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PR 1 4TH QTR Reviewer
PR 1 4TH QTR Reviewer
PR 1 4TH QTR Reviewer
Module 5
Similar to building a house, a research design is your guide for you to finish your research. This may include
answering the 5W’s:
What? Why? Who? Where? When?
Dawson (2002) explains the importance of these questions on how you are going to get the answers for your
research questions.
What is your research all about? What do you want to find out? What problems do you want to solve? Answers
to these questions will give you guide on how you are going to approach your research topic.
Why do you want to do your research? This question should be answered at the significance of the study.
Whatever the reason may be, it is important to have a clear vision on why you want to continue your research.
Who will take part in your research? Who will participate in your study? You should have a clear indication on
the specific type of people that will take part in your study (age, gender, economic status, etc.).
Where will you gather all information needed for your research? This part of your research should take into
consideration your capabilities as a researcher. If you think that your data and participants in research will be too far
away, then it’s much better to change your topic.
Finally, when are you going to start gathering information for your research? When will you do interviews?
When will you interpret and analyze your data? This should be answered immediately knowing that you only have a
short time in completing your work.
Choosing the appropriate research design
There are 4 approaches in research design:
● Ethnography
From the word ethno=people and graphy= writing. Ethnography translates to writing about people. This type of
approach to qualitative research aims to study a particular group of people in their natural settings. This particular study
wants to describe and interpret the behavior of different kinds of people, culture or population. This can pertain to a
specific type of culture, community, school, or workplace.
● Case Study
If you want to learn deeper and more specific details of a certain situation, group of people or an individual, you
may want to use case studies. The difference of case study with other approaches to qualitative research is that it gives a
more in-depth analysis to a topic with a use of more data gathering procedures at the same time. The problem with case
studies is that it’s more difficult to use especially if it is your first time making a research paper.
● Phenomenology
This type of approach to qualitative research wants to study the phenomenon or experiences of people. The
purpose of this approach is to give an idea on how individuals or a group of people react or experience a certain
phenomenon. A phenomenon can be a rare occurrence or an experience of an individual that is not common. An
example of this can be applied when we want to study about the experiences of teenagers to bullying or physical abuse.
● Historical Approach
Historical approach is a systematic collection and evaluation of information which have occurred in the past. This
can be in a form of documents, stories, artifacts, videos, etc. What you want to do is to examine the validity of these
documents, or if you want to add more information about a past event that hasn’t yet emerged.
Lesson 2: SAMPLING
Population - the complete group of people, animals or objects that have the same characteristics that the research
needs.
Sample - a group of individuals that represent the population. The process of choosing a sample is called sampling.
STEPS IN SAMPLING
1. Identify the population of interest
2. Specify a sampling frame
3. Specify a sampling method
a. Probability Sampling - is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a
method based on the theory of probability.
i. Simple Random Sampling – method of collecting data where every single member of a population is
chosen randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the exact same probability of being chosen to be a
part of a sample.
ii. Cluster Sampling – a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or
clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample on the basis of defining
demographic parameters such as age, location, sex etc.
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iii. Systematic Sampling - a method where members of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of a
population. It requires selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at
regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined interval and hence this sampling technique is
the least time-consuming.
iv. Stratified Random Sampling - a method where the population can be divided into smaller groups, that
don’t overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling, these groups can be organized and
then draw a sample from each group separately.
b. Non-probability Sampling - is reliant on a researcher’s ability to select members at random. This sampling
method is not a fixed or pre-defined selection process which makes it difficult for all elements of a population to
have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
i. Purposeful/Purposive Sampling - is the most common sampling strategy. In this type of sampling,
participants are selected or sought based on pre-selected criteria based on the research question.
ii. Quota Sampling - is a sampling technique whereby participant quotas are preset prior to sampling.
