Rahardjo et al.

Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5

https://doi.org/10.1007/s44285-023-00006-9
Urban Lifeline

RESEARCH Open Access

Slope susceptibility map for preventive

measures against rainfall‑induced slope failure
Harianto Rahardjo1* , Qian Zhai2, Alfrendo Satyanaga3, Yangyang Li4, Saranya Rangarajan1 and Arezoo Rahimi5

Abstract
Rainfall-induced slope failures frequently occurs in many urban areas around the world especially due to the impact
of the global warming. Some slope failures result in casualties that have negative impacts on urban sustainability.
The slope failures are normally observed near slope surface within the unsaturated zone above the groundwater
table. Hence, it is important to incorporate the unsaturated soil mechanics principles in analysing the slope stability
during rainfall. This study focuses predominantly on the regional stability analyses of residual soils within the Jurong
Formation and Bukit Timah Granite in Singapore. The objective of the study is to develop slope susceptibility map
as part of preventive measures against extreme rainfall conditions. The slope susceptibility map was evaluated
using 2-D numerical analyses of slopes with historical failure. The recently developed sustainable retaining structure
system, GeoBarrier System (GBS) is investigated to understand its suitability as a preventive measure for critical slopes
with high risk as identified from the slope susceptibility map. Using Transient Rainfall Infiltration (TRIGRS) and Grid-
Based Regional Slope Stability Analysis (Scoops3D), the pore-water pressure distributions and factors of safety (FS)
within each zone are determined. The results from slope susceptibility maps and 2-D numerical analyses are consist-
ent. Moreover, the incorporation of GeoBarrier System on the critical slope is demonstrated to be an effective slope
stabilization measure based on the numerical simulations of two-dimensional analyses.
Keywords Urban sustainability, Slope susceptibility map, Unsaturated soil mechanics, GeoBarrier System, Rainfall-
induced slope failure

1 Introduction
Slope failures are a common phenomenon that can lead
to significant losses. In 1988, a massive landslide in Dar-
bang, located approximately 200 km west of Kathmandu,
killed 109 people and temporarily blocked the Myagdi
River. Furthermore, years prior to that event, a landslide
*Correspondence: buried the Darbang region and caused the death of 500
Harianto Rahardjo
people [63]. Landslides triggered by rainfall also occurred
chrahardjo@ntu.edu.sg
1
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological in China, as well as in other countries with extreme
University, Block N1, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, Singapore geological catastrophes. In China, geological disasters,
2
Bridge Engineering Research Center, Southeast University,
including landslides, account for more than 20 percent
Nanjing 210096, China
3
School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev University, of the total economic losses caused by natural disas-
Kabanbay Batyr Ave. 53, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
4
ters each year. The nationwide direct and indirect eco-
Monash Suzhou Research Institute, Monash University, Suzhou Industrial
Park, Suzhou, China
nomic losses related to landslides exceed 20 billion Yuan
5
Faculty of Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering, (approximately 2 billion EUR) annually [1, 21]. In Japan,
The University of Auckland, Engineering Block 1, 20 Symonds St, heavy rainfall has led to recurring landslides over the past
Auckland 1010, New Zealand
65 years, resulting in more than a thousand deaths [6].

