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Geology and Geochemical exploration

 Lecture Three
Geochemical Anomalies and Mineral Deposits

Geological and geochemical processes fall into two groups, those that take place at or
near to the Earth's surface (surface processes) and those that take place at depth within
the Earth (internal processes).

3.1. Primary Geochemical Dispersion:

The migration of chemical elements or metals at depth within the Earth is called
primary geochemical dispersion or just primary dispersion. This includes the
dispersion of chemical elements by processes of metamorphism, by formation and
crystallization of magmas and by hydrothermal activity. The products of these
processes are the igneous and metamorphic rocks, which are very abundant within the
Earth's crust, and have a relatively limited range in chemical composition. They
contain very small quantities of economically important chemical elements or metals.

Locally, however, enrichment or depletion of chemical elements or metals occurs,

and these are known as geochemical anomalies or just anomalies. Enrichment or
positive geochemical anomalies may be great enough, with respect to the level of
concentration of chemical elements, to form mineral deposits.

Because these geochemical anomalies are part of the primary geochemical dispersion,
they are known as primary geochemical anomalies. They may have extreme
chemical compositions, as for example mineral deposits of native metals, such as
gold.

Redistribution of chemical elements (or metals) also takes place at or near the Earth's
surface, as a result of weathering, transportation and sedimentation, and biological
activity. The products of this secondary geochemical dispersion are the sedimentary
rocks, soils, natural waters and organisms, which again have a comparatively limite
drange in composition, except where local element enrichment or depletion occurs.
These are referred to as secondary geochemical anomalies. These geochemical
anomalies can greatly influence life, health and soil fertility, and can be used in the
detection of hidden or concealed ores.

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In mineral exploration, the geochemical anomalies that are of interest are the positive
ones, where there is an enrichment of a chemical element or metal. However, a
geochemical anomaly can also be negative in nature. Under certain circumstances, for
example, where a low concentration (depletion) of one chemical element is suspected
to be accompanied by an increase in concentration (enrichment) of another, negative
anomalies may be useful in geochemical prospecting. In this course, the geochemical
anomalies of chemical elements or metals that will be described will always be
positive.

3.2. Secondary Geochemical Dispersion:

The redistribution of chemical elements or metals by processes occurring on the

surface and near surface environment of the Earth is known as secondary
geochemical dispersion. There are three major processes of secondary geochemical
dispersion:

1.2.1. Clastic dispersion – this is the process by which solid particles of earth
materials are moved physically.
1.2.2. Hydromorphic dispersion – this is the process by which solid particles are
dissolved by water, and are transported in chemical solution.
1.2.3. Biogenic dispersion – this is the process by which solid particles are
moved by biological activity.

The secondary geochemical anomalies that are caused by these three dispersion
patterns may be of distinct type, and can lead to the detection of hidden or concealed
ore bodies.

In general, knowledge of the direction and the degree of movement, which have
resulted in the secondary dispersion of chemical elements from an ore body, will
often give good clues to the location of the primary geochemical anomaly. But unless
we can detect geochemical anomalies in the secondary dispersion pattern, the hidden
primary geochemical anomaly will remain undiscovered. Let us now examine the
characteristic form of the dispersion patterns caused by these three processes, and the
resulting secondary geochemical anomalies.

3.2.1. Clastic dispersion patterns

Clastic dispersion patterns occur in soil, sediments and glacial deposits. In the case of
a simple residual soil overlying and formed from the underlying bedrock, the

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distribution of a chemical element or metal in the soil from a vein of an ore deposit
may reflect the chemical element distribution in the bedrock (primary dispersion
pattern), which is illustrated in Figure 1a. This simple clastic dispersion pattern may
be distorted by several natural factors.

Figure 1a Figure 1b Figure 1c

Figure 1. Clastic dispersion patterns in soil, illustrated by cross-sections.

(a) Pattern resulting from undisturbed weathering of a steeply inclined vein of an ore
deposit.
(b) Pattern resulting from undisturbed weathering of a steeply inclined vein of an ore
deposit [similar to (a), but with compaction of the soil.
(c) Pattern resulting from undisturbed weathering of a steeply inclined vein of an ore
deposit [similar to (a), but with soil creeping down slope due to gravity (from Open
University, 1972, Fig. 1, p.9; published by permission of Open University Press).