Typically, the researcher is attempting to gather data from a certain number of participants that meet certain
characteristics that may include things such as age, sex, class, marital status, HIV status, etc.
iii. Snowball Sampling - is also known as chain referral sampling. In this method, the participants refer
the researcher to others who may be able to potentially contribute or participate in the study.
iv. Opportunistic Sampling- this is a type of sampling that takes sample or respondents that are readily
available.
v. Convenience Sampling- using this kind of sampling technique involves selecting people that are the
most convenient for you as a researcher.
4. Determine your sample size
There can be two approaches to determine your sample size:
a. You determine your sample size depending on whether your data will reach its saturation point.
What does saturation point of a data?
When you conduct face to face interviews with your respondents, you may notice that there will be
patterns and similar answers to your questions as you increase the number of people that you are interviewing.
b. Another way to choose sample size depends on the type of approach that you are going to use for
your research. It was cited from Creswell (2013) that 1-10 subjects are recommended for
phenomenology. Dukes (1984) stated that there should be 20-30 individuals for grounded theory and
Charmaz (2006) indicated that there should be 4-5 respondents for case studies and a single culture-
sharing group for ethnography.
5. Implement the plan
There are two classifications of data based on their use and source.
PRIMARY DATA refers to first-hand information based on actual experiences or observations. This kind of data is
more reliable to use because it is gathered by the actual researchers.
SECONDARY DATA are data that are gathered from secondary sources such as but not limited to previous
research, audio recordings or books. One advantage of secondary data is that it is readily available to use.
2. Observations
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Commonly used in ethnography research. This happens when a researcher observes and takes notes of the
behavior of people that they want to be a part of their research.
There are three types of observations:
a. Naturalistic Observation- this happens when a researcher observes the behavior of a group of people in their
natural setting
b. Participative Observation- this observation happens when a researcher takes part on the activities of the
group of people that they are observing.
c. Non-naturalistic Observation- this type of observation happens when you take your respondents out of their
natural environment and put them in an environment of your choice. Non-naturalistic observation is where you as a
researcher decides what is the “ideal” environment for you to complete your research.
3. Questionnaires
There are three types of questionnaires:
a. Closed-ended questionnaires- this type of questionnaire is similar to a structured interview. This is mostly used
when you want to conduct surveys on your respondents. This is mostly for statistical purposes and the questions are
already prepared for your respondents to answer. These types of questionnaires usually have boxes for the respondents
to put a check mark.
b. Open-ended questionnaires- unlike close-ended questionnaires, this type of questionnaire leaves a blank space
for the respondents to give their point of view about a specific question.
c. Combination of both- this type of questionnaire combines both the close-ended and open-ended questionnaires.
For example, you may want to ask a yes or no question to your respondents and also want them to explain why they
have answered yes or no.
4. Focus Group Discussion
This type of data gathering instrument focuses on groups of people being interviewed at the same time. The
researcher serves as the moderator or facilitator. Put three or more people around a table and give them guide
questions for them to discuss among themselves. Your role as the researcher and facilitator is to take note of their
discussions.
Module 6
Lesson 1: INFER PATTERNS AND THEMES FROM THE GATHERED DATA
THE PATTERN, THEME, and CODE
A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word phrase which symbolically defines a summative, salient,
essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data.
A theme is generated when similar issues and ideas expressed by participants within qualitative data are
brought together by the researcher into a single category or cluster.
There are 6 steps in thematic analysis. We will discuss in detail in each step.
1. Familiarization with the data: This phase involves reading and re-reading the data, to become immersed and
intimately familiar with its content.
2. Coding - this phase involves generating succinct labels (codes) that identify important features of the data
that might be relevant to answering the research question. It involves coding the entire dataset, and after that, collating
all the codes and all relevant data extracts, together for later stages of analysis.
3. Searching for Themes. This phase involves examining the codes and collated data to identify significant
broader patterns of meaning (potential themes). It then involves collating data relevant to each candidate theme, so
that you can work with the data and review the viability of each candidate theme.