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Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
Every year, thousands of lives and billions of dollars
are wasted due to landslides, as reported by [10] Far-
ahmand and Aghakouchak. The 1999 landslide in Var-
gas, Venezuela [30], for example, was one of several
landslide disasters that killed and displaced thousands
of people. In South and Southeast Asia, landslides are
one of the most prevalent disasters due to the region’s
weather, topography, and socioeconomic conditions,
landslides are one of the most prevalent disasters in
South and Southeast Asia [4]. For instance, in 2006, a
series of landslides on Leyte Island, Philippines, killed
over a thousand people due to extreme rains [55],
and on October 4, 2010, 145 people were killed by
the Wasior landslide in West Papua, Indonesia. The
effects of precipitation on residual soil slopes in Sin-
gapore were investigated by Fredlund and Rahardjo
[11], Krisnanto et al. [28], and Rahardjo and Satyanaga
[45] using tensiometers and piezometers. In Singapore,
slope failures are primarily triggered by intense rain-
falls where residual soils are prevalent [47, 49]. Resid-
ual soil is typically found in the unsaturated zone above
the water table where the negative pore-water pressure
(i.e., matric suction) in the unsaturated soil contributes
to its shear strength [11]. When water infiltrates the
slope, the pore-water pressure increases and the addi-
tional shear strength provided by the matric suction
decreases, thereby increasing the susceptibility of the
slope to failure [58].
Due to its tropical climate, Singapore experiences high
levels of rainfall and temperatures that promote rapid
in-situ chemical and mechanical weathering. This leads
to the formation of thick residual soil profiles [19]. Slope
instabilities often occurred in residual soil slopes due to
the local climate and geology. To prevent damage to sur-
rounding buildings or public amenities, it is necessary to
protect slopes from the danger of rainfall-induced slope
failures [17]. Developing a slope susceptibility map to iden-
tify areas at high risk for slope failure is one of the most
sustainable approaches for prevention of slope failures
[56]. There exist various methods to evaluate the suscep-
tibility of slopes, which can be grouped into four main
categories: inventory, heuristic, statistical, and determin-
istic [8, 22]. Inventory analysis, also known as distribu-
tion analysis, is a straightforward qualitative approach
employed to map landslide susceptibility [36]. It involves
depicting landslide details, such as their spatial and tem-
poral patterns, movement types, rates, and the materials
displaced (e.g., soil, debris, or rock) [7]. Inventory maps
serve as simplified forms of susceptibility maps by indicat-
ing the locations of documented landslides. However, this
method does not identify areas that might be suscepti-
ble to future landslides unless previous occurrences have
been recorded. Heuristic analysis is utilized to estimate the
Page 2 of 21
probability of a landslide based on data about the variables
associated with its occurrence [16]. These models assume
that there are established relationships between landslide
susceptibility and the variables used for assessment [57].
This technique involves using a detailed geomorphological
map and a wide range of factors as an attribute database to
quickly assess landslide susceptibility following fieldwork
[22]. Nevertheless, this method is limited by the repro-
ducibility of its outcomes and the subjectivity involved in
assigning weightings and ratings to the variables.
The first step in any statistical analysis of landslides is
to create a detailed map of past landslide occurrences
and collect data on all the relevant factors. The occur-
rence of landslides can be predicted using statistical
models, which include identifying the permutations
of factors that have contributed to such events in the
past. Researchers have studied a wide range of statisti-
cal methods, but they always start with the same regular
grid cells as their fundamental analytical unit. Bivariate
statistics have emerged as an alternative to more com-
plex multivariate statistics, wherein each explanatory
variable is represented as a distinct thematic data layer
in a Geographic Information System (GIS) [25]. Among
these methods, the rainfall threshold approach is often
considered the most effective. Rainfall threshold refers
to the minimum intensity or duration of rainfall required
to trigger a landslide, and the commonly used param-
eters for designing rainfall thresholds include cumulative
rainfall, antecedent rainfall, rainfall intensity, and rainfall
duration [18].
The physical processes that led up to the landslide
occurrence are described in a deterministic analysis (or
physical-based models) for assessing risk. Slope stability
assessments can be used as the deterministic analysis,
and the transient groundwater response of slopes to rain-
fall can be taken into account. Long-term landslide data
are unnecessary for deterministic analysis. Therefore, this
method may be used in places where landslide data are
lacking. Three criteria, including assessment goals, study
area size, and data availability, can influence the scale
selected for slope susceptibility maps [42].
Many researchers have developed physical models to
assess regional slope instability [2, 23, 34, 39]. These mod-
els incorporate topography, saturated soil properties, and
hydrological parameters. However, they often overlook
the spatial distribution of the groundwater table in their
calculations. Their models make use of both high-qual-
ity data and varying degrees of complexity and difficulty.
Previous studies on slope susceptibility mapping have
relied on physically based models that integrate hydro-
logical characteristics to calculate pore-water pressure
distributions and use infinite slope analysis to determine
the factor of safety. Notable examples of such models
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
include SHALSTAB [38], SINMAP [43], GEOtop-FS and
SLIP [39]. These models follow a similar concept known
as the hydrological-infinite slope stability model. TRI-
GRS is the only program that incorporates unsaturated
principles to establish the failure criterion [2]. For simu-
lating groundwater flow over time and determining the
appropriate safety factor during wet periods, YS-Slope
can be employed [24].
Once areas of concern are identified through slope
susceptibility mapping, it becomes crucial to implement
effective slope protection measures. Traditional protec-
tion systems often have drawbacks such as high costs,
lengthy construction time, and aesthetic incompat-
ibility. However, advancements in slope protection tech-
niques, such as the GeoBarrier System (GBS) developed
by Rahardjo et al. [51], offers promising alternatives.
The GBS utilizes a capillary barrier system as a retain-
ing structure, incorporating geosynthetic geobags filled
with soil or granular materials. This innovative approach
not only provides stability but also aligns with sustain-
able practices by utilizing recycled materials like Recy-
cled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) and Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement (RAP) in the capillary barrier system [50]. By
integrating the capillary barrier system, the GBS ensures
effective slope protection while mitigating the drawbacks
associated with traditional methods. In the capillary bar-
rier system, the fine-grained recycled materials (fine RCA
or RAP) are placed on top of the coarse-grained recycled
materials (coarse RCA or RAP) [60]. The placement of
bags between the fine- and coarse-grained materials does
not compromise the integrity of the capillary barrier sys-
tem, as demonstrated by Rahardjo et al. [50]. Addition-
ally, bags filled with an approved soil mixture (ASM) can
be positioned in front of the fine-grained layer to accom-
modate the future planting of trees and shrubs with deep,
extensive taproots. This allows for the integration of
greenery into the system.
In light of the aforementioned, the purpose of this
study is to develop a slope susceptibility map for Singa-
pore that takes into account geographical and geotech-
nical data in addition to rainfall circumstances, with the
ultimate goal of preventing rainfall-induced slope failure
through better assessment of slopes. In addition, this
research explores the use of the GeoBarrier System as a
preventative measure on Singapore’s high-risk slopes.
Slope failures were frequent in the Jurong Formation and
Bukit Timah Granite, according to research by Rahardjo
et al. [47]. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to
develop the factor of safety distributions for the Jurong
Formation and Bukit Timah Granite in Singapore that
take into account unsaturated soil properties within fine-
scale zonations. The scope of work encompasses regional
Page 3 of 21
and 2-D seepage and stability assessments, as well as sat-
urated and unsaturated laboratory testing.
2 Site overview and climatic conditions
The geological characteristics of Malaysia and Singapore
exhibit remarkable similarities. In the region of Singa-
pore, which is situated at the southern tip of the Malay-
sian Peninsula, the primary parallel belts extending from
the north-northwest to the south-southeast are clearly
defined [35]. Singapore Island is positioned between
Malaysia’s Eastern Belt and Central Belt due to this geo-
logical arrangement. Within the Eastern Belt, Permian
conglomerates dominate the geological formations, with
metamorphosed Carboniferous sandstones and mud-
stones (approximately 350–300 million years old) overly-
ing them. In addition to granites and volcanic rocks from
the Middle Triassic period, the Eastern Belt also features
Late Permian shallow marine deposits. The Central Belt
was formed between 275 and 240 million years ago (Mid-
dle Permian and Middle Triassic) from mudstone and
limestone layers. These strata are interspersed with igne-
ous rocks like granite and andesite. The Late Triassic
sandstones and conglomerates that make up the middle
belt are what set it apart from the eastern belt.
Singapore’s geological landscape is characterized by
four dominant formations: 1) Bukit Timah Granite, 2)
Jurong Formation, 3) Old Alluvium, and 4) Kallang For-
mation. The Bukit Timah Granite Formation primar-
ily comprises Bukit Timah granite and Gombak norite,
which are igneous rocks. This formation is predominantly
found in the northern and central-northern regions of
Singapore. The Jurong Formation, on the other hand, is a
sedimentary geological formation located in the western
and southwestern regions. The eastern region of Singa-
pore is characterized by the presence of Old Alluvium, a
quaternary deposit depicted in Fig. 1. Lastly, the Kallang
Formation is the most recent alluvial deposit that spans
the entire island of Singapore [9, 33].
In the Singapore context, the majority of slope failures
occur either during or after rainfall events [5]. This can
be attributed to the infiltration of rainfall, which leads to
an increase in the water content of the soil due to down-
ward flux. As the soil water content increases, the matric
suction decreases, resulting in a reduction of soil shear
strength [15, 27, 41]. Consequently, residual soil slopes
that have undergone infiltration are susceptible to failures
triggered by rainfall. In 1995, Rahardjo et al. conducted
a case study to determine the threshold of precipitation
that can induce slope failures [46]. The critical limit was
found to be a combination of 5 days of antecedent rain-
fall along with the subsequent precipitation that triggers
slope instability.
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
Fig. 1 Distribution of four major formations in Singapore’s geological landscape [52]
In order to conduct infiltration analyses, two rainfall
scenarios can be utilized. The first scenario involves a
1-day maximum daily rainfall of 14.7 mm/hr sustained
over a 24-h period. The second scenario includes a 5-day
antecedent rainfall of 2.3 mm/hr for 96 h, followed by a
1-day rainfall event of 14.7 mm/hr. The selection of the
appropriate scenario relies on the permeability charac-
teristics of the soil under consideration. Kim et al. found
that the Jurong Formation (JF) and Kallang Formation
(KF) consist of soil with low permeability, whereas the
Bukit Timah Granite (BTG) and Old Alluvium (OA) con-
tain soil with high permeability [26]. To assess slope sta-
bility, soils with high permeability are analysed using the
1-day maximum daily rainfall scenario [26]. Conversely,
for soils with low permeability, slope stability is evaluated
based on the 5-day antecedent rainfall scenario [26].
3 Applicable theory
3.1 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) have gained sig-
nificant popularity in recent years due to their ability to
capture complex non-linear relationships between input
variables and output predictions [20]. The Artificial Neu-
ral Network (ANN) is a computational model that draws
inspiration from the organization and functioning of the
human brain. It is composed of interconnected nodes or
Page 4 of 21
neurons arranged in layers [25]. In an ANN, each node
performs computations using weighted inputs, applies an
activation function, and produces an output.
To optimize the ANN’s performance, a gradient descent
algorithm is commonly employed. The backpropagation
algorithm, a form of gradient descent, is used to update
the weights in the network based on the calculated gradi-
ent of the error function with respect to the weights [54].
This process iteratively adjusts the weights to minimize
the difference between predicted and actual soil prop-
erty values. The feedforward process in an ANN can be
expressed mathematically as follows:
zj = wij ∗ xi + bj (1)
where zj is the weighted sum of inputs xi multiplied by
their corresponding weights wij , and bj is the bias term
for the jth node.
The activation function introduces non-linearity and
enables the network to approximate non-linear relation-
ships in the data. One commonly used activation function
is the Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU), as shown in Eq. (2)
[40]. The ReLU activation function introduces non-line-
arity, enabling the ANN to model and approximate non-
linear patterns in the soil property data effectively.
f (x) = max (0, x) (2)
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 5 of 21

