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Year 9 Science
Year 9 Science
OXFORD
SCI
EN
CE
9
HEL EN S ILV E S T ER
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
V I C T O R I A N
C U R R I C U L U M
Licensed to Nhan Nguyen, from until 2023-01-01.
Licensed to Nhan Nguyen, from until 2023-01-01.
S C I E N C E
OXFORD
SCI
EN
CE
9
HEL EN S ILV E S T ER
2 N D E D I T I O N
V I C T O R I A N
C U R R I C U L U M
Licensed to Nhan Nguyen, from until 2023-01-01.
1
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered
trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.
Published in Australia by
Oxford University Press
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© Helen Silvester
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in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly
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SCI
1 experiments. They control variables and use accurate
measurement techniques to collect data. They consider
ethics and safety. They analyse data, identify trends and
relationships, and reveal inconsistencies in results. They
analyse and evaluate their own and others’ investigations.
Ecosystems
All living things are dependent on each other and the
2
EN
environment around them. Ecosystems are communities of
organisms and their non-living surroundings. Matter and
energy flow through ecosystems.
CE
changes and pass the information to other
parts of the organism.
Tectonic plates
4 Plate tectonics is a combination of two theories:
continental drift and sea-floor spreading. Plate
tectonics explains global patterns of geological
activity and the movement of the continents.
9
Matter
5 Matter is made of atoms. Atoms
are systems of protons, neutrons
and electrons. Radioactivity occurs
when the nucleus of an unstable atom decays.
Chemical reactions
6 Chemical reactions, including combustion and acid reactions,
are the rearrangement of atoms to form a new substance.
Through this process, mass is not created or destroyed.
Electricity
7 Electricity is a general term related to the presence
and flow of electric charge. Electric circuits can be
explained by the concepts of voltage and current.
Electromagnetism
8 Magnetic fields and movement are used to generate electricity.
9 Experiments
NT
8.3 Magnetic fields and movement
are used to generate electricity ....152
8.4 Science as a human endeavour:
Electromagnetic fields are used
in technology and medicine ...........154
Chapter 8 review ...................................156
CHAPTER 9
EXPERIMENTS ......... 159
STEAM projects ................208
E
Glossary .................................................216
Index ....................................................... 222
TS
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CONTENTS v
Licensed to Nhan Nguyen, from until 2023-01-01.
Oxford Science Victorian Curriculum has been developed to meet the requirements of the Victorian
INTRODUCING OXFORD SCIENCE 7–10
VICTORIAN CURRICULUM Curriculum: Science across Years 7–10. Taking a concept development approach, each double-page
spread of Oxford Science represents one concept, one topic and one lesson. This new edition
ensures students build science skills and cross-curriculum capabilities, paving a pathway for
science success at VCE.
The series offers a completely integrated suite of print and digital resources to meet your needs,
including:
> Student Book > Student obook pro > Teacher obook pro.
Key features > This Student Book combines complete curriculum coverage with clear
of this and engaging design.
> Each print Student Book comes with complete access to all the digital
Student Book resources available on Student obook pro.
6
CHAPTER
6.3 Acids can neutralise bases when bonds break. Page 118
Describe key characteristics of neutralisation, acid–metal carbonate Go back to Topic 6.3 ‘Acids can
and bicarbonate reactions. neutralise bases’
Lemon juice Describe the key characteristics of a metal or non-metal reacting Go back to Topic 6.5 ‘Metals and
with oxygen and a combustion reaction. non-metals react with oxygen’
What you need:
relevant topic.
the test tube. What colour did the
universal indicator become?
Check your Student obook pro for these Check your Teacher obook pro for these
What if? digital resources and more: digital resources and more:
» What if water was used instead
Science as a human endeavour: Fuels
6.6
of Chapter quiz
essential to Australian society are lemon juice?
Compete in teams to test Test your understanding Launch a quiz for your students on key concepts in this chapter.
» What if detergent was used? your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
06_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd
117
132 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
9/22/21 1:39 PM
Concept statements 7.4A: Using Ohm’s law to 7.4B: Understanding 7.4C: Investigating
that summarises the key concept of the 7.4 Voltage is the difference in Resistance
The amount of current flowing in a circuit is
of a circuit. Resistance
particles in an electric
move through. Electrons collide with the atoms
circuit to move
in the wires and the various other components
of a circuit, and some of their electrical energy
to flow in a circuit
resistance o carbon resistors is indicated b the
resistance, so hardly any energy is lost by the V
coloured bands on their plastic case.
electrons. However, the wires in a toaster are
Key ideas
designed so that a lot of the electrons’ energy is
transformed into heat – so much that the wires Ohm’s law I R
glow red-hot and brown the toast.
In this Georg Ohm, a German physicist, discovered
topic, you • olta e is a measure o the di erence in electrical potential ener carried b Resistors are devices that are deliberately Figure 4 The Ohm’s law
the relationship between voltage, current and
will learn charged particles at different points in a circuit. placed in circuits to control or reduce the size triangle can be used to
that: resistance. Ohm found that the voltage drop
dot points.
an electric circuit. This potential energy can be battery connected to two identical globes in
transformed into sound as it moves through a series may transfer 6 V of energy to each globe.
speaker, or into light and heat if it moves through If the two globes are connected in parallel, each Worked example 7.4B: Calculating resistance
a globe. This means the charged particle electron moving in a globe is able to transform If a 9 V battery produces 6 A of current, calculate the resistance of the circuit.
(electron) has different amounts of energy before all the 12 V into light and heat. Worked V
R= I
and after the speaker or globe. This difference in example 7.4A shows how to calculate voltage.
voltage energy is called potential difference or voltage. Solution
potential difference; the Voltage is measured by a voltmeter or a
difference in the electrical Worked example 7.4A: If V = 9 volts, and I = 6 amperes, then
multimeter in the unit volts (symbol V). To 9 volts
potential energy carried Calculating voltage R= = 1.5 ohms
measure the potential difference in a circuit,
by charged particles at 6 amperes
different points in a circuit
voltmeters are set in parallel across the two points If a 6 V battery is connected to two
Therefore, the resistance in the circuit is 1.5 ohms.
the margin.
battery can be determined by connecting a the electrons will separate at the fork
voltmeter in parallel to the battery. In a 1.5 V in the wires and carry all the energy triangle. a red, white, black
battery, each unit of charge (electron) receives to each lamp. This means the voltage 4 Calculate the current flowing through b yellow, green, red
Figure 1 Each unit of
char e in this batter has 1.5 joules (symbol J) of energy as it passes (potential difference) transformed will a 44 Ω resistor when it has a voltage drop c brown, blue, orange.
. oules o ener . through the battery. be 6 V in each lamp. of 11 V across it.
140 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 7 ELECTRICIT Y 141
Science toolkit
number of shark attacks
Outliers from November to January
outlier
Occasionally the data that scientists
All seedlings except seedling 5 grew
between 3.5 and 4.3 cm. The average Mode 18
a data value that is outside collect (or mean) Low positive correlation
contains a value that is far away from growth of the seedlings (including The mode is the most common number 16
the normal range of all the the main seedling 5) in the sold
group of data. These values are called was 3.4 cm, as shown in Worked set of data. In our set of data, the ms
example 1.4. number 4.0
a standalone chapter
after 3 weeks the seedling 8
of growth (see Table 1). If the average is determined without growth would still be 4.0 cm. An
using outlier does
the height of seedling 5, the average not affect the mode value. 6
becomes No correlation
Table 1 eedlin ro th 3.9 cm. This is a closer representation
of the
Correlation of data
4
Seedling number actual growth. However, is it fair
important Science
so. For values increase at the same rate, it is bet een
4 called a the number o ice creams sold and
4.0 example, the discussion might include the number o
the shark attacks.
5 0.1 statement that ‘Seedling 5 was excluded Low negative correlation
from
6 3.5 the analysis because a fungal infection
its growth.’
affected 1.4 Check your learning
capabilities.
Calculating the mean 2 Define the term ‘outlier’. Describe temperature
when an outlier
should be included in the results.
Determine the average (mean) of Temperature (°C)
the seedling heights shown in Table 3 Define the following terms. Sales ($) High negative correlation
1.
Solution a mean 14.2 215
b median 16.4 325
11.9 3.9A: Investigating pathogens 3.9B: Investigating germ theory
c mode CHALLENGE 185
Go to page 181. EXPERIMENT Go to page 182.
15.2 332
//SCIENCE AS Apply and analyse
18.5 406
4 Draw an appropriate graph for the
A HUMAN ENDEAVOUR// data in Table 2. 22.1 522
a Describe any correlation between
3.9
Perfect negative correlation
the daily 19.4 412
Science as a human
question the accepted idea of supernatural causes 3 The pathogen from a pure culture causes
the disease when inoculated into a healthy and cured his stomach ulcer. Barry Marshall was releasing a chemical that killed bacteria.
of disease was Hippocrates (460–377 BCE). He
susceptible laboratory animal. and Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Australian scientist Howard Florey was then
pathogen concluded that something in the air, soil, water
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2005. instrumental in developing penicillin into
endeavour
Before antibiotics were discovered, a single Physiology or Medicine for their work.
and used animal dissections to explore anatomy. Australian scientists Barry Marshall and
scratch from a thorn on a rose bush could Penicillin works by breaking down the cell
provide scaffolded
Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) was an Robin Warren followed these postulates when
become infected and kill a person. walls of bacteria. As human cells do not have a
Italian astronomer and doctor who was one of the they researched stomach ulcers in 1984.
In 1928, Alexander Fleming was trying cell wall, they are unaffected. This means that
first to suggest that disease could be transmitted Together they discovered that a bacterium
to grow bacteria in his laboratory. When he penicillin will kill the bacteria in your body but
from person to person via small, invisible (Helicobacter pylori ) was found in all patients
• ‘Science as a human
not kill your own body cells. Viruses do not
opportunities for
particles. He theorised that these particles could with stomach ulcers. Most doctors at the time returned from holidays he discovered that
some Petri dishes he had left open on the bench have cell walls. Instead, they have a protein coat
travel through the air, via contaminated clothing thought that no bacterium could survive in the
were growing a mould similar to that found on that surrounds and protects them. This means
or by direct contact with the sick person. It took acidic environment of the stomach. Marshall
bread. There were no bacteria growing near penicillin does not affect viruses, such as
200 years and the discovery of the microscope and Warren isolated the bacterium and injected
students to apply
to confirm his theories and to develop the ‘germ it into mice, causing the disease in the mice. the mould. Being a good scientist, Fleming Figure 4 Robin Warren
Unfortunately, many doctors still did not recognised that further investigation was Most viruses cannot be treated by any le t and arr arshall
theory’ used today.
believe the research, so Barry Marshall ignored necessary. He performed some experiments readily available medicines. (right)
Germ theory states that many diseases are
laboratory safety and swallowed a culture of
their science
the bacteria, causing the disease in himself.
micro-organisms. These micro-organisms are
3.9 Develop your abilities
Figure 1 Some bacteria
a b
keep us healthy. Other Identifying assumptions we have cooked will be hot. Making 3 Identify the assumption that
understanding while
Scientists are always asking questions assumptions is not always a bad thing, other doctors had made about the
and inter ere ith the
and challenging what they know. as long as we are aware that we are cause of stomach ulcers.
natural unctionin o our
body. Robin Warren and Barry Marshall making them. Asking questions is a 4 Identify one assumption that you
asked questions and challenged the way of identifying assumptions that have made in the past week.
understanding. capabilities.
evidence) based on past experiences. 2 Identify how Warren and 6 Describe an invention or
It is a way of saving time and thinking Marshall used each of Koch’s behaviour you would change if
Figure 2 ost in ections are caused b microscopic patho ens such as bacteria or viruses.
a acteria are ver small cells that are able to reproduce b themselves. he can release toxins that a ect space. We assume that the sun will postulates to fi nd the cause of your assumption in question 4
the normal unctionin o our bod . b Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and are unable to reproduce by rise in the morning, that the chair we stomach ulcers. was incorrect.
themselves. nstead, the invade the host s cells and use the or anelles to make ne copies o themselves. sit on will not collapse and that food
his stops the host s cells rom unctionin properl .
68 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 3 CONTROL AND REGULATION 69
7.4C
> Balloons (6 black, 12 white, 18 red)
SKILLS L AB Investigating Ohm’s law reaction. Materials > Timer Discussion
Carbon resistors typically have four > Balloon pump 2 Describe the entry of energy and the final location of the
colour-coded bands > Bromothymol blue > Water
on their case (Figure 1). These bands Look at the resistor in Figure 2. What > Torch energy in a food chain. 1 Identify why the bromothymol blue changed from blue to
are part of a code does its code mean? EXPERIMENT solution in a dropper > Elodea canadensis water
that allows you to work out their approximate 1 The tolerance band is gold, so Aim 3 ‘The energy from the Sun can be thought of as disordered yellow when you blew through the straw.
each chapter.
1st digit 2 Connect the circuit as shown in the resistors. and test tubes C and D in the other rack.
Figure 1. Use the DC 6 You may have observed bubbles forming around the Elodea
2nd digit terminals of the power supply and
start with the dial on 2 V. Results
Table 1 Test tube set-up leaves in test tube A. Identify this gas.
Multiplier 3 Switch on the power supply, take Include your results table.
the readings on the 7 Identify one variable that was difficult to control in this
ammeter and voltmeter, and switch Test tube Set-up
the power off again
straight away (so you don’t overheat
the resistor).
Discussion A Place the paperclip on the end of an Elodea plant experiment. Describe how you could control the variable
Tolerance to weigh it down, and place the plant into the test next time.
4 Change the dial on the power 1 From your results table, identify
supply to 4 V and repeat what the values in the last tube. Place the stopper on the test tube.
Figure 1 A resistor with colour-coded
bands
step 3. Then change the dial to 6 V
and repeat. column calculate.
Place the stopper on the test tube (with no
Conclusion
B
2 For the three masked resistors, Elodea). Describe the photosynthesis reaction and where it occurs.
To read the three other bands, put compare the accuracy of
the tolerance band on the the values you obtained to the values
right and start at the other end. The indicated by their C Place the stopper on the test tube (with no
first two bands form a two- coloured bands. Elodea).
Experiments
0 marked value that may have formed on the Elodea plants.
Brown 1 Discussion 5 Place test tubes C and D in a closed (dark) cupboard
Red 2 4 Identify which value – the one
1 Define the electrical term ‘resistance’. obtained by reading the for 20 minutes. Record any colour changes and count
Orange 3 coloured bands or the one obtained
2 Explain why different resistors from your calculations any bubbles.
may need to be used in – provides the most useful measure
Yellow 4 different circuits. of a resistor’s
solving and critical thinking, and 170 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTS 171
CHAPTER 9 EXPERIMENTS
09_OXF_SCI9_SB_31955_6PP.indd
200-201 201
9/22/21 3:19 PM
HUMANITIES
farming
factors that influence crop yield (such as soil moisture) and how food
practices so
• Take the hard work out of
Australia’s trade economy.
curricular learning.
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including real-time online
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> In addition to online assessment, teachers have access to editable class tests that are
provided at the conclusion of each chapter. These tests can be used as formative or Benefits for
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> Teachers are provided with laboratory support through experiment answer guidance,
laboratory technician notes and risk assessments to ensure safe learning experiences.
In Levels 9 and 10, the curriculum focus is on explaining phenomena involving science and its applications. Students
consider both classic and contemporary science contexts to explain the operation of systems at a range of scales. At a
microscopic scale, they consider the atom as a system of protons, electrons and neutrons, and understand how this system
can change through nuclear decay. They learn that matter can be rearranged through chemical change and that these
changes play an important role in many systems. At a macroscopic scale, they explore ways in which the human body as a
system responds to its external environment, and investigate the interdependencies between biotic and abiotic components
of ecosystems. They develop a more sophisticated view of energy transfer by applying the concept of the conservation
of matter in a variety of contexts. They apply their understanding of energy and forces to global systems including
continental movement. Students explore the biological, chemical, geological and physical evidence for different theories,
including the theories of natural selection and the Big Bang theory. Atomic theory is used to understand relationships
within the periodic table of elements. Students understand that motion and forces are related by applying physical laws.
Relationships between aspects of the living, physical and chemical world are applied to systems on a local and global scale
enabling students to predict how changes will affect equilibrium within these systems.
Chapter 1 Select and use appropriate equipment and technologies to systematically collect and record accurate
Chapter 9 and reliable data, and use repeat trials to improve accuracy, precision and reliability (VCSIS136)
Year 10
Recording and processing
Chapter 1 Construct and use a range of representations, including graphs, keys, models and formulas, to record
Chapter 9 and summarise data from students’ own investigations and secondary sources, to represent qualitative
Year 10 and quantitative patterns or relationships, and distinguish between discrete and continuous data
(VCSIS137)
Analysing and evaluating
Chapter 1 Analyse patterns and trends in data, including describing relationships between variables, identifying
Chapter 9 inconsistencies in data and sources of uncertainty, and drawing conclusions that are consistent with
Year 10 evidence (VCSIS138)
No matter what you buy – toilet paper, a the misleading labelling and advertising. When
smartphone or a bottle of water – you are no response was received, they brought their
being a consumer. As a consumer you make case to a national consumer affairs program.
choices and you expect certain things from the After their case was broadcast, and after
products you buy. further testing of Ribena, the New Zealand
Commerce Commission brought 15 charges
Consumer science case against the manufacturer under the Fair
1 2
parallax error
A parallax error occurs when the eye an error, or inaccurate
is not directly opposite the scale when the reading, that occurs as a
reading is being taken. You can avoid parallax result of reading a scale
errors by making sure that your eye is in the from an angle
correct position when taking the reading. For zero error
example, when reading the level of a liquid in an error that occurs when
a measuring cylinder, place the cylinder on the an instrument has not been
bench and line up your eye with the bottom of adjusted to zero before the
measurement is taken
the meniscus (Figure 3).
A zero error happens when an instrument
has not been correctly adjusted to zero or the
reading has not taken into account the weight of
the empty container. For example, scales must
be set to zero correctly before making a weight
Figure 4 Scales must be
measurement of substances. zeroed correctly before
To check the accuracy of scales, scientists using them.
use a special mass that is known to be exact.
When this is placed on the scale, the weight
Mathematical accuracy
shown by the scale is compared to the known When conducting a scientific investigation,
true mass. If they are the same, then the scale mathematical accuracy is very important. To
is accurate. avoid errors, not only must your equipment be
appropriate and precise, but your calculations
must also be correct. When taking a reading,
you should quote the maximum allowed
number of significant figures (the number significant figures
of digits). This can represent the accuracy of a the number of digits that
measurement or reading. contribute to the overall
Meniscus value of a number
When recording results, it is important
rounding off
to know the number of significant figures
reducing the number
the instrument allows. When adding or
of significant figures by
subtracting numbers, the final answer will be increasing or decreasing
based on the least number of decimal places. to the nearest significant
When multiplying or dividing numbers, the figure; for example, 7.6 cm
final answer can only be quoted correct to is rounded up to 8 cm,
Eye level the number of significant figures in the least 7.2 cm is rounded down
accurate result. For example, if one measuring to 7 cm
device measures 10.22 (four significant figures
and two decimal places) and a second device
Figure 3 To avoid parallax error, make sure measures 20.345 (five significant figures and
your eye is correctly lined up with the bottom of
three decimal places), averaging these results
the meniscus.
means adding the values. This means the final
answer should only have two figures after the
decimal point. This might require a rounding
off procedure. Worked example 1.2 (on page 6)
shows how to calculate significant figures.
Solution
Add the mass of the sand and water together.
As one number has only two decimal places, the final answer
must have two decimal places. The number (1.136) is closer to
1.14 than to 1.13, so 1.14 is more accurate.
Final mass of sand and water = 1.14 g Figure 6 Mixing
sand and water
Solution
Figure 1 How should you As the seedling heights had two significant figures and one decimal place, the final answer must
calculate the average
have one decimal place. The average seedling height is 3.4 cm (3.371 is closer to 3.4 than to 3.3).
growth of seedlings?
The median is the middle value of the data This can be shown on a graph (Figure 3).
after all the numbers have been placed in Correlation shows that there is a
increasing order. For the previous data, this relationship between the two variables; it does
means: not necessarily mean that one variable causes
0.1, 3.5, 3.6, 4.0, 4.0, 4.1, 4.3 the other to change. For example, there is a
↑ positive correlation between the number of ice
High positive correlation
Median creams sold and the number of shark attacks in
The median amount the seedlings grew was Australia. This does not mean that selling ice
4.0 cm. If the outlier is removed, the median creams causes shark attacks. Instead, there is
growth is still 4.0 cm. So the median value of another causative factor: hot weather.
the data is not affected as much by outliers as
Number of ice creams sold and number of shark attacks
the mean/average is. from November to January
Mode 18
Low positive correlation
16 ld
so
The mode is the most common number in the am
s
set of data. In our set of data, the number 4.0 14 cre ks
Ice tt ac
occurs twice (seedlings 2 and 4). ka
12 ar
Sh
This means the mode, or most common
10
amount the seedlings grew, was 4.0 cm. If the
outlier was removed, the mode of the seedling 8
growth would still be 4.0 cm. An outlier does No correlation
6
not affect the mode value.
4
Correlation of data 2
When two sets of data are strongly linked (as one
November December January
changes, the other changes by a similar amount),
the data has a strong correlation. When both Figure 2 There is a positive correlation between
the number of ice creams sold and the number of
values increase at the same rate, it is called a
shark attacks. Low negative correlation
Figure 3 Scientists can identify the similiarites and differences between products or substances.
2 Identify which of the following statements is correct. 13 Identify the meaning of the following prefixes for a
A Correlation means causation. quantity:
B Data is described in the method section of a scientific a mega
report. b micro
C Data is analysed in the results section of a scientific c kilo.
report. 14 Explain why scientists have developed an internationally
D A Safety Data Sheet should include the PPE to be agreed system of units.
used for a chemical.
3 Identify the graph that indicates no correlation between
Apply and analyse
the variables. 15 A consumer scientist wanted to test the effect of a lotion
A B for treating acne. They first tested the lotion on a group of
20 teenagers, all aged 15, but then they decided to conduct
more tests. So they then tested 100 teenagers, all aged 15.
a Identify whether this is an example of experimental
repetition or increasing the sample size.
b Identify which result (using 20 teenagers or
120 teenagers) is likely to lead to the most reliable
conclusion. Justify your answer (by comparing
D the reliability of the test with 20 teenagers to that of
C
120 teenagers and deciding which is more reliable).
16 A scientist was commissioned by a jeans manufacturer
to test various denims. The manufacturer wanted a
more durable fabric than the one they were currently
using. Describe how the scientist might test a fabric for
durability in a fair and objective way. Explain why this is
Short answer questions important.
Research
25 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
Some questions have been included to help you begin
your research. Present your findings in a format of your
choosing.