4. Reviewing themes. This phase involves checking the candidate themes against the data set, to determine if
they tell a convincing story of the data, and one that answers the research question. In this phase, themes are typically
refined, which sometimes involves them being split, combined, or discarded.
5. Defining and naming themes. This phase involves developing a detailed analysis of each theme, working out
the scope and focus of each theme, determining the “story” of each. It also involves deciding on an informative name for
each theme.
6. Writing Up. This final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative data and extracts and
contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.
Example:
VERBATIM TRANSLATION THEME
I: Para sayo, may nagbago ba? I: How about you, there any STRONG FAITH
P: Para sa akin,hindi. Kasi mas changes?
lumakas yung pananampalataya P: For me, it’s no, because my
ko sa Panginoon. faith in God became even
stronger
I: Anong natutunan mo matapos I: What have you learned after NOT NEGLECTING THE
ang nangyari? what happened? CULTURAL PRACTICE
Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general statements and/or
generalizations based upon the finding. It should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of
the investigation in the order that they are given under the statement of the problem. When making the conclusion in
qualitative research, it should be drawn from the patterns and themes. Patterns and themes that were extracted from
the real-life experiences.
Module 7
Lesson 1: DRAWING CONCLUSIONS FROM PATTERNS AND THEMES
Summary of findings serves as a brief restatement of the components of the research paper.
Conclusion contains insights drawn from the findings of each problem which answer the questions presented at the
beginning of the research paper.
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Lesson 2: FORMULATING RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON CONCLUSIONS
Recommendation is a suggestion that improves the study for future research to be conducted in the field.
The most common reference style in research is the American Psychological Association (APA) format.
APA formatting style varies depending on the type of source. The following are common sources and how to
arrange them in APA format.
• One Author (a book chapter)
Author’s surname or last name, initial(s). (Year Published). Book Title (in italics). Location of publisher: Publisher.
Example:
Baraceros, E. (2016). Practical Research 1. Manila, Philippines: Rex Publishing.
• Journal
Author’s surname or last name, initial(s).(Year Published).Article title, journal name (in italics), volume number (in
italics), issue number(if available), page number range of the article, URL or journal home page (if online).
Example:
Almurashi, W.A. (2016). The Effective Use of Youtube Videos for Teaching English Language in Classrooms as
Supplementary Material at Taibah University in Alula. International Journal of English Language and
Linguistics Research, 32-47.
Types of Report
1. Informational
Inform or instruct – present information
• Reader sees the details of events, activities, or conditions
• No analysis of the situation, no conclusion, no recommendations
2. Analytical
• Written to solve problems
• Information is analyzed
• Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made
3. Persuasive
• An extension of analytical reports - main focus is to sell an idea, a service, or product
• Proposals are the most common type
Reports usually have a more diverse audience, more than one purpose and more detailed information.
GENERAL CONSIDERATION
A research paper has 5 chapters excluding the cover page, table of contents, table, references, and appendices.
The researcher should not leave any missing information on each chapter.
One should follow the following standard in preparing a research paper: style, font, lay-out and page formats.
Title Page - All text in the title page should be centered horizontally. The title should be in an inverted pyramid form.
Hence, if it goes beyond one-line sentence. For binding purposes, follow the standard margin size: Left margin 1.5” or 1
½ in.; Right margin 1”; Top margin 1”; Bottom Margin 1”.
Page Number - Page numbers are placed on the top right using numeric data (example “2,3,4…”) The Chapter page like
in Chapter 1 will not be numbered therefore page number “1” will not be seen in the paper.
Spacing - The space should be 2” and it should be using justified for margins. Except for the title should be in an inverted
pyramid form. Hence, if it goes beyond one-line sentence and space should 1”.
Font Size and Face - The use of font size and face depends upon the standard of the institution. However, in most cases
especially for publication purposes, Arial font 12 is used. Bookman Old Style font 12 or Times New Roman font 12 are
also preferred by other schools. Therefore, the font is regularly at 12 but the use of italics is influenced by the choice of
the given school.
