Chapter two

Material-Removal Processes and Machines:

By: yonas o, manufacturing II. 1

 Lathe and lathe operation
Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world.
It is commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool.
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and
size.
The job is securely and rigidly held in the chuck or in between centers on the lathe machine
and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which will remove metal from the job in the
form of chips.

By yonas o Manufacturing ii 2
 Types of lathe
• Engine lathes (also called centre lathe)
• Bench lathe:
• Tool room lathes: High precision
• Turret Lathe
• Automatic Lathe
• CNC Lathe
1. Centre Lathe
• Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool removes material from the
surface of a rotating cylindrical work piece; the tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation

• Turning is traditionally carried out on a machine tool called a lathe, which provides power to
turn the part at a given rotational speed and to feed the tool at a specified rate and depth of cut
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Components of Centre Lathe

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 Components of lathe(contd.)
• Bed: supports all major components. It is massive and rigid single piece casting made to
support other active parts of lathe

• Headstock: Houses the gear box, spindle, controls, Holds the chuck for the work piece,
supplies power to the spindle at various drive speeds

 The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe

 The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work can
be attached

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 Components of lathe(contd.)
• Tailstock: supports the other end of the work-piece, used to hold drill for making holes

• Tail stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect to the
spindle centre and carries a centre called dead centre for supporting one end of the work

Tail stock of central lathe

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 Components of lathe(contd.)
• Carriage: Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a
direction parallel to the spindle axis
• It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound rest, and tool
post
• The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage, which generally travels at right angles to
the spindle axis

Tool post of centre lathe

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 Components of lathe(contd.)
• Feed Rod and Lead Screw: Feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the headstock.
Lead screw when its half nuts engaged, can be used for thread cutting
Specification of Lathe
A. Bed length, which may include head stock length
B. Maximum length of the job that can be held between head stock and tail stock centre
C. Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways
D. Maximum diameter of the bar that can pass through spindle or collect chuck of capstan lathe

Specifications of a lathe

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 Workholding Devices and Accessories

Workholding methods: a) mounting the work between centers using a dog. b) three jaw
chuck. c) collet. d) faceplate
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 Work holding Devices and Accessories
There are four common methods used to hold work parts.
1. Mounting work between centers: use of two centers, one in headstock and the other
in tailstock.
This method is appropriate for large length to dimeter ratio. At the headstock center, a
device called lathe dog is attached to the outside of the work and used to drive the rotation
from the spindle
1. Chuck: three or four jaws to grasp the cylindrical workpart
2. Collet: consists of a tubular bushing with longitudinal slits running over half its length
and equally spaced around its circumference.
3. Face plate: fastens to the lathe spindle and is used to grasp parts with irregular shapes
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Lathe operation

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 Lathe operation
a) Facing: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat surface on the end

b) Taper Turning: Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool is
fed at an angle, thus creating a conical geometry

c) Contour Turning: Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of rotation
as in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured form
in the turned part

d) Form Turning: In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape that is imparted
to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work

e) Chamfering: The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the cylinder,
forming what is called a “chamfer”

f) Cut-off: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its length to cut off
the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting
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 Lathe operation
g) Threading: A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating work part in a
direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus, creating threads in the
cylinder

h) Boring: A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside diameter of
an existing hole in the part. Similarly internal grooves can be produced

i) Drilling: Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along its
axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way

j) Knurling: This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material.
Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross hatched pattern in the work
surface for gripping purposes

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Taper turning
Taper turning by compound rest

𝐷1 − 𝐷2
𝐾= ; 𝐾 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐿

𝐷1 − 𝐷2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
2𝐿
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 Exercise: Numerical examples
Recall formula from Chapter 1 (slide 36) and do the following problems
1. A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter and 700 mm long is to be turned in an engine lathe.
Cutting speed = 2.30 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 1.80 mm. Determine (a) cutting
time, and (b) metal removal rate.
2. In a production turning operation, the foreman has decreed that a single pass must be completed on
the cylindrical workpiece in 5.0 min. The piece is 400 mm long and 150 mm in diameter. Using a
feed = 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of cut = 4.0 mm, what cutting speed must be used to meet this
machining time requirement?
3. A cylindrical work bar with 4.5in diameter and 52in length is chucked in an engine lathe and
supported at the opposite end using a live center. A 46in portion of the length is to be turned to a
diameter of 4.25 in one pass at a speed of 450 ft/min. The metal removal rate should be 6.75
in3/min. Determine (a) the depth of cut, (b) the required feed, and (c) the cutting time
4. Determine the angle at which the compound rest would be swiveled for cutting a taper on a
workpiece having a length of 150 mm and outside diameter 80 mm. The smallest diameter on the
tapered end should be 50 mm and the required length of the tapered portion is 80 mm.
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2. Drilling machine
• Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole in a work part. Holes are
generally used either for assembly with fasteners, such as bolts, screws and rivets (each
requiring a hole), or to provide access to the inside of a part