The activation function f(x) is then applied to the weighted

 � � �2 �
3h 1 h
c0 + c for 0 < h ≤ r

sum zj to obtain the output of the jth node aj : r(h) = 2r − 2 r (7)
c0 + c for h > r
  
aj = f zj (3)
where γ xi − xj is the semivariance between values at
 
The weights and biases of the nodes are adjusted during
location xi and xj , γ (xi − x0 ) is the semivariance between
the training process to minimize the difference between
values at location xj and unmeasured location x0 , and
predicted outputs and actual target values. During the
ψ(x0 ) is the Lagrange multiplier to minimize the error
training phase of the ANN, a learning rate (η) is used to
variance, γ (h) is the estimated semi-variance value for all
control the step size of weight updates. The learning rate
pairs at a lag distance of h, m is the number of pairs sepa-
determines the step size of the weight and bias updates
rated by a distance of h, and Z(xi +h) is the measured value
[31]. A suitable learning rate is crucial for achieving
at the location that is at a distance of h from position xi ,
accurate and stable predictions. A higher learning rate
c0 is the nugget constant, c0 + c is the sill, indicating the
can result in faster convergence, but it also carries the
maximum variability of the variable, and r denotes the
risk of overshooting the optimal solution. Conversely, a
range, which defines the distance beyond which the spa-
lower learning rate may slow down the training process.
tial autocorrelation is negligible.
It is important to choose an appropriate learning rate for
Once the variogram model is fitted to the observed
effective training. The accuracy of an ANN model is com-
semivariance values, it can be used to estimate the semi-
monly evaluated using metrics such as mean absolute
variance for any distance or direction. The semivariance
error (MAE) and root mean squared error (RMSE) for
is then used to calculate the kriging weights, which reflect
regression tasks. These metrics quantify the difference
the spatial relationship between the estimation location
between predicted values and actual values, providing a
and the observed data points. The estimated value at an
measure of the model’s performance.
unmeasured location is obtained by taking a weighted
average of the observed values, with the weights being
3.2 Spatial interpolation using ordinary kriging method
determined by the kriging weights.
The Ordinary Kriging (OK) method is a geostatisti-
cal interpolation technique used to estimate values at
3.3 Regional analyses
unmeasured locations based on the spatial autocorre-
The TRIGRS software provides the capability to simulate
lation of the observed data. This method is used in this
the one-dimensional infiltration of rainwater into the soil,
study since it has been widely employed in various fields
as well as the subsurface flow and runoff resulting from
for its simplicity and availability in many Geographic
precipitation events. It models the soil as a two-layer sys-
Information Systems (GISs) [23]. In OK, the estimation of
tem, comprising an unsaturated zone at the surface and
unknown values is performed by calculating a weighted
a saturated zone with a capillary fringe above the water
average of neighbouring observed values as follows:
table. Ground surface infiltration and vertical flow in the
∗
n unsaturated zone are described by a 1-dimensional ver-
Z(x = i Z(xi ) (4)
0) i=1 sion of the Richards equation, as shown in Eq. (8) [13].
The model incorporates the equations proposed by Gard-
where Z ∗ (x0 ) is the estimated value at the unmeasured
ner in 1958 for the best-fit representation, as illustrated
location x0, Z(xi ) is the measured value at the location xi ,
in Eqs. (9) and (10), respectively [14].
i is the kriging weight for each observed value Z(xi ) and
the sum of the kriging weights is 1 (i.e., ni=1 i = 1), and ∂θ ∂
 
1 ∂ψ

n is the number of positions within the searching neigh- = k(ψ) −1 (8)
∂t ∂z cos2 δ ∂z
bourhood [23].
The determination of kriging weights involves mini-
k(ψ) = ks exp αψ ∗
 
mizing the prediction error variance by incorporating the (9)
spatial dependence information through the variogram
model as shown in Eqs. (5, 6 and 7) [23]: θ = θr + (θs − θr ) exp αψ ∗
 
