Periodization of Pyschological Skills Training

Gloria Balague
University of Illinois, Department of Psychology, USA

Balague, G. (2000). Periodization of psychological skills trainning. Journal of Science and

Medicine in Sport 3 (3): 230-237.
The concept of periodization of training as developed by Bompa, meaning "structuring
training phases to lead to the highest level of speed, strength, and endurance", and "the
division of the annual plan to ensure an optimal performance for the main competition"
has been hilly embraced by sport training in the past 10 years. This presentation will
propose a model of periodization of psychological skills training. In order to optimize
performance, a plan must be devised that will combine the specific needs of the athlete,
the requirements of the sport and the concrete demands of the different training phases.
A classification of psychological skills in terms of foundation skills, performance skills
and facilitative skills will be discussed and the timing and order of teaching these skills
will be suggested within the framework of the three main elements indicated above. An
example, using long and triple jump as the sport activity will be used to illustrate in
detail the proposed model.

Introduction
Training for competitive sports has changed very m u c h in the last fifteen years.
One of the main changes has been the introduction of sport sciences into the
process: exercise physiology, biomechanics, training science are consistently used
in a multi disciplinary model. The progression of training and the balance of
volume and intensity of work loads has been introduced in recent years. The
concept of periodization (Bompa, 1999) means "structuring training phases to
lead to the highest level of speed, strength, and endurance". It is also used to
mean "the division of the annual plan to ensure an optimal performance for the
main competition" (Bompa, 1999, p.194). According to Bompa, "athletic
performance depends on the athlete's adaptation, psychological adjustment to
training and competitions, and development of skills and abilities" (lbid, p. 195).
Looking at these definitions it is easy to see that psychological aspects are an
important part of the athlete's performance. Unfortunately, sport psychology has
not followed the same developmental path as some of the other sport sciences.
Traditionally, psychological skills training for sport is conducted on either a "time
availability" basis or an "emergency" basis, that is, all psychological skills are
trained during the pre-season, when there are less competing demands (Gordin,
1995} for the athlete's time or psychological intervention is requested when a
problem is detected. This paper will present a model for training psychological
skillsZollowing the notion of periodization of training. The role of psychological
skills in athletic performance will be addressed first, and then the notion of
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periodization of their training will be illustrated with an example of an individual

sport. Considering the amount of variability that different athletic populations
and levels of expertise would bring into the equation, the presentation will focus
on the needs of competitive sport, from college level and up.
PSyChOlOgiCal Skills in Sport
The goal of psychological skills training in sport is to help the athlete reach his or
her potential by maximizing learning and performance. Specifically, the aim is to
increase the athlete's consistency by increasing control over the performance.
Physical and technical conditions will mark the ceiling to the performance. The
basic assumption underlying the previous statements is that psychological skills
relevant to sport performance are just that - skills - and can thus be improved by
training in the same manner as the physical skills.
Classification of Skills
There is no general agreement in the field regarding a classification of
psychological skills. Vealey (1988) helped clarify the distinction between
psychological skills and psychological tools or techniques. She proposes talking
about three groups of skills: Foundation skills which would include Volition, Self-
Awareness, Self-esteem and Self-Confidence; Performance skills, including
Optimal physical arousal, Optimal mental arousal and Optimal attention. Finally,
Facilitative skills would include Interpersonal skills and Lifestyle management.
This classification appears useful in that it distinguishes among basic skills,
needed for all tasks, skills related to optimization of performance and skills that
make the process easier. I would like to offer a variation of the content of these
three groups, realizing also that different sports (individual, team, precision...)
and different levels of expertise Mill somehow change the list of skills.
F o u n d a t i o n Skills
Motivation: There must be a basic level of motivation that the athlete brings with
him/her. The environment and the people surrounding the athlete (coaches,
parents, trainers...) can help or hinder the motivation, but if it is not present it
cannot be infused from the outside.
Self-Awareness: The capacity to identify motor, behavioural, cognitive and
emotional responses in oneself is necessary to eventually being able to control
them.
Interpersonal Skills: I would include them here because the process of training
and becoming a good athletic performer requires working closely with at least one
coach, and often with teammates and assistant coaches, even in individual
sports. Deficits in this area should be identified early on or they may likely result
in the athlete dropping out or being dropped from the team.
Serf-esteem and self-confidence, being very important in life, are a bit too
general and I would not place them in the same realm with the others. I will
address the specific issue of athletic self-confidence in the next group.
P e r f o r m a n c e Skills
Self-Efficacy: I would include here the specific self-confidence for athletic
performance. Numerous examples come to mind of athletes who lack self-
confidence or with low "general" self-esteem, who nevertheless become very
successful performers. What is needed is "specific" self-confidence, also known as
serf-efficacy. (Bandura, 1977).
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Self-regulation of physical arousal: The capacity to match one's physical arousal,