Figure 2 What results would be expected for the hypothesis » Bottled water
from question 19? Many people in Australia spend a lot of money on bottled
drinking water. Are they doing this because of the way
Evaluate the water is marketed, or are there scientifically supported
21 For the experiment you designed in question 19, health benefits in drinking bottled water rather than tap
evaluate the accuracy of the results that you may water? Is tap water unsafe to drink? Have there been any
measure and suggest what further investigation you could cases where water bottlers have been fraudulent in their
undertake to improve the reliability of your conclusions. claims about the water they are selling? Investigate this
issue. Find out what dentists and medical experts say
22 For the experiment you designed in question 19, about bottled water. Describe the scientific tests that are
assuming you found that the manufacturer’s claim performed to check that the
was correct, create a scientifically accurate slogan or claims are correct and that the
advertisement for the lipstick based on your findings. results that have been obtained
are valid. After researching and
Social and ethical thinking comparing a range of evidence,
23 Two phrases commonly used in advertising are ‘Scientists evaluate whether we should
have proved …’ and ‘Recommended by scientists’. These drink bottled water in Australia
are often accompanied by pictures of named scientists or use tap water. Describe any
who are paid to appear in the advertisement. Discuss limitations of your conclusions
the ethical implications of using these phrases or pictures (e.g. does it depend on where Figure 3 Why do people
of scientists, by completing the following: you live?). drink bottled water?
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 1 ‘Science toolkit’. Once you’ve
completed this chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
Explain the differences between variables, independent variable o back to opic . cientists
and dependent variable in terms of what is controlled, changed can test manu acturers claims
or measured. Page 2
Relate reliability of results to sample size and repetition of the test.
Write a scientific report with all relevant sections.
Define reading error, parallax error, zero error, significant figures, Go back to Topic 1.2
rounding off, SI system and derived units. cientists must be a are o
Explain the importance of minimising experimental error. experimental errors
Page 4
Describe the purpose of Safety Data Sheets and provide examples o back to opic . cientists
of some of the types of information included on them. prepare a et Data heets
Page 8
Describe the differences between positive and negative correlation, o back to opic . cientists
and high, low and no correlation. present their data accuratel
Explain how to deal with outliers in data. a e
Calculate the mean and mode of data.
Describe the factors involved in designing a valid experiment and o back to opic . cience as
explain how to increase the reliability of results. a human endeavour: Scientists
Provide examples of common errors that should be minimised investi ate consumer products
or avoided. a e
Present data in an appropriate manner.
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2.3
Population size
depends on abiotic ECOSYSTEMS
and biotic factors
collaboration
a relationship between
In a community, all organisms interact
with each other. Individuals in a population
Relationships between
organisms of the same may need to collaborate and mate to ensure different species
species working together to
ensure their survival
the species survives. This may also cause
competition for food or shelter. Although some
Symbiosis
mating organisms do not affect other organisms in an Symbiosis is a close physical and long-term
the pairing of a male and relationship between two organisms of different
ecosystem, most organisms are part of a large
female of a species to
network of living things. These relationships species. Mutualism, commensalism and
produce offspring (babies)
may be beneficial or detrimental. Relationships parasitism are all examples of symbiosis.
competition
may be between organisms of the same or Mutualism is a relationship between two
a type of relationship
between organisms using different species. Sometimes two organisms organisms in which both organisms benefit.
the same limited resources from different species form a close relationship. Commensalism is a relationship in which
in an ecosystem This type of relationship is called symbiosis. one organism benefits and the other organism
symbiosis Symbiotic relationships include mutualism, is not affected. Commensalism is relatively rare
a close physical relationship commensalism and parasitism. in the natural world because it is unlikely that
between two organisms of an organism will not be affected in some way
different species
Relationships within a by a relationship with another organism.
species
mutualism Parasitism is a relationship in which one
a type of relationship organism (the parasite) lives in or on the body
between two organisms of There are three types of relationships between of another (the host). The parasite benefits but
different species in which organisms of the same species. the host is harmed.
both organisms benefit
> Collaboration occurs when organisms Some parasites have difficulty travelling
commensalism
cooperate with each other to ensure their between hosts. For example, malaria is a
a type of relationship
between two organisms of
survival. For example, ants leave a trail of single-celled organism (Plasmodium) that uses
different species, in which scent when they look for food, so that other mosquitoes to travel between humans. The
one organism benefits and ants can find the food too. mosquito acts as a disease vector – a living
the other is not affected > Mating between members of the same organism that can transmit infectious diseases
parasitism species produces offspring, thus ensuring between humans, or from animals to humans.
a relationship in which one the survival of the species. When the mosquito sucks blood from the
organism (parasite) lives > Competition occurs when organisms use host, it also ingests some of the parasite. The
in or on the body of the next time the mosquito feeds, it releases the
the same limited resource. For example,
other organism (host) and pathogen into a new host. This is how diseases
benefits while the host is
seedlings from the same species compete
with each other for light and space as such as malaria, Zika virus and dengue fever
harmed
they grow. are spread.
disease vector
a living organism that can
transmit infectious disease
between humans, or from
animals to humans
Figure 2
Mutualism
The anemone fish
Figure 1 Mutualism hides within the tentacles
A lichen is made up of the sea anemone, where
of an alga and a fungus, it is camouflaged from
although you cannot see the its predators. The sea
two organisms separately (except anemone is cleaned of Figure 3 Commensalism
under a microscope). The alga algae by the fish. Sometimes herbivorous animals
produces energy for both through such as cattle and water buffalo
photosynthesis, and the fungus flush insects out of the grass as
provides support and other they wander through. Birds
nutrients. such as cattle egrets feed
on the insects.
Figure 5
Parasitism
Ticks attach to the skin
of animals and slowly
drink their blood. Bacteria
from the digestive system
of the tick can infect Figure 6 Parasitism
the animal. Hookworms attach to the
inner lining of a human or
Figure 4 animal intestine, feeding on
Commensalism passing nutrients. If the host doesn’t
Certain plants rely on eat enough, the worm has been
passing animals to disperse known to burrow out of the intestines
their seeds. The seeds have and travel to other organs,
tiny hooks that attach to where significant damage
animal fur and will usually can be done.
fall some distance from
the parent plant.
Prey
Predator
Time
Figure 7 A predator–prey graph. The scales aren’t shown but the prey numbers are mostly greater than
those of the predators. Notice that the increase and decrease in prey numbers usually comes before the
increase and decrease in predator numbers.
Periwinkle
Limpet
Figure 8 A black periwinkle (Nerita) competes for food with the limpet (Cellana) on a rock platform – both
species feed on algae growing on the rocks. The periwinkle moves faster but does not eat all the algae
in its path, so both can survive because the periwinkles usually leave some algae behind for the limpets.
However, when the periwinkles are removed, the limpet population increases.
many of each species are in a certain location, The number of animals in this second capture
they can make predictions and take certain that are marked are counted (M 2), as well as
precautions to conserve species. the total number caught in the second sample
Regular sampling provides information (N2). An estimate of the population is then
about increases and decreases in population obtained using the following formula:
numbers, and causes can be identified.
Total number of animals = N1 × N2 ÷ M 2
Counting organisms Worked example 2.3 shows how to use the
There are a number of ways to determine the formula to calculate population size.
size of a population. The simplest way would Capture–recapture is a suitable technique
be to count all the organisms, but in practice for estimating the population size of small Figure 3 Using a quadrat
this is rarely possible. It is easier to estimate Australian mammals, such as the marsupial
the total population by counting a sample from Antechinus (the common bush rat). Because
a helicopter, or by using quadrats or capture– most native Australian mammals are nocturnal,
recapture methods. For human populations, the traps may be set at night and checked the
a census is the usual method. next morning.
For plants and stationary animals,
quadrats (randomly selected square plots) quadrat
are marked in an ecosystem (Figure 3). The Worked example 2.3: a randomly selected square
organisms in each plot are counted, an average Calculating plot used to estimate the
is obtained and then (knowing the total area population size number of organisms
of the ecosystem) the estimated number of Scientists wanted to determine the size
organisms in the ecosystem is calculated. of a bilby population in a small reserve.
This method works well if a large number of They used the capture–recapture method
quadrats are used and the organisms are evenly to estimate the size of the population.
spread throughout the ecosystem. They captured and marked 9 bilbies on
For animals that are moving, capture– the first night and 8 bilbies (4 marked) one capture–recapture
recapture is a popular method. Animals are week later. a method of estimating the
captured in traps and marked with tags, number of organisms in an
Calculate the size of the bilby population.
correction fluid or permanent marker on ecosystem by capturing,
Solution marking and releasing a
their tails.
sample of the organisms
The number counted on the first capture N1 = 9 N2 = 8 M2 = 4
is N1. The animals are then released and it is Estimated number of bilbies = N1 × N2 ÷ M 2
assumed that they disperse evenly throughout =9×8÷4
the population. Another capture (recapture) = 18
is made one or two days (or nights) later.
All ecosystems are in a precise balance that Rabbits breed very quickly. A single female
ensures enough food and resources to support rabbit can have up to 14 babies in each litter. If
the community of organisms. Introducing the average female rabbit produces one litter a
or removing a species from an environment month, and these new babies are able to breed
can disrupt this balance and have devastating within six months, the population can grow
effects on other populations in the ecosystem. rapidly (see Figure 2).
160 000
140 000
120 000
Number of rabbits
100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
0
0 1 2 3 4
Year
Figure 2 The potential growth of a rabbit population over four years from a
single female rabbit (assuming unlimited food and no predators).
Echidnas Kookaburras
Termites Kangaroos
Wombats
Frill-necked
Rabbits
lizards
Grasshoppers
Eucalyptus Wattle trees
trees
Grasses
Figure 6 Rabbits compete with grasshoppers, wombats, kangaroos and termites for grass.
Video 2.5B
What is
Ecosystems rely on the transfer of energy
from one part to another. The first source of
What is photosynthesis?
photosynthesis?
energy in most ecosystems is solar energy via Living things need energy to grow and repair,
photosynthesis. Animals cannot directly use to defend themselves, and to move around.
energy from the Sun. Even in caves and The energy in an ecosystem usually originates
other places where there is no light, the from the Sun. Plants, some algae and some
energy may be from dead plants and bacteria are able to transform this light energy
animals, which originally obtained into chemical energy through a process called
their energy from the Sun. An photosynthesis. In this process, water and
exception is chemosynthetic bacteria carbon dioxide are converted into glucose
on the ocean floor and in the craters (a sugar), oxygen and energy. The overall
of volcanoes – these bacteria trap the equation for photosynthesis is:
energy from chemicals and chemical
reactions occurring under the Earth’s carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen + water
crust. 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6 H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Figure 1
Photosynthesis occurs
inside chloroplasts. Outer membrane Stroma lamella
The image shows a
cross-section of two
chloroplasts, seen through Granum
an electron microscope. (stack of thylakoids)
photosynthesis
a chemical process used
by plants to make glucose
and oxygen from carbon
dioxide, sunlight and water
Lumen
(inside of thylakoids)
happen?
a green pigment in
chloroplasts that absorbs
On average, a plant leaf has tens of thousands of solar energy, which is used
cells. A single cell contains 40–50 chloroplasts, by plants in photosynthesis
which contain the green pigment chlorophyll. stomata
Chlorophyll captures the Sun’s light energy and small holes in a plant leaf
Stoma surrounded by guard cells
uses it in the formation of glucose.
that control their opening
Plants do not breathe the same way we and closing; singular ‘stoma’
do. Instead, they take in the carbon dioxide Guard cells
starch
needed for photosynthesis through microscopic a complex form of sugar
pores called stomata (singular ‘stoma’) in that is found in certain
the leaves (Figure 3). The water needed for foods (e.g. bread, potato
photosynthesis enters through the roots and Figure 3 Guard cells open and close the stomata and rice)
travels to the leaves, where the glucose is made of a plant.
in the chloroplasts.
Figure 4 Starch can be stored
Factors that affect in roots and tubers of plants.
During the night there is no
photosynthesis sunlight for photosynthesis,
but plants still need energy
Many factors can affect the rate of to stay alive. Plants break
photosynthesis. If there is not enough light, down starch into
photosynthesis cannot occur. This can be a glucose so that
problem for young plants trying to grow on the they can survive
floor of a rainforest. The taller plants compete at night.
with them for light. Water is also needed for
photosynthesis. In the desert, the lack of rain
can restrict the amount of photosynthesis, and
therefore the amount of glucose produced.
Top
consumer
Secondary
consumers
Primary
consumers
Heat
100 units of energy
Producers
Figure 1 The movement of energy along a food chain can be represented by an energy pyramid. The size
of each trophic level represents the amount of energy being passed on to the next level in the food chain.
Solution
a Only 10% of the energy in an organism is passed on to the next level of the food chain.
Energy passed on to the frog = 10% of 2000 joules
10
= × 2000
100
= 200 joules
The frog would receive 200 joules of the
2000 joules eaten by the grasshopper.
b The remaining 1800 joules would have been
used by the grasshopper for moving, growing
and repairing damage to its body. The chemical
reactions in these processes produce the heat
energy that is released into the environment.
Light energy
ECOSYSTEM
Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts
CO2 + H2O Organic
+ O2
molecules
Cellular respiration
in mitochondria
Water is not available equally in all such as forests and woodlands in tropical
ecosystems. Water that has evaporated from and subtropical areas, as well as savannah Figure 4 A termite mound
an ocean may later fall as rain on a forest grasslands, termites have a major role in the in the savannah of northern
thousands of kilometres away. Australia is an decomposition and recycling of carbon. Australia
example of this situation: some areas may be Termites are social insects and live in nests.
in drought and others may have floods, and You may have seen termite mounds in drier enhanced greenhouse
organisms in ecosystems in both areas may be effect
parts of Australia (Figure 4). Micro-organisms
an increase in carbon
affected by disruption of the water cycle. in the guts of termites break down the cellulose
dioxide and other heat-
of plant material such as grasses, plants and
Carbon cycle wood. Scientists have estimated that termites
capturing gases in the
atmosphere, resulting
Carbon atoms are found as carbon dioxide recycle up to 20 per cent of the carbon in in increased warming of
in the air and in compounds such as sugars, ecosystems such as savannah grasslands. the Earth
proteins and lipids (such as fats) in the bodies
of living organisms. Globally, the return of 2.7 Check your learning
carbon dioxide to the air by respiration is
balanced by its removal in photosynthesis. Remember and understand Apply and analyse
Other ways of returning carbon dioxide to the 1 Define the chemical term 6 ‘You are eating the same atoms
air include the burning of fossil fuels, bushfires ‘matter’. that were in dinosaur poo!’
and the decomposition of dead matter. The Evaluate the accuracy of
2 Describe how matter
natural balance of this cycle is disturbed by this statement (by describing
moves through an
excess burning, which contributes to the how matter moves through
ecosystem.
enhanced greenhouse effect (see Topic 2.9). an ecosystem, describing how
3 Explain what is meant by
Termites recycle carbon the term ‘carbon cycle’. the atoms in dinosaur poo will
change over time and deciding
4 Describe three ways carbon
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, a complex whether the statement is
dioxide can be released into
molecule that is insoluble in water and does correct).
the environment.
not break down easily. Fungi are able to break 7 Contrast (the differences
5 Describe two ways carbon
down cellulose and play a major role in the between) the flow of energy
dioxide can be removed from
decomposition of wood, but they require a in an ecosystem and the flow
the atmosphere.
moist environment, such as can be found of matter in an ecosystem.
in a rainforest. In drier areas of Australia,
increasing the amount of heat that is trapped Table 1 Some of the main effects of climate change
in the atmosphere. This enhanced greenhouse on ecosystems
effect is causing global temperatures to increase. Change Effect
Changes in distribution Extinction of some
Ecological effects of and abundance of organisms if they cannot
species – migration of adapt to new climatic
climate change species north or south, conditions
to higher levels or more
Although many humans welcome the thought
suitable locations,
of warmer weather, small increases in average due to increasing
temperatures can have devastating effects on temperatures hibernation
climate systems (the average temperature, a state of inactivity of an
Changes in the Increased weeds and organism, usually as a
wind, sunshine, humidity and rain that occurs number of different other invasive species
result of low environmental
in an area – see Table 1). In mountainous types of organisms in (i.e. pests)
temperature
areas, plants and animals that need cooler ecosystems (e.g. due to
moist environments to survive are losing their species competition for
resources or invasion of
habitats as the snowline retreats higher up the
weeds/pests)
slopes. One such animal is the mountain pygmy
Changes in metabolic Changes in life-cycle
possum (Figure 4), which needs a snow depth
processes (e.g. events (e.g. breeding,
of at least 1 m to provide enough insulation for cellular respiration, migration)
hibernation. Less snow means the cycle of photosynthesis, growth
hibernation and breeding is disrupted. This will and tissue composition)
make it difficult for the possum to breed, and Ocean acidification due Increased coral
could result in it becoming extinct. to carbon dioxide being bleaching and
converted to carbonic destruction of
acid in the ocean and/or changes
to coral reefs
Changes in river flows, A lack of water,
sediment formation and causing extinction and
nutrient cycles increased toxic algal
blooms due to floods
Drying of ecosystems Decrease in coastal
mountain rainforests Figure 5 Increased
carbon dioxide levels in
the atmosphere cause the
ocean to become acidic.
As a result, the polyps
Figure 4 The mountain pygmy possum is listed as in the coral die, causing
an endangered species. bleaching.
production (billion)
agriculture (GL)
9000 $12
8000 $11
7000 $10
Gross value of irrigated
agricultural production
6000 $9
(right axis)
5000 $8
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Figure 2 Modern farming involves using water more wisely.
b
If cool burning is repeated each year, the spread over larger areas. Some scientists predict
slow limited burning reduces the release of that droughts may also become increasingly
greenhouse gases (especially methane and frequent in all areas of Australia. This will
nitrous oxide) and the carbon remains trapped have an impact on the types of crops that
in the unburnt large trees and bushes. can grow in many areas.
In 2010, Australia’s chief scientist
Modern needs made some recommendations to enable
As the population of Australia has increased, us to maintain the food production
so too has the need for food. This need must be needed to feed Australia and the rest of
balanced with maintaining the biodiversity of the world while minimising the effect on the
the unique Australian ecosystem. ecosystem.
In Australia, we currently have plenty > Coordinate programs that maintain current
of food, thanks to a strong agricultural food production levels.
community. Irrigation of large areas ensures > Research methods and crops that would be Figure 3 Scientists are
that the crops are able to survive. As shown in able to cope with drought conditions. developing ways to use
Figure 2, Australian farmers have become more > Develop methods that allow more efficient water more efficiently.
effective in their use of water, protecting this a Traditional irrigation
use of water and nutrients in agricultural
b Modern micro-
important resource for future generations. areas. irrigation system
In 2018, tropical Cyclone Debbie hit the > Encourage more scientists and engineers to
coast of Queensland, causing major property work in agriculture.
damage, power outages and millions of dollars This means that agriculture is looking
of damage to Australia’s sugar-cane industry. to science and technology to help maintain
Global warming is expected to cause storms of a balance between food production and
this magnitude to become more frequent and biodiversity of the environment.
4 Identify two ways to define ‘ecosystem’. 16 Seed banks are an important way of preserving plant
species that are at risk of decreasing populations or
5 Compare (the similarities and differences between)
extinction. It involves storing collections of seeds from
mutualism, parasitism and commensalism.
all areas of the world. Explain how a seed bank could
6 Describe the process of photosynthesis. contribute to sustainable ecosystems and to biodiversity.
7 Identify the products of photosynthesis that are essential 17 Limpets graze on algae on a rock platform. The large
for cellular respiration. limpet, Lottia, is found in a territory containing micro-
algae; the smaller species, Acmea, is found on the edge of
8 Explain, using examples, how competition can occur
this territory (Figure 2).
between members of the same species and members of
different species. a Identify one possible hypothesis (reason) for this
situation.
9 If only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred along
b Describe an experiment you might set up to test
a food chain (like the one in Figure 1 on page 32),
whether your hypothesis is correct.
describe what happens to the rest of the energy.
10 Cellular respiration in your cells provides the energy
for all your metabolic processes. Identify four cellular Lottia Rock platform
processes that require energy from respiration. Acmea
Define biosphere, ecosystem, biotic, abiotic, habitat, population o back to opic . ll livin thin s
and community. are dependent on each other and the
Describe an ecosystem as the interaction between the abiotic environment around them’
conditions and the biotic community. Page 18
Identify the main factors that increase and decrease population size. o back to opic . opulation si e
Identify suitable species to use quadrat and capture–recapture depends on abiotic and biotic factors’
sampling methods with. Page 24
Explain the processes involved in photosynthesis. o back to opic . ner enters the
Relate the structure of the chloroplast to its function. ecosystem through photosynthesis’
Page 30
Explain that energy is passed through ecosystems through food o back to opic . ner lo s
chains in the form of glucose. through an ecosystem’
Relate photosynthesis and respiration in terms of reactants and Page 32
products, but recognise that they are not reversible versions of
each other.
Explain the main processes involved in the water and carbon cycles. o back to opic . atter is
Relate the water and carbon cycle to the cycling of matter through recycled in ecosystems’
ecosystems. Page 36
Describe some of the adaptations some Australian plants have o back to opic . atural events
to fire. can disrupt an ecosystem’
Provide examples of natural events that can disrupt an ecosystem. Page 38
Describe the enhanced greenhouse effect and its causes. o back to opic . uman activit
Provide examples of human activity that disrupts ecosystems. can disrupt an ecosystem’
Page 40
Compare the historical uses of ecosystems with modern practices. o back to opic . cience
as a human endeavour: Human
management of ecosystems continues
to change’
Page 42
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REGULATION
Things can go wrong with
3.5 the nervous system
Responding to change
Within our bodies, we regularly respond
to changes without being aware of a
stimulus stimulus and response. What makes
any information that the you aware that you’re hungry or
body receives that causes thirsty? Something in your body is
it to respond
communicating with your brain to
receptor tell you to find food or water. A similar
a structure that detects process occurs when you feel tired or have a
a stimulus or change in headache. What is the source of these stimuli?
the normal functioning
Other examples of stimuli are less obvious.
of the body
We are surrounded by bacteria, viruses and
fungi. Although many of them are too small
to see, our bodies are constantly monitoring
their numbers and fighting off harmful
micro-organisms. Figure 2 We often respond to hot weather by
Your body is an amazing combination of drinking more.
cells, tissues, organs and systems, all working
together. Each plays a part in detecting stimuli
and passing on the information to other parts The sense organs
of the body. The structures that receive stimuli Our body can detect five main signals: light
are called receptors. (sight), sound (hearing), chemicals in the air
Figure 1 The human (smell) and in our mouth (taste), and touch.
papillomavirus (seen
These are external senses because they tell us
here under a microscope)
stimulates an immune about the world outside our body. The sense
response in the organs – the eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin
human body. – are highly specialised to receive stimuli from
the environment.