(10)
n    
i=1
i γ xi − xj + ψ(x0 ) = γ xj − x0 (5) where k(ψ) is the hydraulic conductivity function, δ is the
slope angle, kS is the saturated hydraulic conductivity, α is
a fitting parameter, ψ is the pressure head, ψ ∗ = ψ − ψ0,
1 m  2
r(h) = Z(xi +h) − Z(xi ) (6) where ψ0 is a constant defined as 0 at the water table, θ is
2m i=1
the volumetric water content, θr is the residual water con-
tent, and θs is the saturated water content.
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
After substituting Eqs. 9 and 10 into the one-dimen-
sional Richards equation, Eqs. 11 and 12 are obtained
which provide solutions to the resulting linear partial dif-
ferential equation. These equations describe the flow at
the base of the unsaturated zone at any given time, t.
� � � � �
D t
 �IZ − 4(IZ − IZLT ) exp α12du exp − 4ψ
 �
q(du , t) = ��∞
�
�m sin(�m α1 du ) 2
� m=1 1+ α1 du +2�2 α1 du exp(−�m Dψ t)
�
 
2 m
where,
α1 k s
Dψ =
θs − θr
where Dψ is the soil–water diffusivity [13], du is the verti-
cal depth to the top of the capillary fringe, IZ is surface
flux, IZLT is the initial surface flux. Dψ t and α1 du repre-
sent non-dimensional time and depth, respectively, as
used by Srivastava and Yeh [61]. The values of m are
the positive roots of the pseudoperiodic characteristic
of Eq. 13. α1 = αcos2 δ which results from the coordinate
transformation of the sloping ground surface. TRIGRS
determines values of m using a combination of bisec-
tion, bracketing, and Newton–Raphson iteration [44].
tan(�m α1 du ) + 2� = 0
In addition to TRIGRS, SEEP/W is utilized to con-
duct 2-D seepage analyses. SEEP/W utilizes a water-
flow governing partial differential equation, as presented
by Fredlund and Rahardjo [11], to solve transient or
unsteady-state seepage analyses. This equation serves as
the basis for analysing two-dimensional seepage behav-
iour. Scoops3D is used to execute 3-D slope stability
analyses in Singapore to determine the safety factor of
the residual soil slopes. Scoops3D employs the three-
dimensional limit equilibrium method to assess the safety
factor of residual soil slopes. The potential failure mass
consists of three-dimensional vertical columns. Columns
along the perimeter of the potential failure mass may be
partially contained within the sphere. The use of partial
columns approximates the volume, weight, and slide
surface area more precisely than using only complete
columns. To account for the effect of unsaturated soil
conditions, Vanapalli and Fredlund proposed a simpli-
fied approximation of Bishop’s effective stress parameter
[3, 62]. This approximation modifies the pore-water pres-
sures in unsaturated soil and is applicable to a general-
ized stress law, as described by Lu and Likos [37]. The
simplified approximation offers a representation of the
soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) and allows for
its application within a generalized stress law framework.
Furthermore, engineers commonly employ SLOPE/W
Page 6 of 21
for two-dimensional slope stability analyses. SLOPE/W
utilizes Bishop’s simplified technique of slices for assess-
ing slope stability. Bishop’s simplified method assumes
horizontal resultant interslice forces, disregarding inter-
slice shear forces. As a result, Bishop’s simplified tech-
 nique ensures moment equilibrium and vertical force
equilibrium but does not account for horizontal force


equilibrium.

Pressure Plate, Centrifuge, and Tempe cell testing are
(11) used to determine the soil–water characteristic curve
[68]. These laboratory studies will provide a few discrete
SWCC data points. A continuous SWCC is required
(12) for numerical analysis, hence Fredlund and Xing best-
fitting equation is used to generate a continuous curve
[12]. Zhai and Rahardjo provide a mathematical model
and methodologies for SWCC variable determination
[64]. Kunze et al.’s statistical model estimates the perme-
ability function [29]. The best-fitted SWCC and meas-
ured saturated permeability are needed to estimate the
unsaturated permeability function. The statistical model’s
accuracy depends on the SWCC’s discretization over its
entire matric suction range and the number and location
of discrete points used to represent the unsaturated soil’s
permeability function [65]. The shear strength of soil is
required for slope stability analyses.
(13) Shear strength in unsaturated soil was shown to be
significantly impacted only by capillary water in a stress
analysis conducted by Zhai et al. [66]. Soil suction above
3100 kPa was found to be dominated by hydroscopic
water, or water that is attached to each individual soil
particle. In 2020, Zhai et al. developed the following
equation to estimate the shear strength of unsaturated
soil by removing hydroscopic water in the conventional
SWCC [67].
S − S′
τ = c′ + (σ − ua )tanφ ′ + (ua − uw )tanφ ′
1 − S′
(14)
where, S is the degree of saturation, S′ is the degree of sat-
uration corresponding to the suction of 3100 kPa, S is the
degree of saturation corresponding to the suction of ψi,
ua refers to the pore-air pressure and uw is the pore-water
pressure.
3.4 GeoBarrier System (GBS)
A retaining structure must be taken into considera-
tion when constructing a slope that is steeper than 45
degrees. Subsequently, the GeoBarrier System (GBS)
was proposed as a retaining structure that integrates the
Capillary Barrier System (CBS) and vegetation [51]. The
formation of the fine- and coarse-grained layers using
recycled materials instead of natural materials like sand
or gravel is facilitated by the GeoBarrier System (GBS),
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
which subsequently fosters recycling as part of sustain-
able development. Furthermore, since concrete and steel
are not required for the GeoBarrier System (GBS), it is
more environmentally safe and profitable for implemen-
tation in both rural and urban areas. Figure 2 illustrates
that the GeoBarrier System (GBS) is made up of three
main components: reinforced soil system (RSS), CBS,
and approved soil mixture (ASM).
Several criteria were considered to evaluate the capil-
lary barrier’s design. Rahardjo et al. [47] proposed the
following criteria: 1) the water-entry value, ψw or WEV,
of the coarse-grained soil should preferably be less than
1 kPa; 2) the ratio between the water-entry values of fine-
grained and coarse-grained materials (ψw-ratio) to be
greater than 10; 3) the saturated permeability coefficient
of the non-cohesive fine-grained material (preferably
greater than ­10–5 m/s).
4 Research methodology
The database for all soil data was set up following pro-
cedures suggested by Satyanaga et al. in 2022 [59]. The
database was developed using the borehole data from
the Integrated Land Information Service portal which
consists of bore logs information from different public
agencies in Singapore. A total of 23936 boreholes records
containing information such as in-situ water content,
specific weight, Atterberg limits, grain size distribution,
saturated permeability, effective cohesion (c’), and effec-
tive internal friction angle (φ′) were obtained. Rainfall-
induced slope failures in Singapore are mostly of shallow
depth [35], thus the soil properties between 0 to 6 m
depths were used for the database development. Firstly,
ANN training was conducted using the liquid limit, plas-
tic limit, fine grain content, and coarse grain content
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of GBS
Page 7 of 21
obtained from the borehole logs. A total of 65 complete
sets of soil data were used in the ANN training of Jurong
Formation with 4 hidden layers and 1000 nodes in each
layer. The number of iterations used in the training was
1000, and the learning rate in the stochastic gradient
descent model was 0.1. The error associated with this
prediction was 9.4%. A total of 185 complete sets of soil
data were used in the ANN training of Bukit Timah Gran-
ite with 4 hidden layers and 1000 nodes in each layer. The
number of iterations used in the training was 1000, and
the learning rate in the stochastic gradient descent model
was 0.1. The error associated with this prediction was 5%.
The impact of the prediction error on the soil parameters
used in the analyses is minimal. Parametric studies have
been carried out to investigate this effect and the results
of factor of safety between different prediction results is
minimal. Hence, the effective cohesion in Jurong Forma-
tion and Bukit Timah Granite was successfully estimated
using the ANN model based on the index properties (i.e.,
grain size distribution and Atterberg limits). After the
ANN training was completed, Ordinary Kriging was used
to spatially distribute the effective cohesion. The frame-
work for the development of the slope susceptibility map
in this study is presented in Fig. 3.
For the purpose of performing the regional seepage
(TRIGRS) and slope stability (Scoops3D) analyses, the
Jurong formation and Bukit Timah Granite area had to be
split into smaller zones. The raster grid data of the c’ vari-
able over Jurong Formation and Bukit Timah Formation
were used as the main criteria for delineation of zones as
it is one of the most important soil properties in assess-
ing slope stability. In the first step, the classification of c’
was completed using equal classes of 0.5 kPa. Based on
the spatial distribution of c’, the polygons representing the
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 8 of 21