Question 1:-
What would happen to the clastic dispersion pattern, if the soil in Figure 1a were to
be:
(i) strongly compacted, or
(ii) subject to movement by a process called soil creep?

Answer:
The answers to this question can be seen respectively in Figures 1b and 1c. In both of
these cases the movement of the weathered solid particles was rather little.

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Clastic dispersion patterns are also caused by wind (Figure 2) and water movement
(Figure 3). The shapes of these patterns depend largely upon the dispersion medium
(wind or water), and the distance the solid particles are moved by it.
Figure 2.

Figure 2. Clastic dispersion patterns caused by the action of wind around a mass of exposed
ore vein. The clastic dispersion is shown by a plan and a cross-section (from Open University,
1972, Fig. 2a, p.9; published by permission of Open University Press).

In Figure 2 the clastic dispersion pattern resulting from wind transport is shown in a
plan and a cross-section in order to understand fully the process. The ore vein is
exposed, meaning that part of it is on the surface of the Earth, and the geologist
describes this feature as an outcrop or exposure. The outcropping or exposed ore
vein, together with its surrounding rock material, is eroded by the action of wind, and
the solid particles are subsequently deposited (laid down) with the change of wind
velocity. The longest dispersion or movement of the solid particles from the ore vein
is along the prevailing wind direction, as is shown by the two diagrams. Note that
there is a greater concentration of solid ore particles near to the outcrop, and the
proportion of particles becomes less with distance.
Figure 3

Figure 3. Clastic dispersion patterns caused by the action of running water on a mass of
exposed ore vein. The clastic dispersion is shown by a plan and a cross-section (from
Open University, 1972, Fig. 2b, p.9; published by permission of Open University Press).

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In Figure 3 the clastic dispersion pattern resulting from water transport is again
shown in a plan and a cross-section in order to understand fully the process. The ore
vein is exposed on the surface of the Earth. Theoutcropping or exposed ore vein,
together with its surrounding rock material, is eroded by the action of running water,
and the solid particles are transported by the stream water down stream. As the water
velocity changes, when the stream leaves the mountainous area and enters into the
comparatively flat area of the plain, the solid particles are deposited or laiddown in a
fan known as an outwash fan. Note again that there is a greater concentration of solid
ore particles near to the outcropping ore vein, and the proportion of particles becomes
less with distance.

3.2.2. Hydromorphic dispersion patterns

Water is able to dissolve slowly earth materials with which it comes in contact with.
In our case, water coming in contact with a mass of ore dissolves some parts of it, and
this soluble material is moved or transported in solution. This soluble ore material in
surface water of streams or rivers (Figure 4), or in groundwater (Figure 6), is
dispersed, and it is a kind of secondary dispersion pattern in solution. If this soluble
ore material, which is moved or transported by water, is precipitated or deposited,
when the physico-chemicalconditionsallow this process to happen, then a secondary
geochemical pattern is formed (Figure 5), the shape of which will clearly depend upon
the prevailing local water flow direction.

Figure 4.

Figure 4.Hydromorphic dispersion pattern within stream water. The width of the stream is
proportional to the concentration of dissolved chemical elements or metals in stream water
(from Open University, 1972, Fig. 3a, p.9; published by permission of Open University Press).

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Figure 5.

Figure 5. Hydromorphic dispersion pattern produced by solution and reprecepitationof

chemical elements or metals from the ore through soil moisture movements round the ore
vein (from Open University, 1972, Fig. 3b, p.9; published by permission of Open University
Press).

Figure 6.

Figure 6. Subsurface fan developed from lateral groundwater flow; a lateral surface
pattern is developed into the seepage area (from Open University, 1972, Fig. 5b, p.10;
published by permission of Open University Press).

In Figure 6 we see a hydromorphic dispersion pattern that has been formed by

groundwater. Chemical elements or metals from the ore vein are dissolved by
groundwater, and are carried in solution along its flow direction. The chemical
elements in solution reach finally the seepage area, marshy ground in this case. They
either stay in solution or are deposited or precipitated just below the water table,
when the physico-chemical conditions allow this process to happen.