Sight
Sight tells us more about the world than any
other sense. The pupils change size to control
how much light enters the eye. The different
types of photoreceptor cells at the back of the
eye transform the light into nerve signals for the
brain. It is not only your eyes that allow you to
Hearing
The strumming of a guitar causes the
particles in the air to vibrate. This in turn Figure 5 The large ears of
some bats help them use
causes your eardrum to vibrate. The vibrations
sound waves to locate
are transferred along the bones of the middle their prey.
ear – the smallest bones in your body – and
converted into nerve impulses. The brain then
interprets the information, telling you what you
are hearing.
Eardrum
Figure 8 The tongue is covered in bumps, called papillae, which contain tastebuds that enable us to taste.
A supertaster has many more papillae than average, and a non-taster has fewer.
Mucus provided by
nasal sinuses helps to Smell receptors above nasal cavity
trap bacteria and stimulate olfactory bulb, which
small particles. sends messages to brain.
Air travels to
Figure 9 Elephants use Air enters nose trachea and
their trunks for a wide through nostrils. into lungs.
range of smelling tasks,
such as sensing danger. Figure 10 Smell receptors in human nostrils detect chemicals and send messages to the brain.
Sweat pore
Epidermis
Papillae
Subcutaneous
fat layer
Sweat gland
Direction of
impulse
Axon
Control centre
Sensory neuron Interneuron
Motor
neuron
Effector
Response
Figure 1 The stimulus–
response model
Figure 2 A reflex action ensures that your hand pulls away from the flame very quickly, even before you
feel the pain.
Figure 3 Grasp reflex. When an Figure 4 Sneezing reflex. When Figure 5 Startle reflex. When a
object is placed on a baby’s palm, their small particles land on receptors in the newborn baby is startled, they will fling
fingers curl over and grasp it. back of your nose, the muscles in your their arms out wide and grab anything
diaphragm force air out rapidly. they touch.
Brain
The brain is the processing centre of the
body and is mainly concerned with your
Lumbar nerves survival. It is a soft, heavy organ
surrounded by a tough skull. The
Sacral nerves interneurons in the brain gather information
about what is going on inside and outside the
body. It then compares the information to
events that have occurred previously, before
making decisions about things such as internal
changes and movements. The brain is also
home to your memories, personality and
thought processes.
make up the central nervous system. work together. Use an example to somatic nervous system
illustrate your answer. the part of the nervous system
2 Describe the role or function of the
5 Explain why, if you slipped and hit the that controls the muscles
peripheral nervous system. attached to the skeletal system
back of your head, everything might go
Apply and analyse black. autonomic nervous system
3 Draw a scientific diagram of the brain the part of the nervous
6 Contrast (the differences between)
system that controls
that shows the four lobes. In each of the the somatic nervous system and the
involuntary actions such
lobes: autonomic nervous system. as heartbeat, breathing
a write the functions that are carried out 7 Describe the possible effect on and digestion
in that lobe behaviour that would occur if a
b draw something to remind you of the person had damage to the frontal lobe
functions carried out in that lobe. of their brain.
The nervous system plays a very important role called a disc, which is filled with a thick fluid,
in coordinating and regulating your body. Things or gel, and allows the vertebrae to move. If a
that can go wrong with the nervous system include disc becomes weak and puts pressure on the
the spinal cord being damaged (paraplegia), nerves entering or leaving the spinal cord, this
things pressing on the nerves in the spinal cord will cause pain or numbness along the nerve.
(slipped disc), the myelin sheath in neurons being Treatment usually involves pain relief, along
damaged (multiple sclerosis), the motor neurons with exercises that strengthen the muscles in
failing (motor neurone disease) and damage to the the back. Occasionally, surgery is required to
neurons in the brain (Alzheimer’s disease). remove the damaged part of the disc.
Alzheimer’s disease
Nucleus
Video 3.6
The endocrine system is a collection of
glands that secrete (release) hormones.
Fight, flight or freeze?
The endocrine
system The hormones are secreted directly into the If you are ever in a dangerous or frightening
bloodstream and then travel around the body situation, you may experience a ‘fight, flight or
endocrine system through the blood. Some cells in the body freeze’ response. You break out in a cold sweat,
a collection of glands that have receptors that match the hormone, like your heart beats wildly, everything around you
make and release hormones a lock to a key. These cells are called target seems to slow down and your senses bombard
hormone cells. It only takes one hormone ‘key’ to cause you with information.
a chemical messenger a change in the target cell ‘lock’. Most of these symptoms are triggered by
that travels through blood the release of the hormone adrenalin (also
The glands and organs of the endocrine
vessels to target cells called epinephrine). Adrenalin is constantly
system are spread throughout the body (see
target cell Table 1 and Figure 1). produced by the adrenal glands in small doses.
a cell that has a receptor that
matches a specific hormone
Table 1 Some organs and hormones of the endocrine system
Organ Hormone Target tissue Main effects
Hypothalamus Wide range of Pituitary gland Sends messages from nervous system to the
neurohormones pituitary gland to control functions such as
body temperature, hunger, thirst and sleep
patterns
Ovaries Progesterone Uterus Thickens wall of uterus to prepare for
pregnancy
Oestrogen Body cells Development of female sexual characteristics;
aspects of pregnancy and foetal development
Testes Testosterone Male reproductive Development and control of male sexual
system, body cells characteristics; production of sperm
Pancreas Insulin Liver, most cells Lowers blood glucose level
Glucagon Liver Raises blood glucose level
Pituitary gland Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid Changes the rate of thyroxine release from the
hormone thyroid
Antidiuretic Kidneys Reduces the amount of water reabsorbed
hormone from the kidneys
Pituitary growth Bones, muscles Stimulates muscle growth; controls the size of
hormone bones
Thyroid gland Thyroxine Body cells Affects rate of metabolism, and physical and
mental development
Parathyroid Parathyroid Blood Regulates the amount of calcium in the blood
glands hormone
Adrenal glands Adrenalin Body cells Increases body metabolism in ‘fight or flight’
response
Pineal gland Melatonin Skin cells Involved in daily biological rhythms
Panic attacks
Sometimes the ‘fight, flight or freeze’ response
can be triggered without any obvious reason.
This means adrenalin can flood the body,
causing the heart to pound, breathing to
become fast and shallow, and a flood of sensory
information to stimulate the brain. When this Ovaries Testes
occurs, lights appear brighter, sounds are louder
FEMALE MALE
and smells stronger. These sensory messages can
become jumbled as the brain struggles to make
sense of all the information. This combination
of endocrine and nervous system responses is
called a panic attack. These symptoms are not
life threatening and will eventually disappear.
Support from friends and family can help.
Glucose increases
Liver changes glucose
to glycogen
Blood sugar level
Healthy
glucose
level
Glucose decreases
Liver releases its
glycogen store as glucose 1 hour 2 hours
Pancreas receptors Time after eating
respond
Figure 5 After you eat, your blood glucose levels
and release glucagon
increase. The body’s response is to release insulin,
Figure 3 The pancreas and the liver work together which causes the muscle and liver effectors to
to maintain healthy glucose levels in the body. remove the glucose and restore homeostasis.
Water content
Brain Brain
of the blood normal
produces produces
more less
ADH ADH
Figure 3 In 2013, Lance Armstrong admitted to Figure 4 Anaemia can make you feel tired when exercising.
injecting erythropoietin to help him win world
cycling events.
Infectious pathogens can disrupt the normal functioning of the called pathogens. Germ theory was confirmed
by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
body and cause disease. There are many types of pathogens,
Robert Koch went on to develop a set of
including bacteria, fungi, protozoans and viruses. Koch’s rules, known as Koch’s postulates, that provide
postulates are used to provide evidence that a pathogen evidence that a pathogen causes a disease.
causes a disease. Penicillin and other antibiotics can be used 1 The micro-organism or other pathogen is
present in all cases of the disease.
to kill bacteria, but not viruses or other pathogens.
2 The pathogen can be isolated from the
One of the first people in Western medicine to diseased host and grown in the laboratory.
question the accepted idea of supernatural causes 3 The pathogen from a pure culture causes
of disease was Hippocrates (460–377 BCE). He the disease when inoculated into a healthy
pathogen concluded that something in the air, soil, water susceptible laboratory animal.
a microbe that can cause and food caused diseases in humans and animals. 4 The pathogen is re-isolated from the new
disease His work was followed up by Claudius Galen host and is shown to be the same as the
(131–201 CE), who was a doctor to the gladiators, originally inoculated pathogen.
and used animal dissections to explore anatomy. Australian scientists Barry Marshall and
Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) was an Robin Warren followed these postulates when
Italian astronomer and doctor who was one of the they researched stomach ulcers in 1984.
first to suggest that disease could be transmitted Together they discovered that a bacterium
from person to person via small, invisible (Helicobacter pylori) was found in all patients
particles. He theorised that these particles could with stomach ulcers. Most doctors at the time
travel through the air, via contaminated clothing thought that no bacterium could survive in the
or by direct contact with the sick person. It took acidic environment of the stomach. Marshall
200 years and the discovery of the microscope and Warren isolated the bacterium and injected
to confirm his theories and to develop the ‘germ it into mice, causing the disease in the mice.
theory’ used today. Unfortunately, many doctors still did not
Germ theory states that many diseases are believe the research, so Barry Marshall ignored
caused by the presence and actions of specific laboratory safety and swallowed a culture of
micro-organisms. These micro-organisms are the bacteria, causing the disease in himself.
Figure 2 Most infections are caused by microscopic pathogens such as bacteria or viruses.
a Bacteria are very small cells that are able to reproduce by themselves. They can release toxins that affect
the normal functioning of our body. b Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and are unable to reproduce by
themselves. Instead, they invade the host’s cells and use the organelles to make new copies of themselves.
This stops the host’s cells from functioning properly.
Cool Wait
Open flask
Wait
Treatment with antibiotics killed the bacteria and discovered that the Penicillium mould
and cured his stomach ulcer. Barry Marshall was releasing a chemical that killed bacteria.
and Robin Warren were awarded the Nobel Australian scientist Howard Florey was then
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2005. instrumental in developing penicillin into
a form that could be mass-produced. Both
Antibiotics scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Before antibiotics were discovered, a single Physiology or Medicine for their work.
scratch from a thorn on a rose bush could Penicillin works by breaking down the cell
become infected and kill a person. walls of bacteria. As human cells do not have a
In 1928, Alexander Fleming was trying cell wall, they are unaffected. This means that
to grow bacteria in his laboratory. When he penicillin will kill the bacteria in your body but
returned from holidays he discovered that not kill your own body cells. Viruses do not
some Petri dishes he had left open on the bench have cell walls. Instead, they have a protein coat
were growing a mould similar to that found on that surrounds and protects them. This means
bread. There were no bacteria growing near penicillin does not affect viruses, such as
the mould. Being a good scientist, Fleming influenza, coronaviruses or the common cold.
Figure 4 Robin Warren
recognised that further investigation was Most viruses cannot be treated by any (left) and Barry Marshall
necessary. He performed some experiments readily available medicines. (right)
immune system
a system of organs and
The role of your immune system is to protect
you against foreign invaders by physically
Second line of defence
structures that protect an stopping them from entering your body, and Viruses, unlike bacteria, contain a protective
organism against disease to identify and attack them if they do manage coating that allows them to more easily slip
white blood cell to enter. Your immune system has three lines through the first line of defence. If a pathogen
an immune system cell that of defence against pathogens, each with a gets inside your body, the body tries to remove
destroys pathogens it in one of two ways.
different role.
phagocyte First, a general ‘seek and destroy’ approach
an immune system cell that
surrounds, absorbs and First line of defence occurs regardless of the type of pathogen. This
is called a general or non-specific immune
destroys pathogens The first line of defence is to stop pathogens response. The key parts of the non-specific
from getting inside your body (Figure 1). It immune response are:
consists of the skin and mucous membranes.
> blood clotting – to stop additional infection
through skin damage
Tears wash > inflammation – to increase the number of
Eyes, ears, nose, mouth pathogens
and genitals are usually blood cells reaching an infected area
out of the eyes.
exposed to the air and/or > fever – some pathogens cannot survive at
environment, so pathogens Ear wax captures
high temperatures, so heating up the body is
can enter. Mucous pathogens trying
to enter through one way to destroy them.
membranes are thin
skin-like linings of these the ears. Second, white blood cells are produced by the
entry points. Chemical body to destroy pathogens. Inflammation increases
barriers here assist in the amount of blood reaching the infected area, so
defence. Slimy mucus can more white blood cells are able to attack the
capture and kill some pathogen. The white blood cells may also release
bacteria. chemical messengers that increase the amount of
fluid in the infected area, causing swelling.
Skin is thick, waterproof There are different types of white blood
and difficult to damage. cells. Each type has its own role but they all
Oils and sweat help work together. Phagocytes (Greek for ‘cells
protect the skin. In dry that eat’) are part of the non-specific immune
conditions, bacteria are response. They surround and absorb pathogens,
damaged and destroyed destroying them in a process called phagocytosis
by the salt and
(Figure 2).
antimicrobial chemicals
in these secretions. Urine is slightly
acidic, which
makes it harder
Third line of defence
for bacteria to Any pathogens that survive the non-specific
grow. secondary response are targeted according to
their type. This is called a specific immune
Figure 1 The skin and mucous membranes are the first line of defence against
response.
pathogens.
Pathogen binds
here. Region
a Pathogen is
binds
specific
here. to theis
Region
pathogen
specific to the
Bacteria pathogen
Phagocyte ‘recognises’ Phagocyte ingests bacteria Phagocyte digests bacteria
the bacteria by ‘flowing’ around them using enzymes
Figure 2 The process of phagocytosis
The specific immune response has two placenta from the mother. Antibodies are also
forms of attack. B cells produce special passed to babies through breast milk.
molecules called antibodies. These antibodies Another way to acquire immunity is by
fit exactly onto a specific part of the pathogen ingestion or injection with specific small parts b Antibody
Antigen
(Figure 3). Each antibody will fit only one of the pathogen. This is called vaccination, or Antibody
Antigen
section of the pathogen. This causes the inoculation. A vaccine can be made up of:
pathogens to become locked together and stops > the dead pathogen
them invading. > a living but non-virulent (weakened) form
T cells then recognise the same specific of the pathogen
pathogen and attack and kill it. B and T cells > parts of the broken-up pathogen
may take up to a week to recognise and destroy
> genetic material from a viral pathogen.
a pathogen. This is why recovering from an Pathogen
Through vaccination, a person makes
illness takes time.
antibodies and memory cells that will recognise Figure 3 aPathogen
Each antibody
Both B and T cells keep some memory has a region that is
the pathogen in the future, which usually leads
cells alive, just in case the pathogen tries to specific to a particular
to immunity. Vaccinations are often given as a pathogen. b Antibodies
invade again. This means the pathogen will be
preventive measure. For instance, the influenza cause pathogens to
attacked and killed before it can cause damage a
vaccine is recommended for people over 65 years clump together.
second time. Your body will be protected from
of age because complications from influenza can
reinfection in the future. You are now immune.
be life-threatening in older people. Vaccination
Unborn babies obtain some natural
can also be given when there is an urgent need to B cell
immunity by receiving antibodies through the
provide immunity, such as preventing Covid-19. an immune system cell
For example, the modified genetic material that produces antibodies in
from the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus can be used response to pathogens
for vaccination. This means a person will have antibody
antibodies and T cells already activated in their a molecule produced by
body to prevent the virus from causing damage B cells that binds to a
and Covid-19 symptoms. specific pathogen
A virus is Antibodies Exposure to T cell
killed or are made by the active Figure 4 A person can become protected or immune an immune system cell
weakened, the person virus results actively through vaccination, or passively by that recognises and kills
and given to but there in a fast antibody antibodies being passed on to them in breast milk pathogens
the person. is no illness. response. from their mother when they are a baby.
memory cell
an immune system cell
3.10 Check your learning produced in response to
an infection; retains the
Remember and understand 5 Compare the different types of vaccines. memory of how to fight the
1 Describe the body’s major first line of 6 Describe how a vaccine prevents a pathogen
defence. person from ‘catching’ a disease. immune
7 Newborn babies cannot be vaccinated able to fight an infection as
2 Describe one other way the body can
against whooping cough until they are a result of prior exposure
prevent pathogens from entering.
2 months old. The antibodies in breast vaccination
3 Describe in your own words how the
milk are not enough to protect them from an injection of an inactive
non-specific immune response works. or artificial pathogen that
this deadly disease. Explain why it is
Apply and analyse important for everyone who comes into
results in the individual
becoming immune to a
4 Compare (the similarities and contact with the baby to be vaccinated particular disease
differences between) the second and third against whooping cough.
levels of defence.
The immune system coordinates attacks on attacking it. Inflammation occurs, resulting
pathogens that are trying to disrupt the body. in an increased amount of blood reaching the
The coordination of all the cells and chemical area. Fluid leaks out of the blood vessels and
molecules is very complex, and can easily be the area becomes red and swollen. This also
disrupted. contributes to a runny nose and watering eyes,
as your body tries to flush out the pollen.
allergy
an overreaction by the
Hay fever and other Phagocytes also invade the area in an
immune system in response allergies attempt to destroy the pollen. If you have been
exposed to the pollen before, then your body
to pollen, dust or other
Allergies result when your immune system will already have antibodies that speed up this
non-pathogens
mistakes a harmless substance as dangerous. reaction. In extreme cases, the person’s throat
anaphylaxis
This means the body overreacts. A common will swell shut, making it difficult to breathe.
a life-threatening
overreaction by the example is plant pollen, mainly from grass but The large amount of fluid leaking from the
immune system to a also from trees, which can cause hay fever. blood vessels can also cause the blood vessels
normally harmless When the pollen gets in your eyes or nose, to collapse. This life-threatening response is
substance your second and third lines of defence start called anaphylaxis.
4 Once in contact
with your eyes and
3 Hot summer days nose, pollen causes
1 One tree can
with no breeze allow irritation, sneezing
produce millions
pollen to build up. and itching
of pollen spores.
(inflammation).
2 Grass pollen
is the most common
cause of hay fever.
Identify the five senses and the receptors associated with each type Go back to Topic 3.1 ʻReceptors detect
of stimulus. stimuliʼ
Relate the structures of the sense organs to the types of stimulus Page 48
they receive.
Describe the passage of information through a neuron, across the Go back to Topic 3.2 ʻNerve cells are
synapse and to the next cell. called neuronsʼ
Explain how sensory, motor and interneurons communicate Page 52
information around the body.
Describe the stimulus–response model. Go back to Topic 3.3 ʻThe nervous system
Relate reflex action with potentially life-saving actions. controls reflexesʼ
Page 54
Describe the roles of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous Go back to Topic 3.4 ʻThe central nervous
system, somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. system controls our bodyʼ
List the lobes of the brain and describe their main functions. Page 56
Provide examples of diseases and problems affecting the Go back to Topic 3.5 ʻThings can go wrong
nervous system. with the nervous systemʼ
Relate the importance of myelin sheath to motor neurone disease. Page 58
Describe the fight, flight or freeze response. Go back to Topic 3.6 ʻThe endocrine
system causes long-lasting effectsʼ
Page 60
Describe the function of erythropoietin and how athletes may use it Go back to Topic 3.8 ʻScience as a human
to improve their performance in sporting events. endeavour: Hormones are used in sportʼ
Page 66
Describe some of the body’s first-line defence mechanisms against Go back to Topic 3.10 ʻThe immune system
infection. protects our body in an organised wayʼ
Compare naturally acquired immunity with vaccinations. Page 70
Describe the immune response during an allergic reaction. Go back to Topic 3.11 ʻThings can go
Describe the common symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and wrong with the immune systemʼ
type 1 diabetes. Page 72
Describe the cause of HIV and relate it to the development of AIDS.
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your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
TECTONIC
PLATES
4.2 The Earth has a solid core
4.5 What will the Earth look » What if the two portions are
like in the future? moved apart?
Continental drift
that are moving. The large moving areas
include both the continental and oceanic crusts.
Figure 1 Alfred Wegener One form of evidence is the similarities in Geologists call these moving areas tectonic
pioneered the theory
shape between the coastlines of Africa and plates. ‘Tectonic’ means ‘building’, so tectonic
of continental drift in
his book The Origin of South America. They seem to fit together like plates are the ‘building blocks’ of the Earth.
Continents and Oceans. a jigsaw puzzle. In the early twentieth century, The movement of the plates explains the
German meteorologist Alfred Wegener put this existence of landforms such as continental
idea and other evidence into a book in which shelves (flat areas under shallow water
continental drift he outlined the theory of continental drift. between the beach and the ocean) and deep
the continuous movement He proposed that the continents once all fitted trenches in the ocean floor. It also explains how
of the continents over time together in a giant continent known as Pangaea. earthquakes and volcanoes are distributed,
continental shelf Wegener proposed that Pangaea was a and the very young age of parts of the sea
a flat area under shallow supercontinent that existed 220 million years floor. Plate tectonics is an example of how
ocean water at the edge of a ago. When it started to break up, the continents a scientific hypothesis can be suggested,
continent slowly drifted apart as they moved through the discounted, modified and then revived.
plate tectonics
the theory that the surface
of the Earth consists of
pieces, known as plates,
that are continually moving
Africa
India
Fossils of the fern
Glossopteris, found
in all the southern
continents, show that
Figure 2 Given that the South America Australia
they were once joined.
fossil fern Glossopteris
cannot walk, swim or
fly, how can its isolated
occurrence in so many Antarctica
different parts of the world
be explained?
Sea-floor spreading
The idea of sea-floor spreading was proposed sea-floor spreading
by US geologist Harry Hess. His evidence came the theory that the middle
from the discovery of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, of the ocean is spreading
a continuous mountain range in the middle of apart, forming new
oceanic crust
the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 3). Hess’s original
hypothesis was that the liquid mantle of melted
rock (magma) under the tectonic plates is
moving, creating convection currents. This Ridge
movement
moving mantle deep inside the Earth causes the
tectonic plates to spread and move apart.
If convection currents occur within the
Earth’s mantle, then rising hot magma pushes
up, creating a ridge crest. It is pushed to one
side by more rising magma, and the ridge splits
and moves apart. As it is pushed away, the
Ridge
surrounding rocks are under a lot of pressure,
causing a rift zone and shallow earthquakes.
Mid-Atlantic
A rift zone is an area where the lithosphere is
being pulled apart (Figure 4). As the mantle
rock moves away from the magma and ridge
crest, it carries the sea floor with it, like a
piggyback ride. The liquid magma rock cools,
becomes denser and eventually sinks back into
the mantle. Figure 3 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge provided evidence
of sea-floor spreading.
Mantle
Figure 4 Tectonic plate movement. The rift zone is the circled area.