Fig. 3 Framework used in this study for the development of slope susceptibility map

zones were completed. The delineation also follows the
areas with low slope angle, mainly less than 10° in most
of the cases. These criteria were taken into consideration
since no instability problems will be encountered within
the areas with a low slope angle. The polygon features
of the zones in Singapore for TRIGRS and Scoops3D
analyses were prepared manually based on a vector file.
As a guideline for zones’ delineation, the raster grid of c’
and slope angle with classes were overlapped. Figure 4
shows the methodology framework applied for the zona-
tion of Jurong formation and Bukit Timah Granite for the
TRIGRS and Scoops3D analyses.

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram with the methodological steps for zonations in Singapore
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
The mean value of all the borehole data inside each
zone was used to calculate the other soil attributes. The
overall coherence was calculated as the mean of the
zones’ Ordinary Kriging scores. Each zone’s average
borehole would be used to determine the effective fric-
tion angle (φ′), and unit weight. Each zone’s soil type was
reflected by the USCS soil classification that received
the most votes from boreholes located within that zone.
Typical hydraulic parameters were assigned to each
soil type after determining the representative soil type
in each zone, as recommended by Mercer et al. (2019).
The hydraulic properties of soil, such as the SWCC and
unsaturated permeability, were estimated based on the
soil type since the borehole records do not contain all the
essential soil properties. Since TRIGRS uses the Gard-
ner’s equation to calculate the SWCC, the SWCC from
the Fredlund & Xing equation was best fitted based on
the minimum root-mean-square error to determine the
Gardner’s fitting parameter (α) [12].
One zone from Jurong Formation (i.e. JF17) and Bukit
Timah Granite (i.e. BTG29) which had experienced
past slope failure was selected for the seepage and slope
Fig. 5 JF17 input maps (a. DEM; b. Slope; c. Groundwater table; d. flow) used in TRIGRS and Scoops3D
Page 9 of 21
stability analyses. Transient seepage analysis was per-
formed using TRIGRS software which made use of high-
resolution data on the topography of the small zone. The
pore-water pressure distributions from the TRIGRS seep-
age analysis were used as the pore-water pressure condi-
tions for the slope stability analysis performed using the
Scoops3D software. The respective input maps such as
digital elevation model (DEM), slope map, groundwater
table (GWT) map and flow map as shown in Figs. 5 and
6 were used to define the topography and initial ground-
water table conditions in the TRIGRS and Scoops3D
analyses. The maximum daily and maximum 5-day cumu-
lative rainfall from historical periods between 1982 and
2017 were used to calculate the extreme rainfall loading
of 577 mm/5 day and 353 mm/day which were then
applied in the analyses [51]. Rahardjo et al. and Rahimi
et al. found that residual soil slopes with low permeability
soil attained a lower factor of safety when subjected to
an antecedent rainfall [48, 53]. Therefore, the JF17 zone
which has a low saturated permeability of 5E-07 m/s was
subjected to a constant 5-day antecedent rainfall loading of
115 mm/day for a duration of 5 days followed by another
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 10 of 21

Fig. 6 BTG29 input maps (a. DEM; b. Slope; c. Groundwater table; d. flow) used in TRIGRS and Scoops3D