bodily tension, to the demands of the situation.
Cognitive and Emotional Self-ControL The ability to regulate one's thoughts, self-
dialogue and emotional responses (Williams & Leffingwell, 1996). I label them
jointly because they are so intertwined, and the ability to exert cognitive control
results in emotional self-control (Beck, 1970).
Self-Regulation of Attention: Knowing how to adjust one's attentional style to the
requirements of the environment/sport. (Nideffer, 1992).
Facilitative Skills
Would include:
Lifestyle Maru~emen~. Including time management, the ability to keep personal
balance, etc.
Media Skills: Very important for elite level athletes in our society. Media is relevant
to their financial success, but also poor media skills may result, not only in less
commercial opportunities, but in reduced performance for inability to manage the
distractions presented by the media.
Perlodizatlon of Psychological Skills Training
Any psychological skills training program takes into consideration the
requirements of the event/sport, as well as characteristics of the athlete. The first
step in any training program would then be the evaluation of the athlete, in order
to identify skills that already exist, deficits and strengths and weaknesses. An
evaluation of the specific skills labeled as Foundation Skills would be necessary.
Motivation: What is the existing level of motivation that the athlete brings to the
situation? The environment, the coaching, the results can help increase o r
decrease the existing motivation, but it is necessary to understand the "meaning"
of the activity to the performer and his or her definition of success (Balague,
1999).
Self-Awareness: What is the athlete's capacity to observe and register physical
tension in different parts of the body?. Can the athlete identify his or her cognitive
processes during training, competition, etc., and the emotional responses to
different outcomes and situations?
Interpersonal Skills: What is the performer's communication style? Can h e / s h e be
assertive, express ideas openly, receive praise and criticism, read social
situations?
This information can be collected in a variety of ways: Interviews, observation,
use of psychometric testing. Knowledge of the needs and skills of the athlete will
allow the sport psychologist to taylor interventions to the individual, running
further away from an old model that would teach the same psychological skills to
all athletes at the same time.
Besides the specific needs of the athlete, any intervention m u s t fit the
characteristics and d J n a n d s of the sport. Finally, the last element missing is the
specific notion of periodization of psychological skills training. Depending on the
training phase, some psychological skills are more relevant than others. It is also
likely to be the case that some skills cannot be properly learned at certain points
in the training regime. For example, a very used skill such as visualization or
mental rehearsal may not provide the right "picture" of the movement when
practiced during heavy conditioning training. The kinesthetic feedback received
from file muscles is probably quite different from the feelings the athlete gets
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when h e / s h e is in competing shape. Conflicting information may be stored, which

is very likely to limit the usefulness of the technique
Following the concept of periodization, it seems that psychological skills training
would need to closely follow the demands of the specific training phase and goals
that the athlete is currently working.

Periodization of Physical Training

Bompa's training factors pyramid describes the phases as follows:
Psychological and mental training
Tactical Training
Technical Training
Physical training

Physical training is seen as the cornerstone, encompassing three levels: 1} A

general physical training; 2) A phase of specific physical training; and 3) A high
level of biomotor abilities. Technical, sport training; and 4) A high level of biomotor
abilities. Technical, sport specific training would follow. Tactical training aims to
teach the athlete how to evaluate the opponent and oneself, to recall tactical
sl~lls instantly, to anticipate the opponents' tactics and to coordinate individual
actions with team tactics. Bumpa states that these highly complex skills are very
demanding psychologically. He then places psychological and mental training at
the end of the process.
It could be hypothesized that ff psychological issues are not addressed until the
end, only those who already have the necessary psychological skills will make it
through the process, regardless of their level of physical skill.
Each one of these phases has different psychological requirements, so most of
the psychological training should be done in conjunction with the physical,
technical and tactical preparation, rather t h a n waiting until the end to address
the psychological aspects.

Perlodlzatlon of Psychological Skills Training for an

Individual Sport
Horizontal j u m p s (long and triple) will be used as an example of training of
psychological s~lls for an individual sport. We will make the assumption that the
plan prepares for competition during the indoor season, with national
championships being held in March. Table 1 describes the general plan.
General preparation phase: (August-October)
During this period the main physical conditioning takes place. J u m p e r s in this
phase do strength work, weights, hill nmning, sled pulling, medicinal ball etc. The
psychological requirements of this phase start with motivation: This is rarely the
favorite part of the season for many athletes. Conditioning is the basis for their
physical ability lasting through the season, t h u s the need to train with the
necessary intensity. Pain and fatigue tolerance is also needed in this period and
the athlete needs to be aware of h i s / h e r body. Self-efficacy, defined as the
confidence the athlete has in his or her ability to perform is also going to build on
the confidence the athlete has in the foundations of training, in having done the
necessary a m o u n t of work.

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Periodization of Psychological Skills Training

General Preparation ~ Specific Prep Pre-Comp Main Comp Transit.