Crust Continental
Mantle crust
Convection currents
ranging from 4000°C to 6000°C. The heat of the surface of the
comes from nuclear reactions, and some of Earth; movement of
tectonic plates can cause
the heat is left over from when the Earth was In liquids and gases, thermal energy can
earthquakes
formed. The outer core gives the Earth its move by convection. Tiny currents, called
convection currents, carry the thermal magma
north and south poles and magnetic field.
semiliquid rock beneath
The temperature of the inner core is almost energy. It is the convection currents in the
the Earth’s surface
10 000°C, but it does not melt or boil because of magma that cause the tectonic plates to
convection
the force of the rest of the Earth pushing down move. The mantle closest to the Earth’s
the transfer of thermal
on it. Of course, no geologist has ever seen the core gains thermal energy. This means the
energy by the movement of
core. Even the deepest mines only penetrate a molecules in the magma move faster. Because molecules in air or liquid
few kilometres of the Earth’s crust. they move faster, they take up more space from one place to another
and become less dense. As a result, the heated convection current
The moving crust magma near the core begins to rise to the the current or flow of air or
surface, leaving room for cooler magma to liquid that results from the
The crust is broken into a number of pieces, take its place. The heated magma cools as transfer of thermal energy
called tectonic plates. These plates float on it reaches the Earth’s crust. As it cools, it is by convection
the semiliquid magma at the top of the mantle. pushed to one side as more heated magma
The speed of movement is similar to that of arrives. This causes the tectonic plates that
fingernail growth: between 1 cm and 10 cm per form the crust to move. Cool magma is more
year. Sometimes the tectonic plates crash into compact and dense, and so it sinks, following
one another, causing one plate to slide under the the convection cycle.
LEGEND
Ring of fire
Figure 1 The ring of fire is an area around the Pacific Ocean where a large number of volcanoes are found. This provides hints of
a tectonic boundary.
Ocean-to-continent
collision
When oceanic crust collides
with continental crust, the denser
oceanic landform is subducted or
pushed downwards into the mantle.
The top crust is pushed upwards and
creates a line of mountains along the
crumpled edge (Figure 5). It can also create
volcanoes as heat rises up through cracks in the Figure 4 The San Andreas
crust. An ocean trench may form at the line of Fault, which runs along
the western coast of
plate contact.
California, USA
Figure 2 Transforming boundary: one plate slides
against another
Active volcano High mountain range
late
tal p
Ocean trench nen
C onti
late
an ic p Subduction zone
Oce
Converging boundaries
At converging plate boundaries, two plates move High mountain range
towards each other. There are generally three types
of converging boundaries, depending on the plates
ne
involved. If one plate is denser (the particles are ion zo
Collis
more tightly packed together), it will sink beneath
the other plate. This is known as subduction. e
plat Continental plate
Mountain ranges, volcanoes and trenches can all
nental
be formed by converging boundaries. C onti
Many of the world’s major landforms are
formed by the collision of plates at converging
boundaries. Figure 6 Continent-to-continent collision creates high mountain ranges.
late
Line of undersea
an ic p
volcanoes Oce
Figure 8 The East African rift valleys may represent the initial stages of the breaking up of a continent.
Linear sea
Arabian Plate
Mid-ocean ridge Continental
crust
Rift
4
Red Sea
Oceanic crust
African Plate
Figure 9 The Red Sea has formed as the African Figure 10 How diverging boundaries form oceans
and Arabian Plates have diverged.
The boundaries between the tectonic scale. The earthquake was centred 140 km off
plates create a lot of pressure as the coast and sent a 10 m high wall of water
they try to move against each towards coastal towns and cities. The tsunami
other. This pressure can be wave also travelled away from Japan, right
released suddenly in the across the Pacific Ocean, and was experienced
form of an earthquake, as far away as North and South America, the
which in turn can form Pacific Islands and even in northern Australia
a tsunami. as a small wave.
Japan is the most seismically active
Earthquakes country in the world because it lies near the
tsunami
a series of large waves that
result from an underwater
earthquake
Figure 2 Volcanic
eruptions can cause
tsunamis.
a
Tsunami wave
spreads
Subduction
Figure 3 a How an earthquake causes a tsunami b The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami in
northern Japan in 2011
Mantle
Figure 4 How the Hawaiian Islands were formed.
(Only the largest islands are shown.) Hot spots
Hot spot result from magma pushing through the thin crust
of the Earth.
a b c
d e f
Figure 5 Evidence of volcanic activity on the Hawaiian islands: a rocks that appear to flow into the sea formed from old lava flows,
b mountains rising out of the sea, c and d volcanic rock formations, e steam rising from craters and f lava flowing from active vents
Darwin
Cairns
Broome
Tropic of Cap
ricorn
Alice Springs
Brisbane
Perth Sydney
Adelaide
Canberra
0 400 800 km
Melbourne
LEGEND
Major earthquake Earthquake Tsunami
since 2000 (magnitude) risk risk
5.0 to 5.9 High High
4.0 to 4.9 Moderate Moderate Figure 6 Australia:
3.0 to 3.9 Low Low Hobart earthquake and
tsunami risk
Eurasian Plate
North American
Plate
African Plate
Pacific Plate
Nazca
Plate
South American Indo-Australian
Plate Plate
Antarctic Plate
temperatures and increasing atmospheric oxygen. activity. Rift valleys will form, causing the
These changes will have significant effects on supercontinent to split up once more.
organisms as massive extinctions occur and Scientists believe that, in the next few
different organisms emerge. The supercontinent decades, progress in geology is likely to reveal
will insulate the Earth’s mantle, concentrating more about the Earth’s inner workings, making
the flow of heat and resulting in more volcanic plate forecasting easier.
Africa
Eurasia
North
PACIFIC OCEAN America
South
America
Australia
Antarctica
Figure 4 Amasia is a possible supercontinent modelled by geologists. Figure 5 Pangaea Ultima: the world in 250 million years,
according to predictions by Scotese
4 Match the following terms with their definitions. 15 Examine Figure 1, which shows a topographic image of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Explain how this provides evidence
Term Definition of sea-floor spreading.
Mantle Central part of the Earth
Crust Layer of hot, semi-molten rock below the
crust
Oceanic crust Theory that states that the continents
move through oceanic crust
Continental Theory that states that large plates of the
crust Earth’s crust gradually move
Plate tectonics Less dense crust containing continents
Tectonic plate Hot liquid rock that comes up from the
mantle
Continental drift Thin, semi-rigid outer layer of the Earth
Convection Large area that may include continent and
current sea floor
Magma Dense crust under the sea floor
Core Movement of liquids or gases caused by
the rising of hot material
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 4 ‘Tectonic plates’. Once you’ve
completed the chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
Define continental drift, continental shelves, sea-floor spreading o back to opic . s the arth
and plate tectonics. shrinkin or movin
Describe evidence that supports the theory of plate tectonics. a e
Explain the process of sea-floor spreading.
Define crust, mantle, core, tectonic plates and magma. o back to opic . he arth has a
Describe the layered structure of Earth and explain why the crust solid core
floats on the magma. a e
Describe the interactions between plates that occur at o back to opic . oundaries
transforming, converging and diverging boundaries. between the tectonic plates can be
Relate each of the types of boundaries with characteristic land conver in , diver in or trans ormin
formations. a e
Describe how the Hawaiian Islands may have formed from a o back to opic . ectonic plates
hotspot. can be constructive or destructive
Provide examples of natural events that occur because of plate a e
interactions.
Relate constructive and destructive boundaries with diverging
and converging boundaries.
Describe the directions of and likely collisions between the main o back to opic . cience as a
continental plates. human endeavour: What will the Earth
Provide examples of technologies that are used to observe and look like in the uture
predict plate tectonics. a e
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your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
MATTER
5.3 Atoms have mass
What if?
Aluminum atoms
5.5 Ions have more or less electrons What you need:
Strip of aluminium foil, scissors,
microscope
What to do:
5.6 Isotopes have more or less neutrons 1 Each piece of aluminium foil
contains atoms of aluminium. Use
the scissors to cut your piece of
aluminium in half.
2 Cut one of the pieces in half again.
3 Repeat step 2 until your piece of
Isotopes can release alpha,
5.7 beta or gamma radiation 4
aluminium is too small to cut.
Examine the piece of aluminium
using the microscope.
What if?
Although we cannot see atoms, there is much English scientist John Dalton was fascinated
evidence that this basic form of matter exists. by this research and in 1810 he stated:
In around 450 BCE, the Greek philosopher
Matter, though divisible in an extreme
Democritus said:
degree, is nevertheless not infinitely
By convention there is colour, by divisible. That is, there must be some point
convention sweetness, by convention beyond which we cannot go in the division
bitterness, but in reality there are atoms of matter ... I have chosen the word ‘atom’
and the void. to signify these ultimate particles.
Democritus was a natural philosopher. He Dalton was one of the first scientists to
did not carry out experiments, but proposed consider the link between elements and atoms.
hypotheses based on thought and reasoning. He was the originator of what is now called the
atomic theory Over the next 1500 years, scientists tried many atomic theory.
the theory that all matter is experiments to detect these invisible particles
made up of atoms
Dalton’s atomic theory
that make up all life on Earth.
By the 1780s, French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier was convinced that matter could not One of the pieces of evidence that Dalton
be created or destroyed. Like many scientists published was the weights of atoms compared
of the time, he was interested in the study of to that of the lightest atom, hydrogen. He
mixtures in ‘invisible’ air. He burned hydrogen assigned weights to atoms such as oxygen,
with oxygen and found that water was carbon and nitrogen, using the results
produced, confirming that water is a molecule, of chemical analysis carried out by other
H 2O, rather than a single atom. chemists on compounds such as ammonia
(NH 3), water (H 2O) and carbon dioxide
(CO2).
Evidence such as this led Dalton
to propose the law of simple multiple
proportions. It means that when elements
combine, they combine in simple ratios
(see Figures 2 to 5). For example:
> 2:1 in water – two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom bond to form one water
molecule (H2O)
> 1:4 in methane – one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms bond to form one methane
molecule (CH4)
> 2:3 in aluminium oxide – two aluminium
atoms bond with three oxygen atoms to form
a molecule (Al2O3).
This might seem obvious to us, but only
because of Dalton’s atomic theory. This theory
Figure 1 Antoine Lavoisier measured the gave scientists a way to explain the evidence
composition of chemical compounds. about atoms.
O Evidence supports
O
atomic theory
Figure 2 An oxygen molecule is made up of two
A scientific theory is written to explain existing
oxygen atoms.
evidence and observations. A good theory
supported by a range of evidence can be used
H H to make testable predictions. Ever since Dalton
O first proposed his atomic theory, it has been
used to make predictions, and evidence that
was not available in Dalton’s time supports
Figure 3 A water molecule is made up of one
his theory.
oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.
> Elements can join together to form
compounds.
> Water always contains twice as much
O C O hydrogen as oxygen.
> When chemicals react with each other, the
total mass of the chemicals does not change.
Figure 4 Carbon dioxide is made up of one carbon > Pure oxygen has the same properties
atom and two oxygen atoms. wherever it is found on the Earth or even
in space.
H > Gases, some of which are invisible, have
mass and different gases have different Figure 6 An ammonia
masses. molecule
C > Modern scanning tunnelling microscopes
H H produce images of surfaces that look
‘bumpy’.
H
> Under a microscope, tiny particles of pollen
Figure 5 Methane is made up of one carbon atom in water move in strange ways as if bumping
and four hydrogen atoms. into invisible objects.
subatomic particles
particles that are smaller
Discovering more Rutherford’s experiments
than atoms about atoms on atoms
electron Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand in
A century after Dalton proposed his theory, in
a negatively charged
the early twentieth century, the physicist Joseph 1871. His experiments changed the way people
particle in the nucleus of
John Thomson discovered that atoms were thought about the inside of the atom. In 1911, he
an atom
actually divisible and were made up of even supervised Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden,
Thomson plum pudding
smaller subatomic particles (particles that are who carried out what is known as the ‘gold foil’
model
an early model of the smaller than atoms). His experiments showed experiment (Figure 2). They set up a very thin
atom in which the that inside the atom are far smaller, negatively layer of gold foil and fired a stream of alpha
positively charged nucleus charged particles, which we now call electrons. particles at it. Alpha particles are very small,
has negatively charged He also showed that an atom contains positively charged radioactive particles that
electrons scattered through positively charged material, although it was contain energy. Detectors were set up around
it, like a plum pudding the gold foil to record the path of the radioactive
not yet clear what this material was. From this
discovery, and knowing that oppositely charged particles. This would identify whether the
– objects attract each other and move towards particles had gone straight through the foil or
– each other, Thomson suggested that the atom had been deflected (made to change course)
–
is like a plum pudding, in which the positively by the gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil. If
– –
charged material is the ‘cake’ and the electrons the plum pudding model was correct (that the
– –
are the fruit. The positive and negative charges positive and negative charges were distributed
– – are mixed uniformly througout the atom in uniformly throughout the atom), then the alpha
– what was called the Thomson plum pudding particles should shoot straight through the
model of the atom (Figure 1). neutral (no charge) gold foil by passing through
Figure 1 Thomson’s plum the gaps between the gold atoms (Figure 3).
pudding model of the atom Two aspects of the results surprised the
scientists. The first evidence was that, while
Gold foil
most of the alpha particles did pass straight
through the gold foil, some alpha particles were
deflected in different directions (Figure 4).
Even more surprising was the second piece of
evidence. A small number of the alpha particles
bounced straight back in the direction that they
had come from.
Rutherford concluded that, instead of being > The mass of the atom is almost entirely due
nucleus
like a plum pudding, a gold atom must contain to the mass of the protons and neutrons in the centre of an atom,
a lot of space, with a small positive charge in the the nucleus; electrons have very little mass containing protons
centre that deflected the positive alpha particles. in comparison. (positive charge) and
With his gold foil experiment, Rutherford had > Electrons move around in the space outside neutrons (no charge)
discovered a small, positively charged nucleus in the nucleus. proton
the centre of the gold atoms. Huge parts of atoms are empty space. a positively charged
subatomic particle in the
If you expanded one atom to the size of
Rutherford’s model of the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the nucleus
nucleus of an atom
the atom
neutron
of that atom would be no bigger than a
a neutral (no charge)
pinhead.
subatomic particle in the
Rutherford’s model has been supported by An important thing to know is that, nucleus of an atom
further research on the structure of the atom. overall, an atom has no electrical charge. In
The current accepted model of an atom is other words, there is always the same number
as follows. of positive protons as negative electrons in
> The nucleus of an atom is made up of any atom.
protons and neutrons.
> Protons carry a positive electric charge.
> Neutrons are neutral – they have mass but
no electric charge.
> Electrons have a negative electric charge.
Nucleus
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Electron shell
Figure 5 A two-dimensional model of an atom of
the element lithium. Figure 6 Imagine the size of a pinhead compared to the Melbourne Cricket Ground.
–
Size is relative nucleus. Because atoms are always neutral (no
overall charge), the number of electrons in
A gold atom might seem heavy if you compare an atom is always the same as the number of
– +
+ it to a helium atom. But if you compare it to protons (the atomic number). Figures 1 and 2
+
–
an elephant, an atom is extremely small! To show examples of two common atoms.
measure something by comparing it with
something else is called relative measurement. Atomic number = number of protons
neutron Relative scales are often helpful when
+ proton
objects or events are being compared. Relative
– electron
scales are used when it is more important to Protons determine names
know the differences between objects and
Lithium There are many ways to group the different types
events than the actual measurement (size,
Number of protons = 3 of atoms. As the mass of an atom is too small to
mass, time). The following conversation uses
Atomic number = 3 be easily measured, and some atoms have similar
Number of neutrons = 4
relative measurements.
properties, scientists use the number of protons
Mass number = 7
Number of electrons = 3 ‘Mum, Chloe’s been in the shower twice to give an atom its name. An atom with 8 protons
as long as I was.’ is always called oxygen, while an atom with 19
Figure 1 A lithium atom, protons is always called potassium.
‘I know, but you used three times as
with mass number 7
much shampoo.’
and atomic number 3
Being able to compare the masses of
Representing atoms
different atoms is important when investigating When it is important to show the number of
the behaviour of different atoms and elements. particles within each atom, the method of
It is not so helpful to know the actual mass of representation shown in Figure 3 can be used.
atoms, partly because the mass is so small. The elements can be presented in a periodic
– – table (Figure 4). In a periodic table, the
–
Mass number
elements are arranged according to the number
+
+
+ +
of protons in their atoms. The vertical columns,
– + –
+ +
+ On the relative atomic scale, the mass of a called groups, consist of elements that behave in
proton is given a value of 1. Neutrons have similar chemical ways. The horizontal rows are
–
– –
almost the same mass as protons, so they called periods.
also have mass of 1 on this scale. Therefore,
Oxygen the mass of an atom (its mass number) Mass number
Number of protons = 8 (total number of protons Symbol of
can be worked out by counting how many
Atomic number = 8 and neutrons) element
Number of neutrons = 8
protons and neutrons there are in the nucleus.
Remember that electrons aren’t included in
A
Mass number = 16
Number of electrons = 8 the mass number, because they are so light in
Figure 2 An oxygen
atom, with mass number
16 and atomic number 8
comparison to the particles in the nucleus.
For example, a helium atom that contains
two protons and two neutrons has a relative
Z
X
mass of 4. A carbon atom that contains six
protons and six neutrons has a relative mass of Atomic number
mass number
a number that represents
12. The total number of protons and neutrons (total number of
the total number of protons in an atom is also called the mass number. protons)
and neutrons in the centre Atoms are given different names according Figure 3 The conventional representation
of an atom to the number of protons they have in the of an element
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.95 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.95 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 97.00 101.07 102.91 106.40 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
57
6 Cs Ba to Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 71 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 209.00 210.00 222.00
Caesium Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
89
7 Fr Ra to Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og periodic table
223.00 226.03 103 267.00 270.00 269.00 270.00 270.00 278.00 281.00 281.00 285.00 286.00 289.00 290.00 289.00 294.00 294.00
Francium Radium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson a table in which elements
Metals are listed in order of
their atomic number, and
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 grouped according to
Rare earth elements La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
similar properties
Lanthanoid series 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.4 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
group
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 a vertical list of elements in
Actinoid series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr the periodic table that have
227.03 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.00 243.00 247.00 247.00 251.00 252.00 257.00 258.00 259.00 260.00
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
characteristics in common
METALS NON-METALS OTHER period
alkali metal actinide diatomic non-metals metalloids (in chemistry) a horizontal
alkaline earth metal transition metals polyatomic non-metals unknown chemical properties list of elements in
lanthanide post-transition metals noble gases
the periodic table
Figure 4 A periodic table of the elements
In Topic 5.3 you examined how the periodic Evidence for electron shells shell diagram
a diagram that shows the
table is arranged into groups (columns) and
periods (rows). This arrangement is determined Many substances give off coloured light number of electrons in
by the electronic configuration, and therefore when a small sample is introduced into a each electron shell around
flame. This light can be seen through a a particular atomic nucleus
the chemical properties of the element. The
group number tells you the number of electrons spectroscope – an instrument that breaks the valence shell
light up into a pattern of coloured lines. This the outermost electron
in the valence shell. For example, atoms in
pattern is known as an emission spectrum shell in an atom
group 1 have one electron in their outer shell. that contains electrons
Atoms in group 17 have seven electrons in (Figure 4) and is unique for each element.
Bohr explained this by saying that a particular emission spectrum
their outer shell. This can be seen in Figure 3. the pattern of wavelengths
The periods of the periodic table indicate the atom is given energy in a flame. The electrons
(or frequencies) that
number of electron shells that are occupied. absorb the exact amount needed to jump from
appear as coloured lines in
For example, oxygen is in period 2, group 16. their normal shell to one further out from the a spectroscope; it is unique
This means it has two electron shells, with six nucleus. He described the electrons as being to each element
electrons in the outer valence shell (as you saw in excited. Because this higher energy state is
Figure 2). unstable, the electrons then jump back to
their normal levels almost instantly. The extra
energy that the electrons no longer need is
Number of valence electrons released as light energy. The wavelength of
1 8 the light (and therefore its colour) represents
2 3 4 5 6 7 the energy difference between each electron
shell. This unique combination of colours
(or spectrum) is linked to a particular type
of atom (element) with its unique number of
electrons arranged in shells. This spectrum is
therefore like the ‘fingerprint’ of that element.
Figure 3 The valence electrons This is how flame tests work.
Figure 4 The emission
spectrum of hydrogen
Loses 2 electrons
Gains 1 electron
e–
+
Na Cl Na+ Cl–
Figure 2 A sodium atom loses an electron to become a positively charged cation. Chlorine gains an
electron to become a negatively charged anion. In this way, salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is formed.
Name and Electron Electron Metal or Change Charge of ion Name and Figure 3 To remember
symbol of configuration configuration non-metal? formula of the difference between
atom of atom of ion ion cations and anions, think
Oxygen (O) 2,6 2,8 Non-metal Gained 2 –2 Oxide (O2–) of a positive CATion.
electrons
Chlorine (Cl) 2,8,7 2,8,8 Non-metal Gained 1 –1 Chloride (Cl–)
electron
Sodium (Na) 2,8,1 2,8 Metal Lost 1 +1 Sodium (Na+)
electron
Calcium (Ca) 2,8,8,2 2,8,8 Metal Lost 2 +2 Calcium
electrons (Ca2+)
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
44.95 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.95 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.39
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.4 107.87 112.41
Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
57
to Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
71 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59
Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury
104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
89
to
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
103
(205) 105 (271) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285)
Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium
Figure 1 Some atomic numbers and atomic masses in the periodic table
Carbon-12 is the most common form of relative atomic mass of the element. For relative atomic mass
carbon atom in the natural world. Of all the example, almost all carbon atoms exist as the average mass of an
natural carbon on the Earth, only 1.1 per cent the carbon-12 isotope and only a very small element, including the
mass and prevalence of its
is carbon-13 atoms (6 protons and 7 neutrons), proportion is present as the two heavier isotopes.
different isotopes
and an even smaller quantity is carbon-14 Therefore, the relative atomic mass is only just
atoms (6 protons and 8 neutrons). above 12. The relative atomic masses of the
Like most elements, carbon has more elements are usually shown in the periodic table,
than one naturally occurring isotope correct to one or two decimal places. Be careful
(Figure 2). In these cases, chemists use the not to confuse atomic masses in the periodic
average mass of the isotopes of the element for table (which are decimals) with their atomic
calculations. This average mass is termed the numbers (which are always integers).
Oxygen-16
10 20
36 29
30 34
radioactive decay
the conversion of a
Isotopes and radioactive Beta particles are produced when a
neutron in the nucleus decays into a proton and
radioactive isotope into decay an electron. The electron is the beta particle
its stable form, releasing that leaves the atom. An example of beta decay
energy in the form of In Topic 5.6, you learned about isotopes.
Hydrogen, for instance, has three isotopes: is the decay of carbon-14 to nitrogen-14:
radiation
hydrogen-1 (1H), hydrogen-2 (1H) and
1 2
radionuclide
hydrogen-3 (1H).
