage gain
2. Infinite band width
3. Infinite input impedance
4. Zero output impedance
 VIRTUAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CONCEPT:-

From Figure, v 0 = A ( v 2 - v 1 ) ⇒ v 2 - v 1 = ⁄

For ideal op amp, the open loop gain is infinite i.e., A→ ∞.

∴v2-v1= ⁄ = O ⇒ v2=v1 → virtual short circuit

A virtual short circuit means whatever voltage is at terminal 2 will automatically

appears at terminal 1.

 INVERTING AMPLIFIER:-
In an inverting amplifier circuit, the non-
vI
inverting (+) input terminal is grounded. The i 

input signal I v is applied to the inverting (-) input

terminal through the resistor R1 . A portion of vO
v1  0
the output is fed back to the inverting input
terminal through feedback resistor Rf .

As the terminal 2 is grounded, the terminal 1 is at virtual ground i.e., v1 ≃ 0 .

The current flows through R1 is i1 = =

Since the ideal op amp has infinity input resistance, it draws zero current and i1 will
flow through Rf i.e. i1 = Rf.

∴ vo = v1 – i1Rf = 0 – =–

Closed loop gain vO Rf

Acl  G  
v R

[ - sign indicates that ac output is 1800 out of phase with input ; dc output has
reverse polarity.]
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER CIRCUT:-

 OBSERVATION TABLE:-
RF R1 Calculate gain Vin (v) Vout (v) Measured gain

 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:-

 Experiment No. 4
TO ANALYZE VI CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION
DIODE.
 OBJECTIVES:-
 To be familiar with the electronic tools.
 To identify different electronics diodes.
 To identify the PN junction diode.
 To know about the biasing of PN junction diode.

 APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. DC variable power supply 4. DC voltmeter
2. DC ammeter 5. Connecting leads
3. Diode 6. Resistors

 THEORY:-
PN junction diode is a device which conducts when
forward biased and practically does not conduct when
reversed biased. A PN junction is a boundary or interface
between two types of semiconductor material, P-type and N-
type, inside the single crystal of semiconductor. It is created by
doping PN junctions and are elementary “building blocks” of
most semiconductor electronic devices such as diode,
transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are
active sites where the electronics action of device take place.

Forward Bias:- In a forward bias, the p-type is connected with

the positive terminal and n-type is connected to the negative
terminal with a battery. Connection in this way, the hole in p-
type region and the electrons in n-type are pushed toward the
junction.
 Reverse Bias:- Connecting the p-type to the negative terminal
of the battery and the n-type region to the positive terminal
corresponding to reverse bias. If a diode is reversed biased,
the voltage of the cathode is correspondingly high then the
anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks
down.

 PROCEDURE:-
1. All the apparatus were bought to the working table.
2. All the tools and apparatus are assembles in the proper
order.
3. The connection of the circuit had been accomplished as
per given connection diagram.
4. The knobs and the range of the connections are confirmed
to be in proper configurations.
5. Now, the power supply was on and the observation table
was filled.

 OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.N Vin VD ID Remarks

 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:-
 Experiment No. 6
ANALYZE THE OPERATION OF IC REGULATOR.

 OBJECTIVES:-
 To study about the voltage regulation and control.
 To study the pins configuration of 7805IC.

 APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. 230V-12V Step down transformer.
2. Bridge rectifier.
3. Capacitors.
4. 7805 voltage regulator IC.
5. Diodes

 THEORY:-
7805 IC voltage regulator is a three terminal linear voltage regulator
IC with a fixed output voltage of 5V which is useful in a wide range of
application. It can deliver up to 1.5A of current. It has both internal current
limiting and thermal shut down feature.
7805 is a three terminal device with the three pins being input,
ground and output.

 Working:-
The AC power supply from mains first gets converted into an
unregulated DC and then into a constant regulated DC with the help of this
circuit. The circuit is made up of transformers, bridge rectifiers made up
from diodes, linear voltage regulator 7805 and capacitors.
The working of the circuit can be divided into two parts. In the fast
part, the AC mains is converted into unregulated DC and in the second
part, this unregulated DC is converted into regulated 5V DC.
Initially, a 230V to 12V step down transformer is taken and its
primary is connected to mains supply. The secondary of the transformer is
connected to the bridge rectifier either a dedicated IC or a combination of
H IN 4007 diodes can be used. A 1A fuse is placed between the transformer
and the bridge rectifier. This will limit the current drawn by the circuit to
1A. The rectified DC from the
bridge rectifier is smothered out with the
help of capacitor. So, the output across the
load capacitor is unregulated 12V DC. This is
given as input to the 7805 voltage regulated
IC. 7805 IC then converts this to regulated
5V DC and the output can be obtained at its
output terminals.

 OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.N Vin Vout Remarks

 RESULT:-
It was found that the input voltage was greater than the output
voltage whereas input and output current were almost identical. Whereas,
remaining output was dissipated as heat.

 CONCLUSION:-
The operation of 7805 IC voltage regulator was analyzed.