5 days of no rainfall to analyse the recovery of the factor of the past and thus were selected for the 2D analysis. The
safety. While BTG29 which has a high saturated perme- Bukit Teresa and Emerald Hill slopes were selected as real-
ability of 1.00E-06 m/s was subjected to 24 h of maximum time monitoring study was conducted by instrumenting
daily rainfall intensity of 353mm/day followed by another these slopes with moisture sensors. Hence, the actual soil
24 h of no rainfall. properties of these slopes were available and used for the
The computed factor of safety (FoS) distribution from 2D analyses. The location of the six slopes are depicted in
the Scoops3D analyses was used to create a suscep- Figs. 5 and 6. The soil properties used in the TRIGRS and
tibility map for slopes. High risk (FoS ≤ 1), moderate Scoops3D analyses were also applied for the 2D analyses
risk (FoS ≤ 1.25), low risk (FoS ≤ 1.5), and very low risk for the slopes with past failure history. However, the soil
(FoS > 1.5) were the four categories used to differentiate properties obtained from the laboratory tests were used
the map into four risk areas. The slope susceptibility map for the instrumented slopes (i.e. Bukit Teresa and Emer-
was then used to pinpoint high-risk locations within the ald Hill). Unsaturated and saturated laboratory tests were
zone, prompting the follow-up with 2-dimensional seep-
age and stability assessments.
Two-dimensional (2D) seepage and slope stability anal- Table 1 Slope properties used in the numerical analyses
yses using the GeoStudio 2012 software, SEEP/W and
SLOPE/W, were performed for three residual soil slopes Slope location Zone Slope Slope Water Water
Height Angle Table at Table at
from the JF17 zone (i.e. Bukit Teresa, Jalan Minyak, Lower (m) (o) Crest (m) Toe (m)
Delta) and three residual soil slopes from BTG29 zones
(i.e. Emerald Hill, Wilkie Road, Waterloo Street). The pur- Bukit Teresa JF17 5 27 11 6
pose of the 2D analyses is to compare and verify the results Emerald Hill BTG29 3 30 3 1
from the 3D TRIGRS and Scoops3D analyses. Hence, the Jalan Minyak JF17 4 45 5 1
same rainfall intensity and duration were applied in the 2D Lower Delta JF17 8 40 9 6
analyses. The slopes at Jalan Minyak, Lower Delta, Wilkie Wilkie Road BTG29 5 35 7 3
Road, and Waterloo Street experienced slope failures in Waterloo Street BTG29 3 30 3 1
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 11 of 21

Fig. 7 Typical slope geometry and boundary conditions applied in the 2D analysis

conducted on undisturbed soil samples from 3–4 m depth
to obtain the relevant soil properties such as SWCC, per-
meability function and shear strength properties required
for the seepage and slope stability analyses.
Table 1 shows the slope height, slope angle and
groundwater table depth at the crest and toe for all six
slopes. The typical slope geometry and boundary con-
ditions modelled in the 2D analysis are presented in
Fig. 7. The side boundaries have a length of 3 times the
height of the slope from the crest and the toe to exclude
the effect of the boundary conditions on the seep-
age within the slope. A constant total head boundary
condition was applied on the right and left boundaries
while a no flow condition without seepage face review
was applied to the bottom boundary. To simulate rain-
fall infiltration without any ponding, a unit flux bound-
ary with potential seepage face review was applied to
the surface of the slope.

Fig. 8 Zonation of the Residual Soils from Jurong Formation and Bukit Timah Granite Formations
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 12 of 21

Table 2 Soil properties from soil database

Geological Formation Zone USCS Permeability Unsaturated Properties Effective cohesion Effective
friction
angle
ks (m/s) Diffusivity Alpha c ′(kPa) φ ′(o)

Jurong Formation JF1 ML 5E-06 4.9E-05 0.012 9.5 31

JF2 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9.5 31
JF3 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9 31
JF4 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9.5 31
JF5 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9 31
JF6 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9.5 31
JF7 MH 1E-06 2.7E-06 0.00124 10 31
JF8 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 10 31
JF9 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9.5 31
JF10 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9.5 31
JF11 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9 31
JF12 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 12 29
JF13 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9 31
JF14 CL 1E-06 2.7E-06 0.00124 9.5 31
JF15 CL 1E-06 4.9E-06 0.00086 9 31
JF16 CH 5E-07 2.4E-06 0.00124 9 31
JF17 CH 5E-07 2.4E-06 0.00124 10 31
Bukit Timah Granite BTG1 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 8.65 31
BTG2 CL 1.00E-06 4.91E-06 0.00864 9.77 34
BTG3 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.16 34
BTG4 SM 5.00E-05 2.00E-04 0.02013 7.88 34
BTG5 SM 5.00E-05 2.00E-04 0.02013 8.42 33
BTG6 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 10.18 36
BTG7 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 8 33
BTG8 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.44 34
BTG9 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 8.52 33
BTG10 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 7.85 36
BTG11 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.83 34
BTG12 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 7.28 32
BTG13 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 7.28 32
BTG14 GC 1.00E-04 1.29E-04 0.29543 8.52 32
BTG15 SC 1.00E-05 6.34E-05 0.08580 9.09 34
BTG16 CL 1.00E-06 4.91E-06 0.00864 7.38 32
BTG17 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 8.34 30
BTG18 SC 1.00E-05 6.34E-05 0.08580 6.59 33
BTG19 SM 5.00E-05 2.00E-04 0.02013 8.43 34
BTG20 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 8.01 31
BTG21 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 7.88 35
BTG22 CH 1.00E-06 4.37E-06 0.006736 9.35 32
BTG23 CH 1.00E-06 4.37E-06 0.00674 9.33 30
BTG24 CH 1.00E-06 4.37E-06 0.00674 9.41 29
BTG25 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.61 32
BTG26 CH 1.00E-06 4.37E-06 0.00674 8.02 25
BTG27 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.52 30
BTG28 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.79 27
BTG29 CH 1.00E-06 4.37E-06 0.00674 9.27 28
BTG30 MH 5.00E-06 1.65E-05 0.01588 9.04 28
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
5 Slope susceptibility map
After the c’ spatial variation in Jurong Formation and Bukit
Timah Granite area had been developed, the formation
was divided into smaller zones. The Jurong Formation was
divided into 16 zones with each zone having a different soil
property. Thereafter, bigger zones were further divided,
forming 32 polygons for the numerical analyses. Mean-
while, the Bukit Timah Granite area was divided into 28
zones and thereafter into 39 polygons. The polygons and
zones for both formations are presented in Fig. 8.
The mean c’ for each zone obtained from the ANN
analysis are presented in Table 2. The other soil prop-
erties such as saturated permeability, unsaturated soil
properties such as Gardner SWCC parameter alpha and
diffusivity and shear strength properties are also pre-
sented in Table 2. Satyanaga and Rahardjo conducted
analyses to develop a slope susceptibility map with and
without the incorporation of unsaturated soil properties
[57]. They observed that the utilisation of the saturated
soil properties in the development of the slope suscepti-
bility map resulted in extensive areas with slopes having
a FoS of less than 1.5. This may result in unreasonably
high costs being required for slope preventative meas-
ures and/or slope repairs. However, upon close obser-
vation, slopes located within the area with a FoS of less
than 1.5 appear to be stable without any slope improve-
ment. In other words, those slopes are actually unsatu-
rated soil slopes where matric suctions contribute to the
shear strength and stability of the slopes. As a result, the
FoS values of these slopes are in reality higher than 1.5
and can be considered safe. These slopes will not require
any slope improvement work. In summary, the gener-
ated slope susceptibility map with the assumption of a
fully saturated slope was unsustainable for infrastructure
development. Based on this study, the unsaturated soil
properties are incorporated in the TRIGRS analyses. The
factor of safety (FoS) maps for JF17 and BTG29 zones
Fig. 9 Factor of safety map of (a) JF17; (b) BTG29 zone
Page 13 of 21
obtained from the Scoops3D analyses are presented in
Fig. 9. Five out of six investigated slopes obtained a fac-
tor of safety between 1.25 and 1.5 indicating these slopes
are of moderate risk.
The results from the laboratory tests performed on the
soil samples obtained from Bukit Teresa and Emerald Hill
slopes are presented in Fig. 10. The laboratory data points
from the SWCC tests were best fitted using the Fred-
lund and Xing equation to obtain a continuous SWCC as
shown in Fig. 10 [12]. The unsaturated permeability func-
tions presented in Fig. 11 were calculated by the statisti-
cal method proposed by Kunze et al. using the saturated
coefficient of permeability and the SWCC and thereafter
best fitted using the equation proposed by Leong and
Rahardjo in 1997 [29, 32].
The factor of safety variation with time from the 2D
analyses for the six investigated slopes are presented in
Fig. 12. In general, slopes in both formations attained
the lowest FoS at the end of the rainfall and thereafter
an increase in FoS was observed during the no rain-
fall period. However, the factor of safety at the end of
the no rainfall period did not recover to the initial FoS
before the start of the rainfall. The FoS maps obtained
from TRIGRS and Scoops3D analyses were verified
with the 2D numerical analyses from SEEP/W and
SLOPE/W. The comparison of the FoS between the two
approaches for the six investigated slopes are presented
in Table 3.
The FoS obtained from TRIGRS (1-D infiltration) and
Scoops3D (3-D slope stability) were found to be lower
(more conservative) compared to the results obtained
using SEEP/W and SLOPE/W (2-D seepage and slope
stability). This could be due to the fact that the 1-D infil-
tration of the TRIGRS model produced higher pore-
water pressures as compared to the 2-D seepage analysis
from SEEP/W. As a result, the higher pore-water pres-
sures contribute to a lower FoS.
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
Fig. 10 SWCC for Bukit Teresa and Emerald Hill soils
6 Geobarrier system
The soil–water characteristics curves (SWCCs) of RCA
and ASM are presented in Fig. 13. Figure 14 shows the
permeability functions of RCA and ASM determined
from SWCC and saturated permeability using the statis-
tical method following the procedure explained by Saty-
anaga et al. in 2022 [59]. Table 4 presents a summary of
Fig. 11 Permeability function for Bukit Teresa and Emerald Hill soils
Page 14 of 21
the capillary barrier effect evaluation criteria using the
parameters obtained from Figs. 13 and 14. As shown in
Fig. 13, the water-entry values of fine RCA and coarse
RCA are 4 kPa and 0.17 kPa, respectively. The water
entry value of coarse-grained RCA (0.17 kPa) satisfied the
requirement for coarse-grained material in CBS (< 1 kPa).
The ratio of the water-entry value of fine RCA to coarse
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 15 of 21