3 14
6 C→ 14
7 N+b
a radioactive isotope
alpha particle While the number of neutrons can vary,
The beta particle has very little mass, so the
a radioactive particle having too many or too few neutrons results in
mass of the new nucleus formed is very similar
containing two protons an unstable nucleus that decays radioactively.
to the original carbon-14 nucleus. As the beta
and two neutrons; can be In the first 20 elements, stable nuclei have a
stopped by a piece of paper particle is released, a neutron in effect becomes
similar number of neutrons and protons.
a proton, so the atomic number of the resulting
beta particle This process of decay causes the emission
a radioactive particle nucleus increases by one.
of radiation and is known as radioactive
(high-speed electron Gamma rays are high-energy
decay. Hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 are stable,
or positron) with little electromagnetic rays, similar to X-rays, that
but hydrogen-3 is unstable and breaks down.
mass; can be stopped by are emitted after alpha particle or beta particle
aluminium or tin foil Therefore, hydrogen-3 is a radioactive isotope
emission when the nucleus is still excited.
and is called a radionuclide. Radionuclides
gamma rays An example is when cobalt-60 decays to
high-energy
occur naturally but they can also be
manufactured in a nuclear reactor. form nickel-60:
electromagnetic rays
released as a part of
Types of nuclear radiation Co →
60 60
radioactive decay; can be 27 28 N+b+g
stopped by lead
Alpha (a), beta (b) and gamma (g) radiation
all originate from an unstable nucleus. An Alpha
alpha particle is identical to a helium
nucleus. It contains two protons and two Beta
neutrons. Americium-241, which is commonly
used in smoke detectors, is an example of Gamma
an alpha particle emitter. Its nucleus decays
to neptunium-237, which is a more stable
isotope.
The decay of americium-241 to
neptunium-237 can be shown in a nuclear
equation: Paper Thin Thick
plates plate of
241 made of lead,
95 Am→ 237 4
93 Np + 2 a wood, iron,
aluminium, other
Figure 1 Smoke detectors In a nuclear equation, the mass numbers etc. metals
contain a radioactive on each side of the arrow add to the same
source, usually Figure 2 The relative penetrative power of alpha, beta
value. In this case, they both add to 241. This and gamma radiation. Alpha particles are stopped
americium-241.
demonstrates that the total mass of the particles by paper. Beta particles are stopped by aluminium
before and after the decay is the same. foil. Gamma rays can only be stopped by lead.
CAREERS IN RADIATION
A nuclear medicine technologist uses medical
imaging to help radiologists diagnose illnesses.
Before the first patient arrives, the technologist
must measure the amount of radioactivity
delivered to the department. The isotope, in
Figure 1 Radiation can damage the structure of liquid form, is drawn up into the required
DNA molecules. amounts and added to ‘cold’ kits so that the
2 Rows of the periodic table are called: reactors. In an uncharged atom, calculate how many:
A groups a protons are present
B periods b neutrons are present
C valences c electrons are present.
D electron configurations. 16 Only 0.7 per cent of the uranium atoms in naturally
3 Use the periodic table on page 101 to identify the correct occurring uranium exist as uranium-235. The other
statement about calcium. isotopes present are uranium-234 (0.01 per cent) and
uranium-238 (99.3 per cent). Identify the symbols for
A It is in period 2.
the other two uranium isotopes.
B It has an atomic number of 20 and a mass of 40.08 .
C Its electron configuration is 2,8,6,2.
D It has six electron shells.
Define electrons, Thomson plum pudding model, nucleus, protons o back to opic . toms are made
and neutrons. up of subatomic particles’
Describe the Rutherford model of an atom. a e
Define ion, anion and cation. o back to opic . ons have more
Relate the number of electrons in the valence shell to whether the or less electrons’
atom will become an anion or a cation. Page 104
Define isotope and relative atomic mass. Go back to Topic 5.6 ‘Isotopes have
Describe the structure of an isotope compared to an atom. more or less neutrons’
Explain how the relative mass of an element is calculated. Page 106
Define radioactive decay, radionuclide, alpha radiation, beta radiation Go back to Topic 5.7 ‘Isotopes can
and gamma radiation. release alpha, beta or gamma
Describe the relationship between a half-life and the number of radiation’
atoms of a substance. Page 108
Describe how the half-life of a radioisotope can be used to determine Go back to Topic 5.8 ‘The half-life of
how old something is and explain how carbon dating works. isotopes can be used to tell the time’
Page 110
Describe the effects of radiation on the human body. Go back to Topic 5.9 ‘Science as a
Provide examples of the use of radiation in medicine. human endeavour: Radiation is used
in medicine’
Page 112
Check your Student obook pro for these Check your Teacher obook pro for these
digital resources and more: digital resources and more:
Chapter quiz
Compete in teams to test Test your understanding Launch a quiz for your students on key concepts in this chapter.
your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
When atoms form chemical bonds with each as the friction of a match striking the matchbox,
Video 6.1
Endothermic and other to form molecules, energy is released. or a match lighting a fire. Once those bonds
exothermic reactions Chemical bonds can be broken by adding are broken, the atoms will start to rearrange
more energy (e.g. heat). Stable molecules, such themselves to form the new product.
as water, require a large amount of energy to
break the chemical bonds between the atoms. Exothermic reactions
Unstable molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide
exothermic reaction In an exothermic reaction (exo means ‘to
(hair bleach), require very little energy to break
a chemical reaction that give out’; thermic means ‘heat’), the product
releases energy in the form
the chemical bonds between the atoms.
molecules are more stable than the reactant
of heat or light You may have noticed that a test tube or molecules. This means the atoms go from a
beaker sometimes feels warmer or cooler when high-energy reactant molecule to a low-energy
the starting reactants rearrange their atoms to product molecule (Figure 1a). The extra energy
become the product molecules. This is because, from an exothermic reaction is released, usually
in a chemical reaction, either chemical energy is as heat, light or both. An exothermic reaction
converted to heat energy (so the test tube feels can be as fast as a match burning or as slow as
hot) or heat energy is converted to chemical the rusting of iron.
energy (so the test tube feels cold).
Endothermic reactions
Energy changes in reactions The opposite of an exothermic reaction is
endothermic reaction Before a chemical reaction can occur, energy is an endothermic reaction. Endothermic
a chemical reaction that first needed to break the chemical bonds between reactions occur when low-energy molecules
absorbs energy in the form the atoms in the reactant. This energy usually react to produce high-energy molecules.
of heat comes from the surrounding environment, such If the reactant molecules gain energy from
their surroundings (e.g. from the Sun, from Cold packs reduce the swelling and pain
a Bunsen flame or thermal energy from the caused by injuries. Instant cold packs usually
surrounding environment) then the atoms can contain ammonium nitrate, which undergoes
form new higher-energy molecules (Figure 1b). an endothermic reaction when the inner bag is
An example of this is photosynthesis. The broken. This causes the salt to dissolve in water,
atoms in water and carbon dioxide gain energy removing heat energy from the water and using
from the Sun to form the high-energy glucose it to make ammonium nitrate solution, which
molecule. As the atoms gain energy from their is a high-energy molecule. This cools the water
environment, the surrounding molecules can and makes the bag feel cold.
lose thermal (kinetic) energy and become cooler.
Bases
touch and smell, but it is often not safe to do so.
A safer alternative is to use an indicator.
Bases are the ‘chemical opposite’ of acids. An indicator is a substance that changes
They are bitter to taste and feel slippery or colour in the presence of an acid or a base.
soapy to touch. Bases that dissolve in water are Some of these substances are found in plants.
called alkalis, and solutions that are formed by In the laboratory, scientists use litmus
these soluble bases are described as alkaline paper and universal indicator. Litmus paper
solutions. is the most common indicator for quickly
Bases have many uses. They react with fats testing whether a substance is an acid or a base.
and oils to produce soaps. Some bases, such as Litmus paper turns red in acidic solutions and
ammonia solution, are used in cleaning agents. blue in basic solutions. Universal indicator is
Figure 1 Sodium One very effective base is household cloudy a mixture of different indicators and is more
hydroxide, a base, is ammonia. Sodium hydroxide is used in the accurate because it indicates the strength of the
used to make soap. manufacture of soap and paper. It is also used acidic or basic solution that it is testing.
pH is important when
cooking. Foods that pH is important pH is important in
are more acidic tend in the environment a range of cleaning
to keep better products
Hydrochloric
acid Water Baking soda Ammonia Caustic soda
Lemon Apple Banana
Coral reef ecosystems are a bit like ability of molluscs (such as sea snails) and
rainforests: they are home to a huge diversity crustaceans (such as lobsters), to produce
of species. Coral reefs also help protect protective shells, which are also made of
coastlines from erosion. But coral reefs around calcium carbonate. A lower pH of ocean water
the world are now struggling. One problem is also affects many species of marine organisms
that the coral itself is built from a base called that reproduce by ejecting sperm and eggs.
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is most If the number of successfully fertilised eggs
stable when the water is pH 8.0 to 8.5. When decreases and some of these species die out,
fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide is this will affect the entire food chain and
released into the atmosphere, and some then therefore the diversity of species that can
dissolves in the ocean and causes the ocean’s survive. The Bering Sea near Alaska has the
pH to decrease very slightly. This affects the lowest pH of any ocean in the world: pH 7.7.
Figure 2 Coral reefs are made of the weak base calcium carbonate, which dissolves in acid.
Chemical reactions are happening all the time. As rainwater condenses from water vapour
Video 6.4A
Acid rain They affect living and non-living systems and in the air and falls, it can dissolve carbon dioxide
involve all sorts of substances. Understanding from the atmosphere. A product of this reaction
these chemical reactions allows us to control is a weak acid, called carbonic acid (H2CO3). As
Video 6.4B
Acid lakes
some of them, start others, or use them to our a result, rainwater isn’t pure water: it’s a dilute
advantage. weak acid with a pH of 5 or 6.
Vehicles, factories and volcanoes all give
Acids reacting with metals off pollutants that enter the atmosphere.
These pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2)
When an acid reacts with a metal, hydrogen
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which may also
gas is produced, as well as a salt. The general
dissolve to produce much stronger acids such as
reaction is:
sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)
in rain. The result is acid rain. Acid rain can
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
have a pH as low as 3. Acid rain damages
many types of stone, plastic and metal. It also
Some metals, such as magnesium, react
changes the pH of soil, which can kill the plants
rapidly with acids. Magnesium reacts with
that live there.
hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride
and hydrogen gas. The word equation is: Acid rain is corrosive to building
materials, marble and limestone (Figure 1).
magnesium + hydrochloric acid →
magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Metal etching
The reaction between metals and acids is used
in many industries. One example is the use
decorative metal for jewellery, belt buckles or
artwork. A design is drawn on the metalwork
and a protective resin is applied to the area.
When the remaining areas are exposed to a
strong acid, a reaction occurs that causes the
metal to become a salt. The protected areas do
not react, allowing the design to appear.
Undesirable acid–base
reactions
One problem caused by carbon dioxide and
certain other gases in the atmosphere is acid rain. Figure 1 Acid rain damage on a limestone statue
100
90
80
% Corrosion (rust)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
pH
Figure 3 Corrosion at different pH levels, in the same time period
Reactions involving oxygen For less reactive metals, such as iron, the
chemical reaction still produces heat, but it is
Oxygen is an element that is key to our survival. slow. When an iron object is left out in air and
We rely on oxygen to provide us with energy moisture, the iron molecules in contact with the
through cellular respiration (see Chapter 2). oxygen become oxidised and form iron oxide.
Oxygen makes up 21 per cent of our atmosphere This is the flaky, red-brown rust that forms on
and it is a key component in many exothermic the surface of objects.
chemical reactions.
iron + oxygen → iron oxide
Metals reacting with oxygen
When a metal element reacts with oxygen, a The problem with rust is that it is porous.
metal oxide metal oxide is formed: Liquid water can penetrate through the rust
a molecule containing a to the metal below, as can oxygen. This allows
metal and oxygen metal + oxygen → metal oxide the chemical reaction to continue and the
metal oxide can continue to form, often unseen
Some metals are more reactive than others. beneath the surface.
When these metals react with oxygen, they
produce a lot of heat in an exothermic reaction.
For example, if magnesium metal is briefly
exposed to a flame or is heated, it will react
with the oxygen in the air, producing a brilliant
white light (Figure 1). Never watch this reaction
directly, because the light can damage your eyes.
Both reactions give out a lot of heat energy. When the oxygen supply is more limited,
The first reaction can cause explosions and the for example when a candle burns in a poorly
second is what happens when coal burns. The ventilated space, less heat energy is released and
products of these reactions are described as poisonous carbon monoxide gas is produced.
non-metal oxides. Carbon monoxide can be deadly: it replaces the non-metal oxide
oxygen in our blood, which can kill. the product of a reaction
Combustion reactions between a non-metal and
hydrocarbon fuel + limited oxygen → oxygen
When you see something burn, you are
carbon monoxide (poisonous) + water vapour
witnessing a substance reacting with oxygen
+ some energy
in a chemical reaction. The amount of energy
released in this exothermic reaction can be huge.
It is in the form of heat energy and light energy –
which we see as a flame – and sometimes sound
energy as well. The products of these reactions
are always carbon dioxide and water.
—
use, cost, safety and efficiency are considered.
Fuels can also be chosen according to the H C C O H
—
amount of pollution they release compared to
H H
the amount of energy they can produce.
Figure 2 The chemical structure of ethanol. The
In most applications, the reactions used
letters represent the elements carbon, hydrogen
are combustion reactions. Power stations, and oxygen. The lines represent bonds between the
generators, engines and motors are designed atoms, keeping them together as one molecule.
so that the combustion of fuels is controlled.
Examples of fuels we typically use in vehicles, Ethanol blends are being increasingly used
aircraft and generators are petrol, diesel and for road vehicles in many countries.
kerosene. Why are these alcohols suitable for use in
If you have a gas stove and a gas hot water this way? One reason is that ethanol mixes well
service, then the fuel you are using is natural with petrol and burns well in engines. The
gas, which is mainly methane. Coal and natural equation for the combustion of ethanol is:
gas are fuels that are mainly used in power
stations. Australia has huge supplies of brown ethanol + oxygen →
coal and a good supply of natural gas. carbon dioxide + water + energy
DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS
A 2016 report by Oxfam suggests that making
use of biofuels compulsory could not only cause
more problems for the environment, but it
could also increase poverty.
The biggest difficulty is that land is needed
to produce the biofuels crops. This would result
in further clearing of natural forests, but these
forests help remove carbon dioxide from the Figure 3 Large areas of Amazonian rainforest are being cleared to grow
atmosphere. Although the growth of biofuel soybeans for biofuel.
crops will temporarily absorb carbon dioxide
as the plants grow, their combustion will
ultimately release the carbon dioxide back into
the atmosphere.
Also, the use of agricultural land to grow
biofuel crops will prevent the use of that land
for food production. This will limit food
production and drive up the cost of food,
contributing to food insecurity, hunger and
inflation, which will hit poor people hardest.
» Phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid has a wide variety of uses, including
fertiliser, rust remover and food additive. It is even an
ingredient of cola drinks. Describe how it is produced
and more about its uses.
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 6 ‘Chemical reactions’. Once you’ve
completed the chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
Define and describe exothermic and endothermic reactions in terms Go back to Topic 6.1
of energy released or absorbed. ‘Endothermic reactions absorb
Provide examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions. energy and exothermic reactions
Explain that the energy stored in chemical bonds can be released release energy’
when bonds break. Page 118
Define alkalis, alkaline, indicator, litmus paper, universal indicator, Go back to Topic 6.2 ‘Acids have a
pH scale and neutral. low pH. Bases have a high pH’
Provide examples of acids and bases. Page 120
Explain the structure of the pH scale (7 is neutral, <7 is acidic, >7
is basic).
Describe key characteristics of neutralisation, acid–metal carbonate Go back to Topic 6.3 ‘Acids can
and bicarbonate reactions. neutralise bases’
Explain how the oceans are becoming more acidic. Page 122
Describe the key characteristics of a metal or non-metal reacting Go back to Topic 6.5 ‘Metals and
with oxygen and a combustion reaction. non-metals react with oxygen’
Relate combustion reactions to exothermic reactions. Page 126
Describe the differences between hydrocarbons and alcohols in Go back to Topic 6.6 ‘Science as
terms of their chemical composition. a human endeavour: Fuels are
Provide examples of fuels used in Australia. essential to Australian society’
Page 128
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your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
7.2
Electric current results
from the movement of
ELECTRICITY
charges around a
closed circuit
Electrostatic charge
Objects are normally uncharged – their
atoms usually have equal numbers of protons Figure 1 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
and electrons. But when two objects are other and become charged. If the charges build
rubbed together, some of the electrons may up enough, a large spark (lightning) will move
be transferred from one object to the other. between the charges in the clouds or towards
This causes the object with fewer electrons to the neutral ground (charged particles and
become positively charged and the one with neutral objects are attracted to each other).
extra electrons to become negatively charged.
van de Graaff generator The van de Graaff generator is a machine
a machine that produces an You can also see this with friction – for
that produces an electrostatic charge by rubbing
electrostatic charge example, if you rub a balloon against a woollen
a belt (Figure 2). It is used to accelerate particles
jumper, take off synthetic clothing or walk
electrostatic charge in X-ray machines, food sterilisers and process
an electrical charge that is across synthetic carpet. In all these cases, the
machines, and in nuclear physics demonstrations.
trapped in an object such positive or negative electric charge stays on the
Circuit diagrams
a ‘gap’ in the electric the positive terminal of the energy source to
circuit to stop the flow the negative terminal. This imaginary flow of
of electricity. positive charge is referred to as a conventional Circuits are represented by circuit diagrams.
electric current current (Figure 2). There are two types Each component of a circuit is represented by
the flow of electrical charge of current used in electrical circuits. In an a symbol (Figure 3). The circuit illustrated
through a circuit alternating current (AC), the flow of electrons in Figure 4a includes a globe, a battery,
circuit diagram reverses direction 50 times every second, connecting wires, a switch and a meter, such
a diagrammatic way to in Australia. This type of current is used as an ammeter, to measure the electric current.
represent an electric circuit in electrical power points. In direct current This circuit is represented in a circuit diagram
positive terminal (DC), the electrons flow in one direction only. in Figure 4b. Connecting wires are usually
the point in the circuit This current is found in battery-powered shown as straight lines, and when they meet
where electrons flow into circuits. at junctions they are often (but not always)
negative terminal shown joined at right angles. The longer line on
the point in the circuit the battery represents the positive terminal
where electrons flow and the shorter line represents the negative
out from
V M
series
describes an electric
Comparing series and
circuit that is arranged parallel circuits
with the loads (e.g. lights) Figure 2 Traditionally, party lights were a series
connected in a row, so the If two globes are connected in a circuit in circuit. This meant that when one light broke, all
electrical energy passes series, then all the current (the electrons) the lights went out. Now, most modern party lights
through one load at a time passes through both globes. This means the are arranged in a parallel circuit.
Fuse
A short circuit occurs when a current (moving short circuit
electrons) flows along a different path from the when electrical current
one intended. This can be caused by damage A fuse is a switch or thin piece of wire that flows along a different
path from the one that
to the insulation that usually surrounds the burns up quickly when electrons flow too fast
was intended
wires or by another shorter conductor, such as in a circuit. This causes a break in the circuit
fuse
water, providing an easy path for the electrons. so the electrical energy stops flowing. This
a wire of high resistance;
Electric charges will always take the path of is a safety mechanism to prevent damage
it will melt if too much
least resistance. This means that large currents to appliances from the high current, and to current flows in the circuit
can flow through any short path or conductor prevent loss of life.
A Solution
(a) If the lamps are connected in series,
the electrons must divide the voltage
(potential energy) between the lamps.
Figure 2 A voltmeter is
used to measure voltage Therefore, the voltage transformed in
V in a circuit. each lamp will be 3 V.
Resistance
The amount of current flowing in a circuit is
determined by the resistance of the circuit. The resistance
electrical resistance of a material is a measure a measure of how difficult
of how difficult it is for charged particles to it is for the charged
particles in an electric
move through. Electrons collide with the atoms
circuit to move
in the wires and the various other components
of a circuit, and some of their electrical energy
is converted or transformed into heat. Most
connecting wires are thick and made of good
conductors. This means they have very low Figure 3 Many types of resistor are available. The
resistance of carbon resistors is indicated by the
resistance, so hardly any energy is lost by the V
coloured bands on their plastic case.
electrons. However, the wires in a toaster are
designed so that a lot of the electrons’ energy is
transformed into heat – so much that the wires Ohm’s law I R
glow red-hot and brown the toast.
Georg Ohm, a German physicist, discovered
Resistors are devices that are deliberately Figure 4 The Ohm’s law
the relationship between voltage, current and
placed in circuits to control or reduce the size triangle can be used to
resistance. Ohm found that the voltage drop
of the current. Resistance is measured by a remember the equations
across a fixed-value resistor is always directly
multimeter in units called ohms (symbol Ω). for Ohm’s law. To find
proportional to the current through the resistor. resistance, cover the
Worked example 7.4B shows how to calculate
This means that as the voltage goes down, the R – the other two letters
resistance.
current will also go down. This relationship is show you the formula to
A potentiometer is another type of variable known as Ohm’s law and is written as: use. The V is over the I,
resistor with a dial that rotates. A light dimmer so R = V .
V = IR I
is a potentiometer, as is the temperature control
on an oven.
Solution
If V = 9 volts, and I = 6 amperes, then
9 volts
R= = 1.5 ohms
6 amperes
Therefore, the resistance in the circuit is 1.5 ohms.
Negative Positive
Light-emitting diodes
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a special
Figure 2 Think of the triangle as an arrow that
type of diode that not only restricts current
Figure 1 Diodes come shows the direction that the diode allows the
in all shapes and sizes, conventional current (from positive to negative)
flow to one direction only, but also emits
depending on their role in to flow. light of a particular colour (Figure 5) when
the circuit. a current flows through it. Typically, the
When the diode is connected correctly, and light from LEDs is one of the visible colours
rectifier
the voltage is above the minimum threshold, (commonly red, yellow or green), infrared
a device that coverts AC to
DC, commonly composed current will flow through the circuit. If the (IR) light or ultraviolet (UV) light. The
of diodes diode is reversed, the current will try to travel remote controls of televisions and DVD
light-emitting diode (LED) in the opposite direction, but the diode will players send their messages via infrared
a type of diode that emits resist the current (Figure 3). This will stop the LEDs. Red LEDs are also widely used on
light of a particular colour flow of all charges in the circuit. electrical equipment to show that the power is
on or to indicate a particular setting. They are
also used in torches, and garden and vehicle
+ – lights. LEDs are replacing incandescent
globes in traffic lights, where they appear as
– + dots of coloured light.
Figure 3 The diode allows LED televisions use the light from the
current to flow in one Current permitted Current prohibited LEDs behind a screen of liquid crystals. The
direction only. Diode is forward-biased Diode is reverse-biased LEDs produce a light that shines through the
pixels to create an image. Because LEDs are
Some diodes can only carry small currents, more energy efficient, LED TVs are thinner
of much less than 1 A. Bigger currents produce than normal liquid crystal display (LCD)
too much heat, which would destroy the diode. televisions.