References - Remember, there are two types of styles in writing references: (1) MLA or the Modern Language
Association and (2) the APA or the American Psychological Association.
Two Authors:
Odesca, Son P. and San Diego, Hans O. Wage Management System (Iloilo City: KSY Co. 2016)
Paulino, Amy S. and Fidel, Castro C. Natural Healing (Manila, Rex Bookstore, 2014)
Three Authors
Use the first name in the List
Manuel, Javier B. Nolasco, Hanie W., Sanchez, Caley Y. Body Mass Index (Pasay City:HLM 2014)
Kim,Sun Y., Sun,Kye T., Ung, Lee D. Floral Arrangement ( Davao City: Avira Publishing House, Manila 2015)
Journal Articles
(Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, vol. #, no. #, Publication Date, pp. #-#.)
Tyson, Phyllis A., and Michael G. Gordon. “The Psychology of Women.” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association, vol. 46, 1998, pp. 361-64.
Bernstein, Barton J. “Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Nagasaki.” Diplomatic History, vol. 28, no.3, 1991, pp.
126-129.
Article
Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book. Edited by Editor’s First and Last Name(s), Publisher, Publication
Date, pp. #-#.
Boquet, Edith. “Intellectual Tug-of-War: Snapshots of Life in the Center.” The St. Martin’s Sourcebook for Writing
Tutors, 3 rd edition, edited by Christina Murphy and Steve Sherwood. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008, pp.
7
116-29
APA or the American Psychological Association - also called the Author Date Style. These citations are most commonly
used by students for research papers.
When the researcher would cite or use the name of the author in the paper, the writer will write the name of
the author then the date of publication in an open and close parenthesis such as this:
When referring to a work in the text of the paper, place the author's last name and the year of publication of the
work in parentheses at the end of the sentence.
During the last season of the wintertime some of the migrant birds has to return to its
original nesting place (Leonardo 2015)
The reference list should include the details of the sources cited in your paper. It starts on a separate page at the
end of your assignment paper and is titled References. Each item cited in the reference list must have been cited in your
paper. All sources appearing in the reference list must be ordered alphabetically by surname.
The reference list should be double spaced (no line spaces between references) with hanging indents used for
the second and subsequent lines of each entry. A hanging indent is where the left line starts at the left margin and
subsequent lines are indented (approx. 1.3 cm or five spaces). You can use your word processor to automatically format
the double-spacing and hanging indents.
Italics are the preferred format for titles of books, journals and videos. Article and chapter titles are not italicized
or put in quotation marks. Volume numbers are italicized but issue numbers are not.
Capitalization in APA style is very specific. For references, the following general rules apply:
Book titles - capitalize the first letter of the first word of the title, and the first letter of the first word after a colon.
e.g. Ageing and aged care in Australia and
Brave new brain: Conquering mental illness in the era of the genome.
Article, chapter or section titles - capitalize the first letter of the first word of workplace adversity: A literature
review.
Pronouns, acronyms and abbreviations that are normally capitalized should be capitalized in the reference list
and citations. See examples on the following pages for each reference type.
For further information, see section 4.22 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
(6th edition).
Example of a reference list:
References
Andreasen, N. C. (2001). Brave new brain: Conquering mental illness in the era of the genome. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
Atkin, M. (Reporter). (2008, November 13). Bermagui forest disputed turf. The Hack Half Hour. Retrieved from
http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/hack/notes/
Copstead, L., &Banasik, J. (2005). Pathophysiology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Gilbert, D. G., McClernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L. C., Asgaard,G., ...Botros, N. (2004).
Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last for more than 31 days and are more severe with
stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele, and depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6, 249-267.
doi:10.1080/14622200410001676305
Remember that reference is acknowledging the author to support the author’s statement as used in your study.
While bibliography is the list of books, journals and websites that has been included in your study.