Fig. 12 FoS results from 2D analyses for the 6 investigated slopes (a) JF17 zone; (b) BTG29 zone

Table 3 Comparison of FoS obtained from map and 2-D Figure 15 depicts the boundary conditions of the
numerical model Emerald Hill slope and key components of the GBS. In
the finite element analysis, the element size was 0.1 m.
Location FoS from slope FoS from
susceptibility map SEEP/W and The GBS comprised residual soil, geogrid reinforce-
SLOPE/W ment, fine and coarse RCA for the CBS, and ASM for
the green cover. The thicknesses of each of the GBS com-
Bukit Teresa 1.41 1.62
ponents are as follows: fine RCA – 50 cm, coarse RCA
Emerald Hill 1.47 1.62
– 30 cm, ASM – 60 cm. GBS consists of six lifts (bag
Jalan Minyak 1.35 1.53
height is 50 cm) for a 3 m slope. The requirement for the
Lower Delta 1.41 1.65
minimum length of geogrid is 70% of the slope height.
Wilkie Road 1.29 1.41
Accordingly, the geogrid length was taken as 2.1 m.
Waterloo Street 1.92 2.12
The analyses assigned an impermeable layer (a separa-
tor) behind the GBS as a no-flow boundary condition.
RCA (23.5) met the criterion for the ratio of fine-grained Changes in pore-water pressure were incorporated into
to coarse-grained materials (≥ 10). The measured satu- slope stability analyses as a result of seepage analyses.
rated permeability of fine RCA (2.7 × ­10−4 m/s) met CBS The analysis was performed by selecting the Mohr–Cou-
criterion (> ­10−5 m/s). lomb material model and inputting the shear strength
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 16 of 21

Fig. 13 SWCCs of RCA and ASM

Fig. 14 Permeability functions of RCA and ASM

Table 4 Check of the design criteria for a capillary barrier system parameters for each material, which can be found in
to be effective Table 5.
Parameter Fine RCA​ Coarse RCA​ As seen from Table 6, the minimum factor of safety
of the Emerald Hill slope without GBS is 1.62, which is
Water-entry value, ψw (kPa) 4.0 0.17 (< 1) lower than the factor of safety of a slope with the cover
ψw-ratio 23.5 (> 10) system included, which is 1.74, as shown in Fig. 16.
Saturated permeability coef- 2.7 × ­10–4 (> ­10–5) 7.5 × ­10–3 Figure 17 illustrates the change in factor of safety
ficient, ks (m/s)
against time during and after rainfall for the Emerald Hill
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 17 of 21

Fig. 15 A numerical model for seepage analyses: GBS covering Emerald Hill slope with a 3 m height and a 70 (°) slope angle

Table 5 Summary of shear strength parameters of the materials involved inside the GBS
Symbol Unit Residual soil Coarse RCA​ Fine RCA​ ASM