Temperature-dependent
Figure 4 Robot vacuum cleaners send infrared efficient, longer lasting
beams around a room to tell the robot the size of and use less power than
the room and if there are any drop-offs, such as
stairs.
resistors light globes, making them
useful for a wide range of
Temperature-dependent resistors (or applications.
thermistors) are devices that change their light-dependent resistor
Light-dependent resistors resistance when the temperature varies. This
affects the amount of current that can flow
(LDR)
a resistor that changes its
Light-dependent resistors (LDR) (or through the circuit. Most commonly, the resistance according to
photoresistors) use light to change the amount higher the temperature, the lower the resistance the amount of light it is
of electric current that moves through the (Figure 7a). Thermistors are often included in exposed to
circuit. The more light that shines on a programmable circuits that detect the amount photoconductivity
photoresistor, the less it resists the movement of of current flowing and use it to display the a property of light-
electrons and the more the current is allowed temperature (as in thermometers) or to turn an dependent resistors, where
to flow through the circuit (Figure 6a). This the amount of electricity
object on or off.
passing through the
resistor is dependent on
the amount of light it is
exposed to
a a
Resistance b
decreasing with b
Resistance
light intensity
Resistance
temperature-dependent
7.5 Check your learning resistor
a resistor that varies the
Remember and understand Apply and analyse flow of current according
to the temperature it is
1 Describe the role of the following 3 Compare a photoresistor and a
exposed to
devices in a circuit. thermistor.
thermistor
a LED 4 Explain why an electrical device such as
a temperature-dependent
b photoresistor a toaster would need a rectifier.
resistor that varies the flow
c thermistor 5 A television remote control usually has of current according to the
2 Describe the role of a resistor that is an infrared LED that converts electrical temperature it is exposed
connected in series with a diode. Draw energy into infrared energy. Identify to; commonly used for
the device the television must have to temperature control
a circuit using circuit symbols showing
the correct arrangement of these communicate with the remote.
components.
D 0.2 A, 0.4 A
Apply and analyse
Short answer questions 15 Draw a circuit diagram that shows a battery and a switch,
with a globe on either side of the switch.
Remember and understand a Describe whether or how the circuit will be affected if
4 Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit containing a battery, the switch is placed before both globes.
globe and switch. Identify the direction of electron flow b Identify the direction of electron flow and the
and the direction of conventional current. direction of conventional current in the circuit.
5 Match each circuit symbol shown in Figure 1 with its 16 Two identical bulbs are set up in a parallel circuit.
name. Describe what would happen if a third identical bulb is
ammeter battery globe switch connected in parallel.
17 Use Table 1 on page 200 to calculate the value of a
resistor with the following coloured bands (in order):
a green, brown, black
b brown, yellow, red.
18 Use Table 1 on page 200 to calculate the coloured bands
on a 7.9 MΩ resistor.
19 The lights in Figure 3 are connected in series. Describe
what will happen if one globe fails.
Evaluate
Research
32 Choose one of the following topics for a research project.
24 Power lines carry electricity from power stations to
A few guiding questions have been provided, but you
cities and towns. They experience a voltage loss due to
should add more questions that you wish to investigate.
the high resistance along the lines according to Ohm’s
Present your report in a format of your own choosing.
law. Describe how the current in power lines could be
changed to minimise this voltage loss due to resistance.
25 Explain why a voltmeter is connected in parallel and an
» Seeing the light
ammeter is connected in series in a circuit. Research incandescent light globes. Identify what is
meant by ‘incandescent’. Describe the materials that
26 Use the correct symbols to draw a circuit consisting of a
these globes are made of. Explain why the filament
6 V DC supply, an LED and a 100 Ω resistor connected
must contain an inert gas like argon. Describe the
in series. Add a voltmeter to measure the voltage drop
temperature the filament needs to be heated to so
across the LED.
that it gives off light. Describe the efficiency of
27 Evaluate the claim: ‘Resistance increases as voltage incandescent light globes.
decreases.’
Reflect
The table below outlines criteria for successfully understanding Chapter 7 ‘Electricity’. Once you have completed this
chapter, reflect on your ability to do the following:
Describe the difference between static electricity and Go back to Topic 7.1 ‘Electricity is the
electric current. presence and flow of electric charges’
Identify the key components of an electric circuit. Page 134
Explain why circuit diagrams are used to represent Go back to Topic 7.2 ‘Electric current results
circuits and draw appropriate circuit diagrams. from the movement of charges around a
Explain how an ammeter measures current. closed circuit’
Page 136
Describe the differences in arrangement of series and Go back to Topic 7.3 ‘Current can flow
parallel circuits. through series and parallel circuits’
Measure current using an ammeter. Page 138
Describe how voltage is shared in series circuits and the Go back to Topic 7.4 ‘Voltage is the
same in parallel circuits. difference in energy between two parts of
Measure voltage using a voltmeter. a circuit. Resistance makes it difficult for
current to flow in a circuit’
Page 140
Describe how a diode restricts current to one direction. Go back to Topic 7.5 ‘Current and resistance
Describe how resistance can be altered by light or in a circuit can be altered’
temperature. Page 142
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your knowledge. of this chapter with one of
three chapter quizzes.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electricity and magnets are
8.2 used to produce movement
Iron filings +
Card Wire Figure 2 The right-hand grip rule. The way the
+
fingers point around the wire gives the direction of
Figure 1 The magnetic field around a straight the magnetic field. The direction in this diagram is
current-carrying wire is circular. anticlockwise.
+ – Conventional
current flow
N S
+ – Conventional
current flow
Field Field
Coil Coil
(armature) (armature)
Force Current Force Current
N S N S
Brush Brush Brush Brush
Figure 2 How an electric motor works a The force pushes the red wire down and the green wire up. b The coil has now turned over.
The force pushes the green wire down and the red wire up.
The commutator does this job by connecting current in the coil. Therefore, the direction of
to the opposite brush after each half turn (180° rotation is maintained.
rotation) of the coil. Figure 2b shows the same Most electric motors are more
coil turned over 180°. The red side is now on the complicated than this simplified example.
left and the green side is on the right. They often have several sets of coils, all at
The commutator has also rotated 180° and slightly different angles to each other, and
now connects to the opposite brush, which electromagnets are often used instead of
has the effect of reversing the direction of the permanent magnets.
Brush
Turbine
Magnetic pole
Coils of wire
turned by shaft
Figure 2 Most power plants use wind, water or heat from coal to turn the shaft of the generator.
This causes the large loops of wire to turn between magnets, generating a current (usually AC).
Transforming
current
Figure 2 A laptop computer has a transformer in
The movement of a wire or coil in a magnetic its power cord.
field or vice versa is not the only way to
generate electricity. Michael Faraday was a box attached, which transforms the 240 V into
poorly educated book binder who developed a smaller voltage that the computer can use
an interest in science by reading the books (Figure 2).
he was working on. In 1831, Faraday began
a series of experiments on electromagnetic WIRELESS CHARGING
fields. He wrapped two insulated coils of wire The process of transferring an electric current
transformer around opposite ends of a large iron ring through coils of wire is used in wireless charging
a device that changes the devices. Alternating current flows through coils
and found that when a current was passed
voltage at which energy
through one coil of wire, a current appeared of wire in the charging device. The resulting
is transmitted by an
alternating current; usually briefly in the other coil of wire. This current magnetic field generates a current in a coil in the
consists of two coils of wire only lasted while the first wire’s current was receiving device, such as a mobile phone. When
(primary and secondary), being turned on or off. If the current in the the current is converted into direct current, it
an iron core and an AC first coil constantly changed direction, such recharges the battery in the device. Although
power source as in an alternating current, the current in wireless chargers are convenient, the current
the second wire also constantly changed generated is lower than when charging devices
direction. Therefore, electricity could be directly wth a cord. If the coils of wire on the
passed between wires without the wires wireless charger are not directly aligned with
touching each other. If the first coil the coils in the phone, most of the energy is lost
of wire had more turns of wire than as heat. Figure 3 shows the process of wireless
the second coil of wire, then the charging for a mobile phone.
voltage passed on would be less in
the second coil. This is what happens MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
in a transformer (Figure 1). The Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) involves
current and voltage are changed or placing a human body inside a strong, stable
transformed. Many electrical devices magnetic field. The magnetic field is usually
operate on less than the 240 V that generated by a large cylindrical coil of specially
come from an electrical power point in made wire in a bath of liquid helium, and the
Australia. For example, many computers patient is positioned in the centre of the coil
Figure 1 A transformer have an electrical cord with a small black (Figure 4). The liquid helium is at –269°C.
Figure 3 Wireless charging: alternating current generates a magnetic field, which generates a current in the mobile phone.
Direction of
a
rotation
A D
N S
B C
b
Figure 4 A wire carrying current
Evaluate
16 a Describe how a mobile phone charger charges a
phone.
b Sketch a diagram to show two sets of coils and an
iron core, like those inside a mobile phone charger.
Identify which set would connect to the power point
and which set would connect to the phone.
c Identify the other electronic components a mobile
phone charger must contain.
17 A radio-controlled car works with a remote control.
a Describe how this remote-controlled car works. Figure 5 A phone charger
b Identify the electronic components the remote control
is likely to have. Critical and creative thinking
c Identify the electronic components that are required
20 Electricity can be generated by moving either a magnet
for the toy car to move.
or a solenoid. This can be achieved by moving water
18 The amount of electricity generated from spinning a in a hydroelectric scheme, wind in windmills or coal-
dynamo depends on the magnetic field strength, the size powered steam. Develop a set of criteria that could
of the coil and the rotation speed. Design an experiment to be used to evaluate the effectiveness of each of these
investigate all three of these variables. Write an aim, list of methods. Describe the limitations you have included in
equipment, hypothesis and method. You don’t need to carry your definition of ‘effectiveness’. For example, did you
out the experiment. Carefully explain in your method limit the criteria to how the electricity was generated,
section how each variable is tested, one at a time, while the or did you consider the environmental impacts? Justify
other variables remain constant. your decision.
» Synchrotron
A synchrotron is a huge scientific instrument that » Hairdryers
accelerates electrons to a very high speed. The A hairdryer generates heat and uses a fan to push the
electrons are forced to move in a circular path by large warm air over hair. Describe how a hairdryer works.
electromagnets. The direction of travel of an electron Describe how the heat is generated. Describe how
is the reverse of the direction of conventional current. electricity is used to move the fan. Describe how the
Identify the arrangement of the north and south amount of heat can be increased. Describe how the
magnetic poles and the direction of the electron beam speed of the fan can be increased.
if the electrons are to be pushed to the right. Research
this phenomenon to see if your arrangement is correct.
If you were incorrect, describe the error(s) of
judgement you made.
Reflect
The table below outlines a list of things you should be able to do by the end of Chapter 8 ‘Electromagnetism’. Once you’ve
completed this chapter, use the table to reflect on your ability to complete each task.
Use the right-hand grip rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field Go back to Topic 8.1 ‘Wires
around an electrical wire. carrying an electric current
Discuss how increasing the coils of wire and using iron can create stronger generate a magnetic field’
magnetic fields. Page 148
Describe how an electric motor works, by explaining the functions of the Go back to Topic 8.2 ‘Electricity
armature, brushes and spit ring commutator. and magnets are used to
Use the right-hand slap rule to determine the direction the wires will move. produce movement’
Page 150
Describe the process of electromagnetic induction. Go back to Topic 8.3 ‘Magnetic
Distinguish between alternating current and direct current. fields and movement are used to
generate electricity’
Page 152
Explain how a constantly changing magnetic field can generate a current in Go back to Topic 8.4 ‘Science
a nearby wire coil. as a human endeavour:
Explain how the hydrogen atoms in water are affected by changing Electromagnetic fields are used
electromagnetic fields and how this is used in magnetic resonance imaging in technology and medicine’
(MRI) to generate images for the diagnosis of disease. Page 154
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your knowledge. with one of three chapter
quizzes.
EXPERIMENTS
DO: DON’T:
» wear a lab coat for practical work » run in a laboratory
» keep your workbooks and paper away » push others or behave roughly in
from heating equipment, chemicals a laboratory
and flames » eat in a laboratory
» tie long hair back whenever you do an » drink from glassware or
experiment laboratory taps
» wear safety glasses while mixing or » look down into a container or point
heating substances it at a neighbour when heating or
» tell your teacher immediately if you mixing chemicals
cut or burn yourself » smell gases or mixtures of chemicals
» tell your teacher immediately if directly; instead, waft them near
you break any glassware or spill your nose and only when instructed
chemicals » mix chemicals at random
» wash your hands after any » put matches, paper or other
experiments substances down the sink
» listen to and follow the teacher’s » carry large bottles by the neck
instructions
» enter a preparation room without
» wear gloves when your teacher your teacher’s permission.
instructs you to.
working in a
laboratory
Working in a science laboratory
requires you to use a variety
of special skills. Many of these
you may not use anywhere Figure 2 Place warm water in the
else. You must know how to equipment (e.g. beaker).
Figure 1 Wearing a lab coat and Figure 4 Use a brush or cloth to wipe
safety glasses is an essential part of around the equipment.
completing any experiment.
CAUTION!
Do not use your
hands to pick up
the glass.
Figure 5 Clean test tubes using a small Figure 8 Tell your teacher. Place the glass
bottle brush. in a special glass bin. Alternatively, wrap
the glass in newspaper and dispose of it in
the normal rubbish.
CAUTION!
Tell your
teacher first.
Wear safety
glasses and
gloves when
cleaning up
spills.
Figure 7 Place the equipment upside Figure 10 Let your teacher know straight
down to drain. away if there is a chemical spill. Follow your
teacher's directions. Laboratories should
have a special spill kit that may be used in
these circumstances.
CAUTION!
Check with your
teacher if it is
safe to smell
the chemical,
and only
proceed if it is.
How to light a Bunsen burner Figure 15 Light a match and place it above
the barrel, with your hand below the flame.
CAUTION!
Remember
to keep your
hand below the
flame.
Figure 13 Connect the rubber hose firmly Figure 17 The Bunsen burner will now
to the gas tap. have a yellow (safety) flame.
Aim Results
To measure and compare the absorbency of different brands of
> Calculate the total surface area and the cost per square
paper towel, which vary in their cost per square centimetre.
centimetre for each paper towel, and record your results in
Materials > 250 mL beaker the table.
> 5 different brands > 100 mL measuring > The total surface area of the paper towel roll is calculated
of paper towel (one cylinder as follows:
must be a home > Scissors A = l × w × number of sheets of paper towel
brand) > Ruler and pencil > The cost of paper towel per square centimetre is calculated
> Small beaker of water > Calculator as follows:
with a dropper > Stopwatch cost of roll
Cost of paper towel =
total area of roll
Method > Calculate the average volume of water absorbed per 20 cm
1 Cut a 20 cm by 20 cm square from one sheet of each brand square and record your results in the table.
of paper towel. > The average volume of water absorbed per 20 cm square is
2 Record the brand, price, number of sheets and the calculated as follows:
dimensions of each sheet in centimetres.
volume 1 + volume 2 + volume 3
3 Fill the measuring cylinder with water to the 100 mL mark, Average volume of water =
3
using the dropper for the last 2–3 mL. Ensure that your
eyes are level with the scale, to avoid parallax error. > Draw a bar graph to show the average volume of water
4 Immerse the square of paper towel in water for 10 seconds. absorbed for each brand.
Use the stopwatch for timing. Hold the paper towel above > In your graph, place the brands in order from least
the measuring cylinder, without squeezing the towel, expensive to most expensive. On each bar, state the price
for another 10 seconds, then remove it and place it in per square centimetre of that brand.
the large beaker.
5 Record the level of water left in the measuring cylinder
Discussion
and, hence, the volume of water absorbed by the paper 1 State the reasons for the following.
towel in 10 seconds. a Three readings were taken each time and then averaged.
6 Repeat steps 1–5 for two other sheets of the same brand of b The same-sized square was used each time.
paper towel. c The cost of the paper towel per square centimetre was
calculated and used instead of the total cost of the roll.
Inquiry
d Each square of paper towel was allowed to drip for
What if the absorbency of more expensive paper towels was precisely 10 seconds before removing it from the water.
compared to home brand paper towels?
2 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry absorbency of the different brands to the predictions you
question. made in your hypothesis.
> Identify the brands of paper towel that you will test. 3 Evaluate the validity (by identifying any variables that
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry. might not have been controlled) and reliability (by
> Identify the (independent) variable that you will change describing whether you or other scientists will achieve the
from the first method. same results) of this experiment.
> Identify the (dependent) variable that you will measure 4 Identify the limitations of these results (by describing
and/or observe. how testing with other solutions may achieve different
> Identify two variables that you will need to control to ensure absorbency).
a valid test. Describe how you will control these variables.
> Identify the materials you will need for your experiment.
Conclusion
> In your logbook, write down the method you will use to From your graph, identify any apparent relationship between
complete your investigation. the cost of the paper towel per square centimetre and its
absorbency. Provide evidence (by mentioning values) from
> Draw a table to record your results.
your results to support your answer.
> Show your teacher your planning for approval before
starting your experiment.
Figure 1 Your reading of an analogue clock can be affected by where you stand.
Aim
Results
To find out how effective natural systems can be at filtering
Record in a table:
water.
> the time it took for the water to finish draining through
Materials > Mixture of castor oil, the pots
> 3 medium-sized plastic
dirt, small pieces of > your observations of the odour and quality of the
paper, water, salt drained water.
pots with drainage holes
> Plastic bucket
> Gravel Discussion
> Water
> Sand
> Timer 1 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
> Soil
> 3 containers to collect water that was filtered through each pot (by summarising
> Plants (native grasses)
the water drained from your key observations in 2–3 sentences and the time it took
the pots for most of the water to move through the layers).
2 Explain what factors may have contributed to the
Method differences you observed between the flow rate of drained
water in respect to:
A few weeks in advance, prepare one plastic pot with a layer of
a the cloudiness of the drained water
gravel, then sand and finally dirt. Plant some native grasses in
this pot. You will need to wait until the grasses have become b the odour of the drained water.
established in the pot before proceeding with this experiment. 3 Describe how this knowledge could be used in maintaining
the water quality of streams and rivers in national parks.
1 Prepare two plastic pots: Pot 1 with gravel, then sand, and
finally a layer of dirt; Pot 2 with just gravel. Label the pot Conclusion
with native grasses as ‘Pot 3’. You should now have three
Explain the effect that different soil types and the presence of
pots, as in Figure 1. Sit each pot in a container.
native grasses have on the quality of water available.
2 Mix the castor oil, dirt, small pieces of paper, water, salt
and any other materials you wish to include in a bucket
of water. The mixture should be very cloudy and have an
odour.
3 Pour an equal amount of the mixture into each of the three
pots and collect the solution that filters out of the base of
each pot. Record how long it takes the solution to finish
flowing out of the base of each pot.
Native
grass
Dirt Dirt
Sand Sand
Aim > Write down the method you will use to complete your
To investigate some factors that affect competition in plants. investigation in your logbook.
> Draw a table to record your results.
Materials thirds, or 3 medium-
sized pots containing > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
> Packets of seeds
good-quality potting starting your experiment.
(a variety of vegetables
mix
or flowers is needed) Results
> Measuring cylinder
> Small plot (20 × 20 cm) Record all results. You could take photos showing the progress
or graduated jug for
in a garden, divided into of growth and/or record the average heights of plants of
watering
different species and record them in a table.
Method Discussion
1 Prepare the plots (or pots) so the soil is moderately deep 1 Identify one piece of beneficial advice that you would give
and smooth. Label them A, B and C. another student who wants to carry out the experiment.
2 In plot A, plant six seeds of the same type, spread evenly 2 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
apart. growth of the plants in each plot (by summarising your key
3 Water the soil in all plots each day as evenly as possible observations in 2–3 sentences).
with the same amount of water. 3 Use evidence from your results to describe any competition
4 Record the growth of the seeds. If possible, take between the seeds as they germinated. Use statements such
photographs each week or every few days when the seeds as, ‘The plants in plot … grew … than the plants in plot …
begin to germinate. If the seeds become seedlings (small This implies that …’
plants), measure their heights and record the results 4 Identify one other factor that might have affected the
in a table. growth of the seeds. Describe how this factor could have
affected the results of your experiment.
Inquiry
5 Describe how the competition you observed would affect
Choose one of the following questions to investigate. organisms in the natural environment.
> What if more of the same seeds were planted close together
in plot B? Conclusion
> What if different seeds were planted between the original Write a conclusion about the factors that affect competition
seeds in plot C? between germinating seeds.
Answer the following questions in relation to your inquiry.
> Identify the types of seeds that you will test.
> Write a hypothesis (If …
then … because …) for your
inquiry.
> Identify the (independent)
variable that you will change
from the first method.
> Identify the (dependent)
variable that you will measure
and/or observe.
> Identify two variables that you
will need to control to ensure
a valid test. Describe how you
will control these variables.
> Identify the materials that you
will need for your experiment.
What to do
PART A: CAPTURE–RECAPTURE
1 Place a random number of beads in a paper bag. 4 Use the formula to determine how many beads are in the bag.
2 Draw 10 beads out of the bag. For each bead, thread a
N1 × N2
short strand of cotton through the hole of the bead and Total number of beads =
M2
tie a knot around the bead. Place the 10 beads back into
the bag. This is equivalent to tagging the beads and where N1 is the number of beads drawn out the first time (10),
releasing them. N2 is the number of beads drawn the second time (10)
3 Mix the beads in the bag and draw another 10 beads out and M 2 is the number of tagged beads drawn during the
of the bag. Count the number of ‘tagged’ beads you second draw.
collected in the ‘recapture’.
5 Count the number of beads that are actually in the paper bag.
PART B: QUADRATS
1 Divide the graph paper into 20 equal-sized sections. Questions
2 Spread a large handful of hard-shell candies over the graph
1 Identify the types of organism populations that could be
paper. These represent insects in an ecosystem.
counted using:
3 Count the number of ‘candy insects’ in four of the sections.
a capture–recapture
Include the candies that are on the top lines or left lines
b quadrats.
of the squares. Do not include the candies that are on
the bottom lines or right lines of the sections. Divide the 2 Describe the accuracy of the capture–recapture method
number counted by 4 to determine the average number of in determining population size (by comparing the number
candy insects in each section. of candies determined in Part A step 4 to the ‘true value’
counted in Part A step 5).
4 Multiply the average number of candy insects in each
square (from step 3) by 20 to determine the size of the 3 Explain which of the following animals would be more
population in the ecosystem. likely to be recaptured:
5 Count the number of candies that were actually spread > an animal that was fed and treated well during the first
over the graph paper. capture
> an animal that became frightened and was roughly
handled during the first capture.