• Drilling is performed with rotating cylindrical

tool that has two cutting edge on its working
end. The tool is called drill or drill bit

construction of upright drilling machine

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Drilling machines are classified as radial and upright drilling machine according to their
configuration
Radial drilling machine

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Twist drill bit
• The most common drill is the conventional standard-point twist drill.
• The main features are the point angle, lip-relief angle, chisel-edge angle, and helix angle

Geometry of twist drill 18

 Operations related to Drilling
a) Reaming: reaming is used to slightly enlarge a hole to provide a better tolerance on its diameter, and
to improve its surface finish. The tool is called reamer which usually has straight flutes.

b) Tapping: This operation is performed by a tap and is used to provide internal screw threads on an
existing hole.

c) Counter boring: Counter boring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows a
smaller diameter partially into the hole.

A counter bore hole is used to seat bolt heads into a hole so the heads do not protrude above the surface

d) Counter sinking: This is similar to counter boring, except that the step in the hole is cone shaped for
flat-head screws and bolts.

e) Centering: Also called center drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to accurately establish its
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location for subsequent drilling. The tool is called a center drill
Operations related to Drilling
f) Spot facing: Spot facing is similar to milling.

It is used to provide a flat machined surface on the workpart in a localized area

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Cutting condition in drilling
• The rotational speed of drill, N
𝑣
𝑁= where: v − cutting speed(mm/min)
𝜋𝐷
𝐷 − 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Feed rate, 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑁
Drilled holes are either through hole or blind hole
The machining time, 𝑇𝑚 to drill a through hole is given by:

𝑡+𝐴
𝑇𝑚 = ; 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑡 − 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑟
A − approach allowance(mm): the distance of drill before reaching full diameter

𝜃
𝐴 = 0.5𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛 90 − ; 𝜃 − 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
2
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Cutting condition in drilling(contd.)
• In blind hole, hole depth is the distance between work surface and point of hole. So, drill point
angle allowance does not affect the time to drill the hole.

• Thus, machining time for blind hole is give by

𝑑
𝑇𝑚 =
𝑓𝑟

The rate of material removal in drilling is determined by the product of the drill cross sectional
area and the feed rate,

𝜋𝐷 2 𝑓𝑟
𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
4

This equation is valid after drill reaches full diameter

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Exercise: Numerical examples
1. A drilling operation is to be performed with a 12.5 mm diameter twist drill in a steel
workpart. The hole is a blind hole at a depth of 60 mm and the point angle is 118°. The
cutting speed is 25 m/min and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev. Determine (a) the cutting time to
complete the drilling operation, and (b) metal removal rate during the operation, after the
drill bit reaches full diameter.

2. A drilling operation is to be performed with a 15 mm diameter twist drill in a steel

workpart. The hole is a through hole in a plate of 30 mm and the point angle is 118°. The
cutting speed is 25 m/min and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev. Determine (a) the cutting time to
complete the drilling operation, and (b) metal removal rate during the operation, after the
drill bit reaches full diameter.
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3. Milling
It is a machine which is used to remove metals from the workpiece with the help of a revolving cutter
called milling cutter.

It is used to machined the flat, rough and irregular surfaces and this is done by feeding the workpiece
against a rotating milling cutter.

Types of milling machine

a) Vertical milling machine

b) Horizontal milling machine

a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine.

b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine. 24
Parts of milling machine
1. Column & Base
 Column including base is the main casting that supports all other parts of milling machine.
 The column rests on the base and base contains coolant reservoir and a pump.
2. Knee
 It is a casting that supports the saddle and table.
 All gearing mechanism is enclosed within the knee.
3. Saddle: Saddle is present on the knee and supports the table
4. Table: It is a rectangular casting which is present on the top of the saddle and used to hold
the work or work holding devices
5. Over Arm: The overarm is used to fastened arbor support.
It may consist of one or two cylindrical bars which slide through the holes in the column
6. Arbor: an axle or spindle on which a revolving milling cutter is mounted

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Up milling and down milling operation Down milling
Up milling
 Up Milling also called Conventional Milling,
 Wheel rotation is in the opposite direction to
that of feed,
 The length of the chip is relatively longer,
 Tool life is relatively shorter,
 Need more clamping force to hold the work part
still.
 Down Milling also called Climb Milling,
 Wheel rotation is in the same direction to that of
feed,
 The length of the chip is relatively short,
 Tool life is relatively longer,
 Need less clamping force to hold the work part still.
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 Milling cutter geometry/milling cutter nomenclature
1. Outside diameter. The outside diameter is the
diameter of the cylinder passing through the
peripheral cutting edges.
2. Side tooth length. Length of the raised land
along the side tooth
3. Cutter face width. The cutter face is the
surface at the side or end of the cutter body
which is perpendicular to the axis of the cutter.
4. Tooth face. The tooth face is that surface of the
cutting tooth against which the chip is forced in
the metal cutting operation.
5. LAND. The land is that part of the back of the
tooth adjacent to the cutting edge which is
relieved to avoid interference between itself and
the surface being machined
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 Milling cutter geometry/milling cutter nomenclature
6. Cutting edge. The cutting edge is the intersection of the face of
the tooth with the leading edge of the land.