Effective Cohesion c’ kPa 3 0 0 2

Effective Internal Friction Angle φ’ degree (°) 35 35 34 30
Unsaturated Shear Strength Angle φb degree (°) 17.5 17.5 17 15
Unit Weight γ kN/m3 18 21 20 18

slope with and without the GBS. The decrease in the fac-
tor of safety when the slope was covered with GBS was
lower as compared to the slope without cover. This may
be attributed to the effectiveness of the GBS in minimal-
izing the rainfall infiltration into the slope. It should be
noted that the initial factor of safety of the Emerald Hill
slope without the cover was 2.326 and decreased to a
value of 1.623 (i.e., ∆FoS = 0.7 or 30% reduction). While,
the initial factor of safety of the slope with the GBS
cover was 1.905 and decreased to a value of 1.739 (i.e.,
∆FoS = 0.17 or 8% reduction).
Figure 18 depicts the boundary conditions of the Bukit
Teresa slope and the main elements of the GBS. As with
Table 6 Factor of safety of the Emerald Hill slope with and
without GBS at different time periods
Without GBS
Initial FOS 2.326
FOS at the end of the rainfall 1.623 (min)
Final FOS (at the end 1.717
of entire period)
the Emerald Hill slope, the mesh size in the finite ele-
ment analysis for the Bukit Teresa slope was also 0.1 m.
The GBS was made up of residual soil, geogrid rein-
forcement, coarse and fine RCA for the CBS, and ASM
for the green cover. The same SWCCs and permeability
functions of the materials shown in Figs. 10 and 11 were
assigned in this analysis. Each of the GBS components
has the following thicknesses: coarse RCA – 30 cm, fine
RCA – 50 cm, ASM – 60 cm. GBS consists of ten lifts
(bag height is 50 cm) for a 5 m slope. The requirement for
the minimum length of geogrid is 70% of the slope height.
Accordingly, the geogrid length was taken as 3.5 m. This
study is limited to investigate the effect of GBS in pre-
venting rainwater infiltration from the slope surface.
It is assumed there is no water infiltration from the soil
behind the compacted soil of GBS. In addition, the actual
implementation of GBS in Singapore incorporates the
With GBS
impermeable layer behind the compacted soil of GBS to
prevent the water leaking from the water pipe within the
1.905 soil behind GBS to the GBS area. Therefore, the analyses
1.762 designated an impermeable layer as a no-flow boundary
1.739 (min) condition behind the GBS. As a result of seepage stud-
ies, changes in pore-water pressure were integrated into
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5 Page 18 of 21

Fig. 16 Minimum factor of safety and a critical slip surface of Emerald Hill slope covered with the GBS

Fig. 17 Changes in the factor of safety versus time of the Emerald Hill slope with and without GBS during and after 1-day maximum rainfall

Fig. 18 A numerical model for seepage analyses: GBS covering Bukit Teresa slope with a 5 m height and a 70(°) slope angle
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
the slope stability analyses. The study was carried out by
selecting the Mohr–Coulomb material model and input-
ting the shear strength parameters for each material
shown in Table 5.
The minimum factor of safety of the Bukit Teresa slope
with GBS, including its corresponding critical slip sur-
face is presented in Fig. 19. The minimum factor safety is
equal to 2.31. Table 7 shows the key values for the factors
of safety of the Bukit Teresa slope with and without GBS.
The minimum factor of safety of the Bukit Teresa slope
without GBS is 2.84, and it is higher than the slope’s
safety factor when the cover system is included, which
is 2.31 as shown in Fig. 20. Moreover, the initial factor
of safety of the original slope is 4.74, while the slope
with GBS has the initial factor of safety of 3.71. A pos-
sible reason for that is that the slope without GBS has
a lower angle than the slope with GBS. Despite this, the
difference in the factor of safety of a slope covered with
GBS is lower by almost 25%, thus, it can be said that GBS
contributed to the reduction of rainfall infiltration. Even
if the factors of safety of two original slopes are higher
than 1, the use of GBS is preferable since slopes covered
with GBS, most importantly, promote sustainability and
manage urban space shortages, i.e., slopes with GBS can
Fig. 19 Minimum factor of safety and a critical slip surface of Bukit Teresa slope covered with the GBS
Table 7 Factor of safety of the Bukit Teresa slope with and
without GBS at different time periods
Without GBS
Initial FOS 4.743
FOS at the end of the rainfall 2.839 (min)
Final FOS (at the end 3.052
of entire period)
Page 19 of 21
be made steeper, thereby saving urban space. In addi-
tion, a capillary barrier system can prevent rainfall infil-
tration, and the steep slope remains stable.
7 Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
1. Slope susceptibility map was generated using TRI-
GRS and Scoops3D using soil properties obtained
from Rahardjo et al. and using extreme rainfall case
(577 mm/5 days for Jurong Formation and 353 mm/
day for Bukit Timah Granite) [51]. Slope susceptibil-
ity maps allow quick identification of locations that
are susceptible to rainfall-induced slope failures and
take remedial actions, especially if these areas are
near urban infrastructures.
2. Emerald Hill residual soil slope at Bukit Timah Gran-
ite Formation has a higher percentage of fines, thus
it has a higher air-entry value and lower saturated
permeability compared to Bukit Teresa residual
soil slope at Jurong Formation. The effective fric-
tion angle and the effective stress of Bukit Teresa are
higher compared to Emerald Hill due to the higher
percentage of clay in Emerald Hill.
3. Under the extreme rainfall case, the factor of safety
for Bukit Teresa slope is 1.620 and the factor of safety
for Emerald Hill slope is 1.616.
4. The slope susceptibility map agreed closely with the
With GBS
results obtained from SEEP/W and SLOPE/W. Slope
3.709 susceptibility map tends to have a slightly lower fac-
2.310 (min) tor of safety which is more conservative.
2.388 5. The slope protected with GBS showed a smaller
change in FoS during rainfall as compared to the
Rahardjo et al. Urban Lifeline (2023) 1:5
Fig. 20 Changes in the factor of safety versus time of Bukit Teresa slope with and without GBS during and after 5-days maximum rainfall
original slope without GBS. It can be concluded that
the application of GBS will provide a successful pro-
tection method against rainfall-induced landslides.
The application of GBS is not only limited to tropical
countries, but it can be used in different regions in
the world with additional research works for imple-
mentation in the cold weather.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Andrew Tirtaward-
hana, Assel Bayasheva, Aizhan Sagu, Yerkezhan Makenova, Gerarldo Davin in
the data collection used in this study.
Authors’ contributions
Harianto Rahardjo: Writing - Original Draft, Validation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Data Curation. Zhai Qian: Writing - Original Draft, Conceptualiza-
tion, Methodology, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Alfrendo Satyanaga: Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation.
Yangyang Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Curation. Saranya Ranga-
rajan: Formal analysis, Methodology, Data Curation. Arezoo Rahimi: Review &
Editing, Supervision, Validation.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the authorship and publication
of this article.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests
or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work
reported in this paper.
Received: 14 July 2023 Revised: 4 September 2023 Accepted: 19 Septem-
ber 2023
Page 20 of 21
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