Justify your answer (by describing how each animal will
react the next time it sees or smells a trap, and deciding
which behaviour is more likely to lead to them being
recaptured).
4 Describe the accuracy of the quadrat method in
determining the population size.
5 Identify the size a quadrat would need to be to measure a
population of fully grown trees.
What to do
Many scientists use simulations or modelling to determine how populations will be affected by the introduction of a new species.
1 Repeat the simulation from Part A but this time with Table 2 Populations of rabbits and foxes over many seasons
additional students modelling foxes. A fox must catch a Season 1 2 3 4 5 6
rabbit in order to survive. A fox Number of rabbits at end of season
catches a rabbit by removing Number of foxes at end of season
the cloth tail hanging from the
rabbit’s belt (similar to flag Questions
football). 1 Graph the results of the model as a bar graph showing the
2 Record your data for six number of each animal at the end of a time period.
seasons in Table 2. 2 Identify how the following factors were represented in
the model.
a increased food supplies
b decreased food supplies
Figure 2 How do predators affect c competition or predator populations
a rabbit population? 3 Use data from the modelling to explain the effect of:
a increased food supplies
b decreased food supplies
c competition on predator populations.
4 Explain the characteristics in a population that will help
some animals to survive.
Aim
Results
To examine the role of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
Record all your observations in an appropriate table.
CAUTION! Take care when using methylated spirits: it 6 Remove the plants from the bell jars. Break off one leaf
is highly flammable. Do not use near a flame. Use only a
from each plant and put it into a Petri dish marked to
hotplate and water bath to heat the methylated spirits.
match the plant label (i.e. A, B or C).
Aim 7 Half-fill the large pot with boiling water to make the water
To find out how the concentration of carbon dioxide affects bath. Transfer the leaves into three labelled 250 mL beakers
the amount of starch produced in leaves grown in different matching samples A, B and C. Half-fill each beaker with
conditions. boiling water and place all three beakers in the water bath.
Put the water bath on the hotplate and gently boil for no
Materials > Methylated spirits longer than 2 minutes, to soften the leaves. Return the
> 5 × 250 mL beakers leaves to their Petri dishes. Use the tongs to remove the
> 3 soft-leaved plants (e.g.
> Large pot (to act as a beakers from the pot.
geranium) of same size,
boiling water bath) that 8 Half-fill a 250 mL beaker with methylated spirits and place
shape and colour, in
can hold three 250 mL it into the water bath.
seedling pots
beakers 9 Reheat the water bath on the hotplate. When the methylated
> Alka-Seltzer tablet
> Boiling water spirits is hot, add the sample A leaf to the beaker.
> Soda lime (solid)
> Hotplate 10 Leave the leaf for 5 minutes or until the chlorophyll has
> Iodine solution (iodine
> 4 Petri dishes been removed from the leaf.
in potassium iodide)
> Tablespoon 11 Remove the leaf with tongs, dry it on the paper towel and
in a dropper bottle
return it to the Petri dish.
(approximately 0.1 M) > Tongs
12 Repeat steps 9–11 for the other two leaves.
> 3 large bell jars or 3 large > Timer
clear plastic bags with 13 Place several drops of iodine solution on each leaf. Observe
> Paper towel
twist ties to close them each leaf over a light source (e.g. light box) and describe
> Marker pen
the iodine solution’s colour change on the leaf. Draw each
> Petroleum jelly
leaf to show the colour of the iodine solution.
Method Results
1 Label the three plants A, B and C. Place the plants in a Include your observations and diagrams in an appropriate format.
cupboard for 3 days before the start of the experiment. Discussion
Water the plants immediately before use.
1 Identify the level of carbon dioxide in each of the following
2 Place plant A in a bell jar with a 250 mL beaker half-filled
bell jars:
with water. Add an Alka-Seltzer (antacid) tablet to the
A (Alka-Seltzer), B (soda lime), C (no Alka-Seltzer or
beaker. The tablet will produce carbon dioxide gas. Seal the
soda lime).
bell jar with petroleum jelly.
2 Identify the bell jar that contained the control plant. Justify
3 Place plant B in another bell jar. Put two tablespoons of soda
your answer (by identifying the independent variable in this
lime in a Petri dish and place it in the jar. The soda lime will
experiment, identifying the bell jar that the other plants will
remove carbon dioxide from the air. Seal with petroleum jelly.
be compared to, and describing why this plant is used for a
4 Put plant C in the third bell jar. Seal with petroleum jelly.
comparison).
5 Place all three plants in a sunny place. The plants must
3 Explain how the rate or speed of photosynthesis is affected
have the same amount of sunlight and water. Leave the
by:
plants for two or three days.
a low carbon dioxide levels
b high carbon dioxide levels.
4 Explain how the amount of glucose produced through
Plant A Plant B Plant C photosynthesis affects the level of starch in a plant.
5 Explain why iodine was used to test for starch.
6 Compare the amount of starch that was produced in low
carbon dioxide levels with the amount produced in high
carbon dioxide levels.
Water
Soda lime
Conclusion
Antacid
Describe the effect that increasing or decreasing the amount of
Figure 1 Experimental set-up
carbon dioxide has on photosynthesis.
172 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Licensed to Nhan Nguyen, from until 2023-01-01.
2.6 Food for thought
CHALLENGE
Questions
1 Identify the organism that would have been ‘most satisfied’
by the amount of energy/food it received.
2 Identify the organism that would have been ‘least satisfied’
by the amount of energy/food it received.
3 Explain what happened to the remaining 1940 mL of
‘energy’ from the Sun that did not pass into the plant.
3 Identify the amount of ‘energy’ the herbivore received.
Describe how 90 per cent of the insect’s (cricket’s) energy
was used.
4 Identify which consumer in the food chain will have to eat
the most food to gain enough energy to survive. Justify
your answer (by comparing the amount of food each
organism can collect from the organism before them in the
Figure 1 Parts of a food food chain and deciding which organism needs the greatest
chain: Sun, grass, cricket,
amount of food to survive).
eagle and fungus
What to do Questions
1 Work in small groups to place pins or attach squares of 1 Identify the areas that were more affected by these natural
the appropriate colour to the map at the part of the map events than others.
affected by each natural disaster. 2 A student suggested that monsoonal rains should have been
2 If a large area is involved, place a number of pins or included in this map. Evaluate this suggestion (by defining
squares across the area. ‘natural disaster’, describing monsoonal rains and deciding
whether monsoon rains are classified as a natural disaster).
3 Describe the positive and negative effects of these events.
4 Identify and describe patterns in the alternation of floods
and droughts.
Figure 1 Open temperate woodlands allow Figure 2 Increased rainfall and open
some sunlight to reach the ground, which areas allow undergrowth to develop.
allows grasses to grow. Water can be a
limiting factor in these areas.
Figure 3 Plants that survive in drier areas Figure 4 The level of acid in the soil can
have unique adaptations such as thin, affect the growth of a plant. Figure 5 Air temperature is an abiotic factor.
needle-like leaves.
What to do Questions
1 Work in pairs. One person puts on the blindfold. 1 Contrast (the differences between) the ‘two point’ distances
2 Place the toothpicks 50 mm apart in the modelling clay. on different areas of the skin.
3 Using the modelling clay, place the pointed ends of the 2 Identify the part of the body that was able to detect the
toothpicks gently on the blindfolded person’s finger. Ask closest toothpicks.
them whether they feel one or two points. 3 Identify which skin areas have the most touch receptors.
4 If two points are felt, move the toothpicks closer together Justify your answer (by describing how touch receptors
and repeat step 3. work, describing how a receptor might mistake two
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the blindfolded person reports toothpick points for a single touch, and using your answers
‘one point’ for the first time. to questions 1 and 2 to decide which area of skin has the
most touch receptors).
What you need than the axon and you can twist more pipe cleaners to
> 5 different-coloured pipe cleaners representing different make more dendrites.
parts of the neuron (cell body, axon, dendrites, myelin 4 Wrap a pipe cleaner along the length of the axon to form
sheath, synaptic terminal) the myelin sheath.
> A3 or A4 paper 5 Wrap another pipe cleaner on the end of the axon to make
> Sticky tape the synaptic terminal.
> Red felt-tipped pen 6 Tape your finished pipe cleaner neuron onto a piece of A3
or A4 paper and label the parts.
What to do 7 Mark the path of the nerve impulse, from start to finish,
along the neuron.
1 Roll a pipe cleaner into a ball to represent the cell body.
2 Attach another pipe cleaner to the cell body by pushing it Questions
through the ball so that there are two halves sticking out.
1 Describe the role of a neuron.
Twist the two halves together into a single long axon.
2 Describe the role of the myelin sheath.
3 Push another pipe cleaner through the cell body on the side
opposite the axon to make a dendrite. This can be shorter 3 Explain how the message moves from one neuron to
another via the synapse.
What to do
1 Look at the pupils (the black spots in the middle of the eyes)
in the eyes of a classmate. Note the size of the pupils.
2 As a class, dim the lights in the room. After a few minutes,
look at your classmate’s eyes and note the size of the pupils.
> How big are the pupils?
3 Turn the lights back on. Check the size of your classmate’s
pupils again.
> How big are the pupils this time?
Questions
1 Describe how the pupils of the eyes changed when:
a the room was dimmed
b the lights were turned back on.
2 Describe the role of the pupil in the eye.
3 Describe an advantage of the change in pupil size when
moving in and out of dark space.
4 With a partner, design an experiment to test another
reflex. Write an aim and a reproducible method for your
experiment.
What you need 7 Try the experiment using touch only. Blindfold Student 2.
> Metre ruler When Student 1 drops the ruler, they tap Student 2 on
> Blindfold the head. Does this make a difference to the reaction
distance?
What to do 8 Try the experiment using hearing only. Blindfold Student 2.
When Student 1 drops the ruler, they say ‘now’. Does this
1 Work in pairs. Student 1 holds the ruler between their thumb
make a difference to the reaction distance?
and forefinger so that the ruler hangs with the zero mark at the
bottom. Student 2 waits with their thumb and forefinger at the Questions
bottom of the ruler, level with the zero mark.
1 Contrast the results of the three experiments (no blindfold,
2 Student 1 drops the ruler without warning. Student 2
blindfold and tap, blindfold and voice) to determine which
catches the ruler as fast as they can between their thumb
experiment had the fastest results.
and forefinger.
2 Evaluate the reliability of your results (by describing
3 Record the number of centimetres the ruler has dropped,
whether all the variables were controlled, explaining
by looking at the location of Student 2’s thumb and
possible errors that need to be improved, and deciding
forefinger on the ruler (Figure 1).
whether anyone who repeated the experiment would obtain
4 Repeat until you have 10 results for each student. the same results).
5 Work out the average reaction distance for each student.
6 Measure the approximate distance the messages must have
travelled if they travelled from your eye to your brain to
your fingers.
a b
CAUTION! Wear your lab coat, safety glasses and plastic 3 Place the brain with the curved top side of the cerebrum
gloves. Be careful with the scalpel because it is likely to be
facing up. Use a scalpel to slice through the brain along the
very sharp. Cut away from your hands and other people.
centre line, starting at the cerebrum and going down through
Aim the cerebellum, spinal cord, medulla and pons (Figure 3).
To explore the structure of a sheep’s brain. Separate the two hemispheres of the brain (Figure 4). Draw a
diagram or take a photo that displays these parts of the brain.
Materials
> Sheep’s brain > Coloured pins
> Dissecting board > Microscope, slide and
> Scalpel cover slip (optional)
> Dissecting scissors > Forceps
Method
1 Examine the outside of the brain. Set the brain down so that
the flatter side, with the white spinal cord at one end, rests
Figure 3 Step 3: Slice along the brain.
on the board (Figure 1). Using the different-coloured pins,
identify the two hemispheres, the four lobes of the brain, the
spinal cord, the cerebellum and the cerebrum. Draw a diagram
(in pencil) or take a photo that displays the different sections
of the brain. Check this with your teacher before continuing.
Discussion
1 Describe the texture of the brain (smooth, rough, slippery,
waxy, tacky, flimsy, chalky, hard, soft, granular, rubbery).
2 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
structure of the sheep’s brain and what you know about a
human brain.
3 Contrast the cognitive functions (ability to think and
reason) of a sheep and a human. Describe how these
differences could be reflected in the structure of the brain.
Figure 2 Step 2
Aim
Discussion
To demonstrate how homeostasis maintains control of the
heart rate during and after exercise. 1 Describe how your breathing rate changed during and in the
10 minutes after exercise.
Materials 2 Explain why your heart rate increased during exercise.
3 Describe what happened to your heart rate during the
> Stopwatch
10 minutes after exercise.
> Heart rate monitors (optional)
4 Use the concept of homeostasis to explain why your heart
rate was different before, during and after exercise.
Method
1 While sitting down, find your pulse and count the number of Conclusion
times your heart beats in 15 seconds. Describe how homeostasis ensures that our muscles get
2 Multiply this number by 4 to determine the number of enough nutrients and remove wastes during exercise.
beats every minute.
3 Measure your respiration rate by counting the number of
breaths you take in 1 minute.
4 Do repeated step-ups or star jumps for 2 minutes. (Make
sure you are wearing appropriate shoes.)
5 Measure your heart rate and respiration rate immediately
after stopping exercise.
6 Measure your heart and respiration rate every 2 minutes
for 10 minutes.
Results
1 Record the data in a table.
2 Draw a line graph showing how your heart rate varied
after exercise.
Figure 1 Heart rate monitor on a smart watch
3 Draw a line graph showing how your respiration rate
varied after exercise.
CAUTION! Do not open the tape seals. > Identify two variables you will need to control to ensure a
valid test. Describe how you will control these variables.
> Identify the materials you will need for your experiment.
Aim
> Write down the method you will use to complete your
To determine what factors affect the growth of airborne
investigation in your logbook.
microbes.
> Draw up a table to record your results.
Materials > Sticky tape or paraffin > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
film starting your experiment.
> Agar plates
> Permanent marker
> Various disinfectants Results
> Timer
> Incubator Record all your results. You could take photos showing the
microbe growth on the agar plates.
Method
Discussion
1 Open the lid of one agar plate and leave it sitting on the
1 Define the term ‘bacterial colony’.
bench for 15 minutes.
2 Describe how a bacterial colony forms on an agar plate.
2 Place the lid on the top and seal the agar plate with sticky tape.
Write the label ‘Open bench’ around the edges underneath the 3 Explain why colonies are different colours and sizes.
plate, so that it does not obstruct the view of the agar. 4 Compare the colour and size (diameter) of the different
3 Leave another agar plate unopened. Seal it with sticky tape. colonies that grew on each plate.
Label the plate ‘Control’. 5 Explain why you left one agar plate unopened.
4 Incubate the agar plates at 35–37°C for approximately 3 days. 6 Evaluate whether your results support germ theory (by
5 Do not open the plates! Examine the closed plates for any explaining germ theory, comparing your results to germ
growth. theory, and deciding whether your results support germ
theory).
Inquiry 7 Evaluate whether your results support your hypothesis
What if the first agar plate was sprayed with a disinfectant (by describing your results in 1–2 sentences, comparing
before being incubated? your results to your hypothesis, and deciding whether your
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry hypothesis was supported).
question.
Conclusion
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry.
Describe the factors that affect the growth of microbes.
> Identify the (independent) variable that you will change
from the first method.
> Identify the (dependent) variable that you will measure
and/or observe.
What to do
1 Roughly cut out the continents of the world and fit them
back together in the shape of Pangaea.
2 Remember to cut off India from Asia, because it was once
separated.
3 When you are happy with your supercontinent, glue the
pieces into your science book.
4 You may like to add to your supercontinent what you know
about the locations of the fossil and glacier evidence.
Questions
1 Explain why fossil twigs, roots and pollen found in
Antarctica are almost identical to those found in Tasmania.
2 Identify one other country that may have fossils similar to
those found in Australia.
3 Explain how this activity provides evidence of tectonic
Figure 1 Fossil ferns in a rock
plate movement.
What to do
1 Pour the milk into the saucepan and add a very thick layer of
Milo over the surface.
2 Place the saucepan on the hotplate and heat slowly without
stirring.
3 Record your observations of how the Milo cracks and
moves as a result of the hot milk rising to the surface.
Method
1 Set up the heating equipment and boil 50 mL of water in the
beaker (Figure 1).
Results
Describe what happened as the beaker cooled, and record
where any solid copper sulfate is located.
Discussion
Figure 1 Heat the water 1 Contrast (the differences between) the density of solid
copper sulfate and liquid water.
2 When the water is boiling, turn off the gas. Add the copper 2 Compare (the similarities and differences between)
sulfate to the boiled water a little at a time, using the spatula the formation of solid copper sulfate from a solution,
and stirring constantly to make it dissolve (Figure 2). Stop to the formation of solid tectonic plates formed from
when no more copper sulfate will dissolve. a molten mass.
Conclusion
Explain why layers are formed when a substance cools.
What you need > Bottle of lemonade 3 Step 1 described the formation of gases, while step
> Powdered chalk > 100 mL beaker 2 described how the size of the bubbles increased as
> Vinegar > Teaspoon pressure was released. Use this information to describe the
> Red food dye with formation of pumice (Figure 1) during a volcanic eruption.
dropper
What to do
1 In a 100 mL beaker mix a small amount of powdered chalk
with one teaspoon of vinegar and a few drops of food dye.
The reaction produces carbon dioxide bubbles and the food
dye makes the froth look like lava.
2 Tiny gas bubbles form as the pressure in a bottle of
lemonade is released. As the pressure is released more,
bigger bubbles form. This can be seen by slightly twisting
the screw top of a bottle of soft drink, such as lemonade.
The more you twist the lid, and the more pressure that is
released, the bigger the bubbles. This is like the cooling of
magma inside a volcano.
Questions
1 Compare (the similarities and differences between) the
formation of carbon dioxide in step 1 with the gases formed
in lava. Figure 1 Gas bubbles formed the holes in this piece of
pumice rock.
2 Compare the pressure in the lemonade bottle to the
pressure in a volcano.
What you need > 50 g weight Prepare a hypothesis of what items are in the bag. Provide
(representing
> 2 marbles (representing evidence from your previous results to support your
carbon) hypothesis.
hydrogen)
> Scales
> 2 golf balls (representing 6 Open the bag to determine the accuracy of your hypothesis.
oxygen) > Paper bags
Questions
What to do 1 Identify the molecule that was formed in step 1.
1 Place two marbles and one golf ball in a paper bag. 2 Identify the molecule that was formed in step 3.
2 Use the scales to weigh the bag. 3 Evaluate the accuracy of your hypothesis (by describing
the data you gathered about the mystery bag, comparing
3 Add one 50 g weight and two golf balls to a different
this data evidence to your hypothesis, and deciding whether
paper bag.
your hypothesis was accurate).
4 Use the scales to weigh the bag.
4 Describe how you could use this process to determine what
5 Your teacher will prepare a mystery bag of items in a
atoms were in a completely new compound (C6H12O6).
combination that matches step 1 or step 3. Without
opening the bag, use the scale to determine its weight.
What to do
1 Form two teams (A and B) of three students to work with
each other.
2 Team A places one item in each of the small boxes. The
boxes are then closed.
3 Team B plans a way of determining what is inside each of
the boxes without opening or touching them. They can use
any equipment that is available in the science laboratory.
The team writes the steps of the method in their logbooks.
4 Team B then follows the method to touch and examine the
boxes, still without opening them.
5 Repeat the process, with Team B preparing a box and
Team A determining what is inside the box.
Questions
1 Contrast ‘direct evidence’ and ‘indirect evidence’.
2 Describe the senses that team B used to identify what was
inside the box. Figure 1 How can you determine what is in the box?
Method Conclusion
Describe what you know about the different coloured flames
1 Set up your Bunsen burner, observing safety instructions,
produced by different elements.
and light the Bunsen burner on the safety flame.
2 Adjust the Bunsen burner to the blue flame. Take a wire
loop and dip it in a small beaker of 1 M hydrochloric acid.
Flame the loop. This will clean the loop, ready for your
solid sample. Avoid getting too close to the flame. Stand
back a little.
3 Take a loop of solid chemical and place it in the flame.
Observe the colour of the flame. Try not to lose the solid
down the Bunsen burner barrel. This could block the
burner and contaminate the flame, changing the colour.
4 Once you have finished your observation, dip the loop in
the 1 M hydrochloric acid again and re-flame it. This will
clean the loop for the next sample.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the other samples.
Results
Record your results in an appropriate table.
What to do
1 Tear off about 1 cm of pH paper and place it on the
white tile.
2 Place a drop of a laboratory acid on the paper.
3 Compare the colour of the wet spot on the pH paper with
the pH colour chart.
4 Repeat for the laboratory bases.
5 Test each of the remaining substances on new sections of
the pH paper. For each substance, record the pH colour
and number and note whether the substance is an acid, a
base or neutral.
6 Dilute some of the substances with water and measure the
pH of the diluted solutions with more indicator paper.
Questions
1 Identify which substance was the most acidic solution that
you tested (lowest pH).
2 Identify which substance was the most basic solution that
you tested (highest pH).
3 Describe what happens to the pH of an acid when the acid
is diluted in water. Figure 1 pH paper and charts can determine whether a substance
4 Use your answer to question 3 to describe a way of is acidic, basic or neutral.
treating a burn caused by acid.
Aim Inquiry
To make an indicator from red cabbage and demonstrate
What if another plant, flower or fruit was used to create an
how it can be used to identify acids and bases
indicator?
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry
Materials > 2 × 250 mL beakers
question.
> 2 leaves from a fresh red > Strainer
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry.
cabbage (shredded) > 0.1 M hydrochloric
acid > Identify the (independent) variable that you will change
> 0.1 M sodium hydroxide from the red cabbage method.
> Water > Stick blender
> Describe how you will measure whether the plant, flower
> Stirring rod > Test tubes and test-tube
or fruit (dependent variable) is an indicator. Predict the
rack
> Spotting tile colour changes you might expect.
> A variety of household
> Plastic disposable > Identify two variables that you will need to control to
products (e.g. shampoo,
pipettes ensure a valid test. Describe how you will control these
vinegar, baking soda)
> Dropper variables.
> Identify the materials you will need for your experiment.
Red cabbage contains a water-soluble pigment called flavin, > Write down the method you will use to complete your
which is also found in plums, poppies, grapes and apple skin. investigation in your logbook.
Very acidic solutions will turn flavin red, neutral solutions > Draw up a table to record your results.
result in a purplish colour, and alkaline solutions appear > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
greenish yellow if flavin is added to them. starting your experiment.