7. Flute. The chip space between the back of one tooth and the
face of the following tooth.

8. Relief angle. The peripheral relief angle is the angle between

the surface formed by the land and a tangent to the cutter
outside circle passing through the cutting edge in a diametral
plane. It is to prevent the land from rubbing on the surface of
the work being cut

9. Gash depth. Gash depth is the distance from the outside

diameter of the cutter to the fillet radius or root diameter

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Peripheral milling and Face milling
 Peripheral Milling or slab milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth
located on the periphery of the cutter body.
 The axis of cutter rotation is in a plane parallel to the work piece surface to be
machined

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Face milling
• In face milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth located on the periphery
and face of the cutter body
• The axis of cutter rotation is in a plane perpendicular to the work piece surface to
be machined

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31
Cutting time

• Approach distance

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33
 Numerical problem
1. A peripheral milling operation is performed on the top surface of a rectangular workpart which is
400 mm long by 60 mm wide. The milling cutter, which is 80 mm in diameter and has five teeth,
overhangs the width of the part on both sides. Cutting speed = 70 m/min, chip load = 0.25
mm/tooth, and depth of cut = 5.0 mm. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make one pass
across the surface and (b) the maximum material removal rate during the cut.

2. A face milling operation is performed to finish the top surface of a steel rectangular workpiece 12
in. long by 2 in. wide. The milling cutter has 4 teeth (cemented carbide inserts) and is 3 in. in
diameter. Cutting conditions are 500 fpm, f = 0.01 in./tooth, and d = 0.150 in. Determine the time
to make one pass across the surface and the metal removal rate during the cut.

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 4. Grinding
Grinding: is a material removal process in which abrasive
particles are contained in a bonded grinding wheel that
operates at very high speeds

Grinding is material is removal by action of hard, abrasive

particles usually in the form of a bonded wheel

• Grinding is used as finishing operations after part has been

established by conventional machining

• Grinding wheel is usually available in disk-shaped and

precisely balanced for high rotational speeds
• Grinding wheel parameters: Abrasive material, Grain size, Surface grinding machine
Bonding material, Wheel grade, Wheel structure

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Important properties of abrasive materials are: High hardness, Wear resistance, Toughness, Friability -
capacity to fracture when cutting edge dulls, so a new sharp edge is exposed.
 Common Abrasive materials
1. Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) known as Alundum or Aloxide. Various substances may be added to
enhance hardness, toughness, etc. Plain Al2O3 is white, and used to grind: steel, ferrous, high
strength alloys.

2. Silicon Carbide (SiC) known in trade as Carborundum and Crystalon. Harder than Al2O3 but not as
tough. Used to grind: aluminum, brass, stainless steel, cast irons, certain brittle ceramics.

3. Boron Nitride in the forms of single-crystal cubic boron nitride (cBN) and microcrystalline cubic
boron nitride (mcBN) under trade names such as Borazon or Borpax. Used for hard materials such
as hardened tool steels and aerospace alloys.

4. Diamond, a pure form of carbon, both natural and artificial. Used on hard materials such as
ceramics, cemented carbides and glass.
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 Bonding materials
Properties of bonding materials:
 Must withstand centrifugal forces and high temperatures.
 Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel.
 Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting yet allow worn grains to be dislodged so new
sharp grains are exposed.
abrasive materials bonded by using organic or ingorganic materials
Inorganic bonds
• Vitrified bond: Clay bond melted to a porcelain or glass like consistency. It can be made strong and
rigid for heavy grinding and not effected by water, oil, acids. Most grindig wheels have vitrified bonds

• Slicate bond is essentially water glass hardened by baking. It holds grains more loosely than a vitrified
bond and give closer cut. Large wheels can be made more easily with slicate bond. Usually used in
situation where heat generation must be minimized

• Metallic bond: Cubic boron nitride and diamond abrassives are usually (but not always) embeded in
metallic bonds, for utmost in strength and tendency to hold the costly long-wearing grains 37
Organic bonds
Rubber bond is a flexible bond, used in cutoff wheels.
Resinoid bond is a high strengt bond, used for rough grinding and cutoff operations.
Shellac bond is relatively strong but not rigid, used in applications that requires good finishing.
Grinding Wheel
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material.
The bonding material holds the particles in place and establishes the
shape and structure of the wheel
Grinding Wheel Structure: The grinding wheel is usually disk
shaped and precisely balanced for high rotational speeds. It consists of
abrasive particles and bonding