3.2.3. Biogenic dispersion patterns

The metal content of living or decayed plant remains constitutes another type of
secondary dispersion pattern (Figure 7). The shape of the secondary dispersion pattern
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depends on the available chemical elements or metals in the root zone of the plants,
which relies on the supply of chemical elements in soil (soil water) and groundwater.
Therefore, biogenic dispersion patterns may depend upon other types of dispersion
pattern. Consequently, they are often less well defined than the other two types of
geochemical dispersion patterns. However, strong biogenic dispersion patterns may
form, when the plants arerooted directly in an underlying ore deposit.
Figure 7.

Figure 7. A biogenic dispersion pattern, produced by the movement of dissolved

chemical elements in groundwater and soil water at depth and concentration near the
surface as a result of biological processes (from Open University, 1972, Fig. 4, p.10;
published by permission of Open University Press).

In Figure 7 chemical elements or metals are dissolved by groundwater in contact with

the ore vein, and are transported in solution in the direction of groundwater flow.
Plant roots take up nutrients from the aqueous or water solutions. The concentration
of chemical elements in the living or decayingplant remains depends on the supply
from the roots. Therefore, we see that the far left plant in Figure 7 has not taken up
anychemical elements or metals from the ore vein, because it is an area where the
water solution does not contain any chemical elements from the ore. The plant on its
right, however, has its roots directly in the ore vein, and chemical elements are
uptaken in a comparatively large proportion, whereas the next two plants on the right,
take up a lesser proportion of chemical elements ormetals.

Question 2: Study Figure 8a, b and c, and read the description below each figure.
Then answer the question, before you read the given answer.

Which of these secondary geochemical patterns represents clastic, hydromorphic and

biogenic dispersion patterns?

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Figure 8

(a) (b) (c)

Α stream erodes an area with An ore vein is in contact with A plant has its
abnormal concentrations of a groundwater, which is able to roots in an ore
chemical element or metal, dissolve some of the chemical vein, and
which are in the soil (Soil elements or metals that are in the chemical
anomaly). The stream ore. The chemical elements are elements or
sediment contains, there fore, carried in aqueous or water metals are taken
abnormal concentrations of solution by groundwater in the up by the plant.
the chemical element. direction of its flow, and a
subsurface fan is formed. When
the groundwater reaches the
surface into the seepage area
(marshy ground) a lateral surface
geochemical pattern is developed.
Figure 8. Secondary dispersion patterns for study with Question 2 (from Open
University, 1972, Fig. 5, p.10; published by permission of Open University Press).

Answer:
(8a) It is a clastic dispersion pattern, since it has been produced by a physical
movement of an abnormal concentration of a chemical element or metal insoil
(soil anomaly) by the stream.
(8b) It is a hydromorphic dispersion pattern, because it has been produced by the
movement of dissolved solids in groundwater away from the buried ore vein,
followed by their deposition just below the water table.
(8c) It is a biogenic dispersion pattern. Although movement of the chemicalelement
has been effected partly in an aqueous solution, the pattern hasbeen produced by
concentration of the metal near to the plant roots as aresult of biological activity.
Therefore, this is predominantly a biogenicdispersion pattern, which depends
upon another, a hydromorphic dispersionpattern, as is in this case.

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By studying all the above Figures 1 to 8, where the dark red band represents an ore
body (primary geochemical anomaly), you can see how it is possible to plan a
geochemical survey to detect a hidden or concealed ore deposit by studying various
kinds of secondary geochemical dispersion patterns.

Question 3. Which two major factors determine the relationship between a primary
geochemical anomaly (e.g., an ore body), and its secondary dispersion
pattern?

Answer: The two major factors are:

(1) the degree of transport in the secondary dispersion pattern, and
(2) the direction of this transport.

In general, the most important point to explain such a relationship is a knowledge of

the direction and degree of movement, caused by different processes or dominant
process, which have produced the secondary dispersion, will often give good clues to
the location of the primary geochemical anomaly. But unless we can detect
geochemical anomalies in the secondary dispersion pattern, the hidden primary
geochemical anomaly will remain undiscovered. The question, therefore, is: how do
we find secondary geochemical anomalies? The answer is by a well planned
geochemical survey.

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