Method Results
1 To make the indicator: Include your table of observations.
a Place the shredded red cabbage leaves in a beaker.
b Cover the cabbage leaves with water and blend the Discussion
mixture until the water is purple. 1 Identify a colour change that can be used to determine the
c Strain the liquid into another beaker and save it, and pH of a substance added to red cabbage.
then discard the cabbage leaves. 2 Identify the colour that the extract from your plant
2 To test the indicator: becomes in:
a Add a small amount of hydrochloric acid (using a a an acid
pipette) to a test tube and then add a few drops of red b a base
cabbage indicator. c water.
b Record any colour change in a table. 3 Describe any limitations of your experiment (by describing
c Add a small amount of water (neutral solution) to a test conditions where your extract will become inaccurate,
tube and then add a few drops of red cabbage indicator. describing the sensitivity of your extract or if it can
d Record any colour change in your table. determine the difference between pH 1 and pH 2, and how
e Add a small amount of sodium hydroxide (basic expensive your extract would be to produce for chemical
solution) to a test tube and then add a few drops of red laboratories or manufacturing chemicals).
cabbage indicator.
Conclusion
f Record any colour change in your table.
Describe what you know about indicators and how they are
3 Test a variety of products, such as shampoo, vinegar and
produced.
baking soda in water, by adding a few drops of red cabbage
indicator solution to them.
4 Record the colour changes and determine which products
are acids and which are bases.
CAUTION! Ensure that you wear safety goggles at all 6 Record how much sodium hydroxide you needed to add
times during this experiment. Avoid skin contact with
from the measuring cylinder.
the hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions.
1 M hydrochloric acid can give a small chemical burn. If 7 Carefully empty and rinse out your glassware. Add 5.0 mL
contact occurs, wash skin with tap water immediately. of hydrochloric acid to the beaker and the amount of
sodium hydroxide that you recorded in step 6.
Aim 8 Pour the solution into a Petri dish and leave open in a safe
To investigate neutralisation reactions. place in the laboratory for a few hours. As the solution
evaporates, record your observations.
Materials > Dropping pipettes
> 1 M hydrochloric acid > 10 mL measuring Results
cylinder
> 1 M sodium hydroxide Present your results in a table.
solution > 100 mL beaker
> Petri dish Discussion
> Universal indicator
solution in a dropper > Water 1 Identify the reactants and products in a neutralising reaction.
bottle 2 Explain why is it essential to rinse the measuring cylinder
with water after it is used.
2 Explain why the experiment was repeated without the
Method
indicator.
1 Using the measuring cylinder, transfer 5.0 mL of 3 Explain how you could produce the solid salt more quickly
hydrochloric acid into the beaker and then rinse out the in the last step of the method.
measuring cylinder with water. Leave the test tubes in the
4 Explain why you should not taste the product of this
test-tube rack throughout the experiment. reaction to check whether salt has been produced.
2 Add 2 drops of universal indicator solution to the acid. 5 Describe the shape of the salt crystals produced. Explain
3 Pour 10 mL of the sodium hydroxide solution into the what this shape tells you about the arrangement of the
measuring cylinder. particles inside the salt crystals.
4 Using the dropping pipette, add drops of the sodium
hydroxide from the measuring cylinder to the acid in the Conclusion
beaker. Carefully mix the solution between each drop. Explain what you know about neutralising reactions.
5 Stop adding the sodium hydroxide when the acid has been
neutralised. (The indicator will turn green at this point.)
What you need > Small zip-lock sandwich 3 Dip the plastic spoon into the mixture and put a small
bag
> 1 tablespoon icing sugar amount on your tongue.
> Measuring spoons
> ¼ teaspoon sodium
bicarbonate (baking > Plastic spoon Questions
soda) > Marker pen 1 Describe what happened to the sherbet when it mixed with
> ¼ teaspoon citric acid the saliva in your mouth.
> 1 teaspoon flavoured 2 Identify the three substances that were formed.
jelly crystals 3 Describe how the sherbet felt on your tongue. Describe the
differences in tastes you observed.
What to do 4 Evaluate whether carbonates and bicarbonates should
be described as bases (by defining ‘base’, comparing
Do this experiment in a food preparation area so that the
carbonates and bicarbonates to this definition, and
sherbet is safe to eat.
deciding whether they match the definition and should
1 Make sure the utensils are clean and dry. therefore be described as a base).
2 Mix all the ingredients in the sandwich bag and label the
bag with your name.
CAUTION! Ensure that you wear safety goggles at all > Identify two variables that you will need to control to
times during this activity. Avoid skin contact with the acid.
ensure a valid test. Describe how you will control these
1 M hydrochloric acid can give a small chemical burn. If
contact occurs, wash skin with tap water immediately. variables.
> Identify the materials that you will need for your
Aim experiment.
To determine what factors protect a metal from acid rain. > Write down the method you will use to complete your
investigation in your logbook.
Materials > Matches > Draw up a table to record your results.
> 1 M hydrochloric acid > A variety of materials > Show your teacher your planning for approval before
that could be used starting your experiment.
> Test tubes and test-tube
as a barrier (e.g.
rack
petroleum jelly, Results
> Small pieces of metals
candle wax, Describe your observations. Draw or take pictures of the metal
(e.g. aluminium, copper,
masking tape, before and after exposure to the acid.
iron, magnesium, tin and
sticky tape)
zinc) to fit into test tubes Discussion
1 Describe (summarise) the observations you made about
Method
how the different metals reacted with the acid.
Work collaboratively to complete this experiment.
2 Identify the metal that was the most reactive with the acid.
1 Add a small piece of one metal to a test tube and pour in Justify your answer (by comparing the observations of the
enough acid to cover it. different metals, describing the strongest/fastest reaction,
2 Gently place your thumb over the top of the test tube to and identifying the metal that was responsible for this
allow any gas to accumulate. reaction).
3 After about 1 minute, there should be pressure on your 3 Identify the metal that was the least reactive with the acid.
thumb from the gas trying to escape. Another student Justify your answer.
should light a match (or use a lighter) and carefully bring it 4 Describe the success of your method of protecting the
to the end of the test tube as you take your thumb away. metal. Justify your answer (by comparing the observations
4 Observe what happens (e.g. bubbling, metal dissolving, of your protected metal to the unreacted metal and
colour change, test tube warming) and record your deciding whether the outcome matches your hypothesis).
observations in a table. 5 Compare your results to those of the rest of your class, to
5 Repeat steps 1–4 for each metal. identify the most successful method of protection.
Inquiry 6 Describe the limitations of your results (by describing
situations where the methods of protection would not work
What if a metal was protected from the acid?
in the real world).
Answer the following questions with regard to your inquiry
question. Conclusion
> Write a hypothesis (If … then … because …) for your inquiry. Describe what you know about reactions between metals and
> Identify the (independent) variable that you will change acid, and how these can be prevented.
from the first method to protect the metal.
> Identify the (dependent) variable that you will measure
and/or observe.
What to do Questions
1 Observe what happens to objects that have been charged by a 1 Describe the three rules of electrostatic charges.
van de Graaff generator. Record your observations in a table. 2 Explain what happens in each example, using your
2 Your teacher may demonstrate any of the following: knowledge of electrostatic charge.
a a smaller sphere held near a larger sphere
b paper streamers attached to the top
What to do
1 Construct a simple circuit containing a battery, a light globe
and a switch. It is a good idea to start at a particular part
of the circuit (e.g. the positive terminal of the battery) and
work your way sequentially around.
Figure 1 Where might a circuit with a globe and a switch be useful?
2 Draw the circuit diagram for the circuit.
3 Pull the circuit apart and reuse the components. Construct
a different circuit with a battery, a globe and two switches so
that the globe lights up only when both switches are closed.
Questions
4 Draw the circuit diagram for this circuit. 1 Define the term ‘series circuit’.
5 Pull the circuit apart and reuse the components. Connect 2 Describe where a series circuit with two light globes and
up a different circuit with a battery, a globe and two a single switch might be useful.
switches so that the globe lights up if either one of the 3 Describe where a circuit with two switches and a single
switches is closed. light globe might be useful.
6 Draw the circuit diagram for this circuit. 4 Describe a situation where a series circuit would not be
> Where might a circuit like this be useful? useful.
What to do
1 Construct four circuits, placing the switch so that it controls:
a both globes, with both either on or off at the same time
b one globe only, with the other on all the time
c the other globe only, with the first globe on all the time
d both globes, with one globe on when the other is off
and vice-versa.
Follow step 2 before you disconnect each circuit.
2 Draw the circuit diagram to show where the switch was
placed in each circuit.
3 Connect an ammeter at different places in each circuit and
measure the current at each point. Figure 1 How many ways can you connect multiple globes in a circuit?
1st digit
2nd digit
Multiplier
Tolerance
Conclusion
Figure 1 Circuit set-up Describe what you know about Ohm’s law.
What you need 2 Make sure the device that the remote belongs to is turned
> Wireless remote device with a working remote control off. With your back to the device, angle the mirror so that
> Mirror you can see the device. Point the remote control towards
> Smart phone the mirror and push the ‘on’ button. Can you activate the
device?
What to do Questions
1 Most remote-control devices use infrared LEDs to send 1 Define the term ‘LED’.
their signal. This colour of light is outside the visible
2 Explain how the device is able to detect the signal from the
spectrum. You can test whether a remote control is working LED.
by using the camera function on your smart phone. Open
3 Explain how you were able to use the mirror to switch on
the camera app on your phone and switch it to the front-
the device.
facing camera. Point the remote at the camera and press any
button on the remote.
> Describe what you see in the camera picture.
Aim Discussion
To investigate the magnetic field around a single wire and
1 Explain why the magnetic field around the solenoid is
a solenoid when connected to direct current (DC) and
stronger than around the wire.
alternating current (AC).
2 Explain the difference in pulling the nail out of the solenoid
Materials > Long insulated wire with the power on and off.
> Different-shaped > Iron nail 3 Explain the effect of the stand on the ease or difficulty of
magnets > Connecting wires removing the nail from the core.
> Iron filings > 2 plotting compasses 4 Describe the effects of DC and AC on the nail.
> Sheet of A4 paper > Retort stand 5 Explain why the iron nail became hotter when the solenoid
was switched on.
> AC/DC 12 V power
supply Conclusion
Describe the effects of an electric current on the magnetic field
Method surrounding a wire and a solenoid.
1 Arrange the magnets under the paper. Sprinkle the iron
filings on the top of the paper. The iron filings will align
with the magnetic field around the magnets. Draw the lines
that are created. Include arrows showing the magnetic
field moving from the north pole to the south pole of
the magnets. Put the iron filings away before starting the
next step.
2 Wrap the wire around the nail as many times as possible.
Remove the nail to make a solenoid.
3 Sit the solenoid on the retort stand base.
4 Connect the solenoid to the power supply. Use the DC
connections and turn the knob to 12 V. Before switching on
the power, position the plotting compass under one of the
connecting wires so that its needle is parallel to the wire.
5 Switch the power on and observe the compass needle.
Move the compass above the connecting wire and observe.
Test the other compass with the other connecting wire.
Record your observations.
6 Insert the nail into the solenoid. What do you notice during
this process? What happens to the temperature of the nail?
Try to pull the nail out of the solenoid while the power is still
on, and again after the power is off. Was there a difference?
Move the solenoid off the stand base and again try to remove Figure 1 The pattern of iron filings shows the magnetic field.
the nail while the power is on. Was there a difference?
7 Remove the nail and change the power to AC. Reinsert
the nail. Is there any evidence that the magnetic field is
vibrating? Does the nail get hot after a while?
Figure 1 High-voltage transmission lines carry electricity from power stations to our homes.
Sustainable farming
Sustainable farming practices use methods Figure 2 Drought impacts Australia’s production of important
crops, such as wheat.
that balance the needs of all members of the
community. This means that new and old • ecologically sound – if the local environment
technologies are used to make sure that food is not supported, then the land will be unable
production is: to support food production. Sustainable
• economically viable – if farmers cannot make farming also works to maintain the diversity
enough money to survive, then the farming of the local wildlife.
practice is not sustainable Sustainable farming uses technology to
• socially supportive – if the lifestyle of the increase the production of fresh, nutritious
farming community is not supported, then food while minimising the impact on the
people will not want to live in the area local environment.
208 OXFORD SCIENCE 9 VICTORIAN CURRICULUM OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Licensed to Nhan Nguyen, from until 2023-01-01.
HUMANITIES
In Geography this year, you will learn about food security around
the world and food production in Australia. You will investigate the
factors that influence crop yield (such as soil moisture) and how food
production can alter a biome. In Economics and Business, you will
study the agricultural resources (such as wheat) that form a large part of
Australia’s trade economy.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to investigate the
environmental constraints on agricultural production in Australia, such
as climate and distribution of water resources. You will also need to
understand the extent to which agricultural innovations have overcome
these constraints.
You will find more information on this in Chapter 3 ‘Food security’,
Chapter 2 ‘Biomes’ and Chapter 17 ‘Understanding the global economy’
of Oxford Humanities 9 Victorian Curriculum.
MATHS
In Maths this year, you will build on your knowledge of measurement
and geometry to determine areas and volumes of more complicated
shapes. You will be introduced to Pythagoras’ Theorem and
trigonometry. You will also extend your skills in collecting, representing
and investigating data.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to perform
calculations involving angles, lengths and areas of two-dimensional and
three-dimensional shapes. You will need to apply your understanding of
scale factors to build a prototype of your designed product. To consider
the situation at local, national and international scales, you will need
skills in dealing with ratios and proportions. You may also find it helpful
to use scientific notation for very large or very small numbers.
You will find help for applying these maths skills in Chapter 6
‘Measurement and geometry’, Chapter 7 ‘Pythagoras’ Theorem and
trigonometry’, and section 2E ‘Scientific notation’ of Oxford Maths 9
Victorian Curriculum.
SCIENCE
In Science this year, you will learn about the biotic and abiotic factors
that support and maintain ecosystems. You will consider the role of
different nutrients and sunlight on plants and the effects each of these
will have on the surrounding ecosystem.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to understand the
factors required to keep a system, such as a vertical garden, alive. You
may need to consider how these factors can be monitored and controlled
automatically. You will also need to be familiar with the scientific
method, and understand how to conduct a fair test.
You will find more information on this in Chapter 2 ‘Ecosystems’ of
Oxford Science 9 Victorian Curriculum.
Check your student obook pro for the following digital resources to help you with this STEAM project:
Student guidebook What is the design cycle? How to manage a project How to pitch your idea
This helpful booklet will This video will help you to This ‘how-to’ video will This ‘how-to’ video
guide you step-by-step better understand each help you to manage your will help you with the
through the project. phase of the design cycle. time throughout the ‘Communicate’ phase of
design cycle. your project.
Check your Teacher obook pro for these digital resources and more:
MATHS
In Maths this year, you will extend your skills in representing and
interpreting data. You will consider media reports that use statistics
and collect secondary data to investigate social issues. You will relate
real-world data to probabilities of events, and compare data sets using
summary statistics and different graphical displays. You will evaluate
and represent data, both with and without digital technology.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to find data to
quantify the problem, work out how much your strategy will cost,
and calculate a quantitative, evidence-based estimate of the possible
benefits of your strategy. You will need skills in dealing with ratios,
proportions and percentages to consider the situation at local, national
and international scales.
You will find help for applying these maths skills in sections 1A
‘Calculator skills’ and Chapter 8 ‘Statistics’ of Oxford Maths 9 Victorian
Curriculum.
SCIENCE
In Science this year, you will learn about how the body coordinates and
regulates its internal systems so that it can respond to changes. When
things change in the environment (such as the emergence of a disease-
causing agent), or a part of the body fails, the normal functioning of the
body is interrupted. The body needs to respond and attempt to return to
a normal homeostatic state before permanent damage is caused.
To complete this task successfully, you will need to identify how
pressure have reduced the rate of
the body’s systems work together to maintain a functioning body. You
strokes by 70 per cent.
should consider the type of disorder or disease that you will be fighting,
• Personal protective equipment
and how it may cause changes in the body’s normal function and
(PPE) is used to protect people
response mechanisms.
from catching infectious diseases,
You will find more information on this in Chapter 3 ‘Control and
such as Covid-19.
regulation’ of Oxford Science 9 Victorian Curriculum.
Check your Student obook pro for the following digital resources to help you with this STEAM project:
Student guidebook What is the design cycle? How to manage a project How to pitch your idea
This helpful booklet will This video will help you to This ‘how-to’ video will This ‘how-to’ video
guide you step-by-step better understand each help you to manage your will help you with the
through the project. phase of the design cycle. time throughout the ‘Communicate’ phase of
design cycle. your project.
Check your Teacher obook pro for these digital resources and more:
OS
controls involuntary actions such as
accuracy heartbeat, breathing and digestion
how carefully, correctly and consistently
data has been measured or processed; in axon
science, how close a measured value is to the part of a neuron (nerve cell) that
the true value carries an electrical message away from
the cell body to the synapse
aerobic respiration
the second step in the breakdown of
glucose to carbon dioxide and water; B
SA
occurs in the mitochondria when B cell
oxygen is present and produces 34 ATP an immune system cell that produces
molecules antibodies in response to pathogens
alkali beta particle
a base that dissolves in water a radioactive particle (high-speed electron
alkaline solution or positron) with little mass; can be
a solution that consists of a base dissolved stopped by aluminium or tin foil
in water biological control
RY
allergy a method of controlling a population by
an overreaction by the immune system in releasing a living organism (a parasite or
consumer) into an ecosystem
response to pollen, dust or other non-
pathogens biosphere
a layer around the Earth's surface that
alpha particle
supports life; consists of the atmosphere,
a radioactive particle containing two
hydrosphere and lithosphere
protons and two neutrons; can be stopped
by a piece of paper biotic
relating to the living organisms in an
alternating current (AC) ecosystem
electrical current that flows first in one
direction, then in the opposite direction, Bohr model
then back in the first direction and so on; a model of the atom in which electrons
electrical energy is usually generated in orbit the nucleus in a series of defined
this form in a power station orbits known as shells
alternator brushes
a generator that produces alternating a pair of contacts that bring current into
current (AC) through the use of slip rings an armature (motor) or take current out
of an armature (generator)
anaphylaxis
a life-threatening overreaction by the
immune system to a normally harmless C
substance capture–recapture
anion a method of estimating the number of
a negatively charged ion formed when an organisms in an ecosystem by capturing,
atom gains electrons marking and releasing a sample of the
organisms
antibody
a molecule produced by B cells that binds carbon dating
to a specific pathogen a method of estimating the age of organic
material, by comparing the amount
armature of carbon-14 in the material with the
coils of current-carrying wire in a motor amount in the atmosphere, knowing the
or generator rate at which carbon-14 decays over time
evaporation
a chemical messenger that travels through
blood vessels to target cells
M
a change in state from liquid to magma
gas; also a technique used to separate hydrocarbon semiliquid rock beneath the Earth’s
dissolved solids from water a molecule that contains only carbon surface
and hydrogen atoms
exothermic reaction mantle
a chemical reaction that releases energy in the layer of molten rock beneath the
the form of heat or light I Earth’s crust
immune mass number
able to fight an infection as a result of a number that represents the total
F prior exposure number of protons and neutrons in the
fault centre of an atom
a fracture in rock where the tectonic immune system
plates have moved a system of organs and structures that mating
protect an organism against disease the pairing of a male and female of a
fuel species to produce offspring (babies)
a substance that undergoes a chemical independent variable
reaction producing large amounts of energy a variable (factor) that is changed in matter
an experiment anything that has space and volume;
fuse matter is made up of atoms
a wire of high resistance; it will melt if too indicator
much current flows in the circuit a substance that changes colour in the memory cell
presence of an acid or a base an immune system cell produced in
response to an infection; retains the
insulator
G a substance that prevents the movement
memory of how to fight the pathogen
gamma rays of thermal or electrical energy metal oxide
high-energy electromagnetic rays released a molecule containing a metal and oxygen
interneuron
as a part of radioactive decay; can be
a nerve cell that links sensory and motor mid-ocean ridge
stopped by lead
neurons; also known as a connector a series of underwater mountains that
generator neuron form as a result of tectonic plates moving
a machine that uses the electromagnetic apart and allowing magma to rise to
ion the surface
effect to separate charges and produce
an atom that is charged because it
electricity
has an unequal number of electrons migration
glycolysis and protons the movement of a single organism or
the first part of cell respiration in which a population from one ecosystem to
isotope another
glucose is broken down to produce energy
an atom of a particular element that
group has more or fewer neutrons in its mitochondrion
a vertical list of elements in the periodic nucleus than another atom of the an organelle of a cell, where energy is
table that have characteristics in common same element produced (plural: mitochondria)
DE
use of ecosystems 42 mass 99, 100–1
absorbency of paper towels 163 mass number 100
accuracy 4, 5, 164 ratio in a compound 96, 187
mathematical 5–6 representing 100
acid rain 124–5, 195 Rutherford’s experiments 98–9
acidic oceans and coral carbonates 122–3 Rutherford’s model 99, 188
acidity 121 subatomic particles 98–9
acids 120 Thomson’s model 98
concentration 121 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 32, 34
how to tell if a substance is an acid 120, 192 Australia
X
neutralisation reactions 122 earthquake and tsunami risk 89
pH values 121 fuel use 128–9
reacting with bases 122–3, 194 natural disasters 174
reacting with metal carbonates or Australian plants, adaptation to fire 39
bicarbonates 122 autoimmune diseases 73
reacting with metals to produce hydrogen autonomic nervous system 57
and a salt 124–5 axons 52
strength 120, 121
adrenal glands 60–1
adrenalin 60, 61 B
B cells 71, 73
aerobic respiration 34
backbone 58
afferent neurons 53
bacteria 68, 69
agriculture
bases 120
food production and biodiversity 43
how to tell if a substance is a base 120, 192
sustainable farming practices 208–11
pH values 121
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome) 73 reacting with acids 122, 194
air, gas balance 19 bats 19, 49
airborne microbes, factors affecting growth 182 batteries 134, 135, 136–7
alcohol 34 in series and in parallel 139
algal blooms 41 beaded counting 168
alkaline solutions 120 beta particles (beta radiation) 108, 112
alkalinity 121 biodiversity 18, 42, 43
alkalis 120 biofuels 128–9
allergies 72 biological control 28
alpha particles (alpha radiation) 98, 108, 112 biosphere 18, 165
alternating current (AC) 136, 152, 153 biotic factors 18, 24, 209
alternators 153 birds 19
Alzheimer’s disease 59 births 24
Amasia (possible supercontinent) 90, 91 blood
americium-241 108 carbon dioxide level in 65
ammeters 137 radionuclide ‘labelling’ 113
amperes 137 and water regulation 64
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 58–9 blood clotting 70
anaemia 67 blood doping 66
anaerobic respiration 34 blood glucose levels 73
anaphylactic shock 73 regulation 63
anaphylaxis 72 Bohr, Niels
animals 19 emission spectra 103
anions 105, 122 model of the atom 102
antibiotics 69 bone scans 113
antibodies 71, 72 brain 56
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 60, 64 cross-section 59
armature 150 lobes of 56
asking questions 113 and senses 49, 50, 51, 54
assumptions, identifying 69 sheep’s brain dissection 179
atmosphere 18, 40 breast milk 71
atomic masses 106, 107 broken glass 3