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Contd.
Typical structure of a grinding wheel contains abrasive grains, bond material and pores (air gaps)
Volumetric proportions can be expressed as: V g + V b + V p = 1 .0
• Measured on a scale that ranges between "open“ and "dense.“
• Open structure means Vp is relatively large and Vg is relatively small - recommended when
clearance for chips must be provided.
• Dense structure means Vp is relatively small and Vg is larger - recommended to obtain better
surface finish and dimensional control.
Wheel Grade: Indicates bond strength in retaining abrasive grits during cutting
• Depends on amount of bonding material in wheel structure (Vp )
• Measured on a scale ranging between soft and hard
• Soft" wheels lose grains readily - used for low material removal rates and hard work materials
• Hard wheels retain grains - used for high stock removal rates and soft work materials
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Grain size
• The grain size of the abrasive particle is an important parameter in determining surface finish and
material removal rate.

• Small grit sizes produce better finishes while larger grain sizes permit larger material removal
rates.

• Harder work materials require smaller grain sizes to cut effectively.

• Softer materials require larger grit sizes.

• Grit size is measured using a screen mesh procedure.

• In this procedure smaller grit sizes have larger numbers and vice versa.

• Grain sizes used in grinding wheels typically range between 6 and 600.

• Grit size 6 is very coarse and size 600 is very fine.

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 Three Types of Grain Action
• Cutting - grit projects far enough into surface to form a chip - material is removed.

• Plowing - grit projects into work, but not far enough to cut - instead, surface is deformed and
energy is consumed, but no material is removed.

• Rubbing - grit contacts surface but only rubbing friction occurs, thus consuming energy, but
no material is removed.

Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting, (b) plowing, and (c) rubbing
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Grinding wheel wear
Three mechanisms are recognized as the principal causes of wear in grinding wheels:

grain fracture,

attritions wear,

and bond fracture.

1. Grain fracture occurs when a portion of the grain breaks off but the rest of the grain
remains bonded in the wheel. The edges of the fractured area become new sharp cutting
edges on the grinding wheel. This makes the grinding wheel self-sharpening, a unique
property of a cutting tool.

2. Attrition wear involves dulling of the individual grains, resulting in flat spots and rounded
edges. Attrition wear is analogous to tool wear in a conventional cutting tool.
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3. Bond fracture occurs when the individual grains are pulled out of the bonding material.
Bond fracture usually occurs because the grain has become dull due to attritious wear and the
resulting cutting force is excessive. Sharp grains cut more efficiently with lower cutting forces;
hence, they remain attached in the bond structure.
Grinding Wheel Shapes and Sizes
The principle dimensions that designate the size of a grinding wheel are the outside diameter,

width, and hole diameter.

common types of grinding wheels; straight, cylinder, straight cup, flaring cup, mounted.
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 Grinding Wheel Specification
• All grinding wheel manufacturers use substantially the same standard wheel marking
system and uses numbers and letters to specify abrasive type, grit size, grade structure,
and bonding material
• Standard grinding wheel marking system used to designate abrasive type, grit size, grade,
structure, and bond material. Example: A-46-H-6-V
Tabel 1: Standard Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide and Silicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives table2: Standard Marking System for Cubic-Boron-Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives

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5. Shaper, Planer and Sloter machines
In Shaper and planer machines either work or tool reciprocates, unlike lathe, milling, drilling
and grinding machines in which tool or work rotates. Shaper and Planer and are examples of
reciprocating machines.
• In a Shaper- a single point tool reciprocates against stationary work piece;
• In a Planer-the work piece reciprocates against a stationary single point tool;
• In a Sloter- a single point tool reciprocates against a stationary work piece;
Planer Sloter
Shaper

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Slotting machine
The slotting machine is a reciprocating machine

tool in which, the ram holding the tool

reciprocates in a vertical axis

and the cutting action of the tool

is only during the downward stroke.

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Contd.
Shaper and Planer produce various flat Surfaces. Planer is used to machine large work parts

• Shaper and a planer have similar operations, both use a single point cutting tool moved
linearly relative to the workpart

• In Shaper, Work is stationary,

Tool reciprocates, Feed motion to work
• In Planer, Tool is stationary,
Work Reciprocates, Feed motion to tool

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6. Broaching
 Broaching is a precise machining process for mass-production of complex geometry parts
(Complicated hole-shapes) with a special cutting tool called, Broach.

Broaching operation Cutting tools (Broaches)

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 Broach has progressive cutting edges which can provide a complete operation in one pass

Broaching machines are of two types- vertical broaching machine and horizontal broaching
machine.

The operation also can be performed in two types- push type and pull type broaching.

Broach nomenclature
• Cutter

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