Conditioning Phase TechnicalWOrk Te{tical Work Perform. Eval/Rest

Strength, speed, Jump Phases Consistency Self- Evaluation
endurance emphasized management
Rhythm Approachrun Coordination
of Jump
The Board/Fouls
PsycholeglcalRequirements
Motivation,pain/ Kinesthetic OptimalArousal Trust Evaluation
fatigue toler, control
Self-Efficacy Awarenessof OptimalFocus Flexibility Restoration
jump phases
Self-Awareness IncreasedEfficacy Cognitive/Emot. Emotional Self-Efficacy
Control Control
Interventlens
GoalSetting Visualization Attention focus work Comp.p l a n Evaluation
RelaxationTraining Rhythm work Compet. routines Cornp.eval, Perspective
ImageryTraining Feedbackon Cognitiverestruct. Anticipation Letting go
improvement
Cognitive Awareness Kinesth. aware- Board/Confidence Planning Self-care
rless exercises exer.
Attentional Style Eval. Relaxing/Energizing
cues

Table t: Preparation plan for horizontal jumps.

Psychological skills training for increasing motivation in this p h a s e should

include techniques such as Goal Setting: clear goals for the future and the season
are essential. But these goals alone are not enough at this stage. Daffy practice
goals are needed, as they provide a clear target for the day's practice (Weinberg &
Gould, 1995}. It is also helpful to relate the current drills and exercises to future
effects on the jump: for example, weight repetitions or hill running will result in
increased leg strength that will allow a longer jump.
In order to increase awareness and facilitate pain/fatigue tolerance Relaxation
Training can be introduced now, to enhance rest and recovery after hard practices
or drills. Weight Training is a n ideal setting to learn Segment (or Partial)
Relaxation: relax only those muscle groups that are not in use at the moment.
This will be necessar~ when it comes time to j u m p and the coach asks the athlete
to relax a body part, such as shoulders.
Visualization or mental rehearsal can also be learned here: the athlete can learn
to visualize lifting weights with proper technique, running relaxed, etc. This p h a s e
provides m a n y chances to practice concrete exercises that will greatly increase the
skill at visualizing more complex patterns later on.
Cognitive awareness and control can also be started now. Some very talented
athleles do not like this p h a s e of training. This allows for m a n y opportunities to

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identify negative thought patterns and change them, going for example from "I
cannot lift this" to "I will do just this one". Athletes should keep track of thoughts
and images they find helpful and result in increased sense of energy and strength.
Specific Training Phase: (November~December)
Here the technical work takes place and the learning of the jump phases is
emphasized. The approach run, with different n u m b e r of steps, is a crucial
component.
PsychologicalRequirements: More refined kinesthetic perceptions, visualization of
the different phases of the jump, identification of helpful rhythms, increased
confidence and emotional control.
The goal of psychological training in this phase is to achieve the best possible
multi-sensorial image of a correct execution and the feelings of self-confidence in
one's capacity to do it. We want the j u m p e r to have a complete picture, including
as many sensory modalities as possible, of the j u m p and also we want h i m / h e r
to capture the feeling of confidence that accompanies good performances.
Training techniques at this phase would be:
Use of video (and probably in the near future, use of virtual reality equipment). A
tape of successful jump elements, a "highlights" tape, including good approach
runs, good rake-offs, landings... It is helpful for athlete's to watch them and focus
on the right sensations. Keeping a 'Mastery Log', where the athlete records all
daffy practice improvements is often helpful to counter the critical focus on the
negative that many athletes (and coaches) have.
Identification of the correct internal rhythm is also a great tool for jumpers.
Being able to 'sing' the jump's rhythm counters the tendency to focus too m u c h
on each phase, which result in choppy, forced moves.
This is also a good time to practice visual perception exercises to help the
j u m p e r deal with a specific element of long and triple jump: The board and the
foul jump. Visual control is the most helpful way to increase jump consistency
(Hay, 1988), but it requires that the athlete trust his or her perception. Coach and
athlete can devise a n u m b e r of training exercises to help improve visual
perception and the athlete's confidence in it.
Pre-competitlve Phase: (January-Februaryl
The goal of this phase is to finalize the jump, so that the athlete can become
consistent.
The psychological goal here is to help the athlete identify the elements that
a c c o m p a n y good performances, so t h a t h e / s h e can reproduce them.
Identification of optimal levels of arousal and optimal focus of attention are central
elements. As the ftrst practice competitions start, the emphasis should be on
identifying changes in the level of tension: when the athlete starts to get tense,
where in the body does h e / s h e feel it first? It is important to learn to recognize
early signs of tension because it is easy to correct it using the relaxation exercises
practiced earlier. The same holds true for attentional focus. What is the optimal
focus of attention at different points and what are some of the distractions that
can interfere in competitions?
The main interventions here will be to develop a pre-competitive routine, that
is, a stable set of actions and thoughts to get the athlete in the right frame of
mind. This routine should be short and simple, b u t consistent. The other main
intervention is to identify the most adaptive behaviors in between jumps. For
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some athletes it is better now to focus on the next jump, for others it is better to
remain distracted until the last minute. In general, there is a need to identify how
and how long should the athlete rest after a j u m p and when and how should
h e / s h e start focusing on the next one and increasing the level of activation.
Identifying self-dialogue, cue words and images that work for the athlete, evoking
energy, rhythm, confidence etc, are some of the t a s k s t h a t should be
accomplished now.
Main Competitive Phase: (March)
The athlete m u s t be able to perform independently now. H e / s h e m u s t be able to
perform consistently and adjust to changing conditions.
Psychologically, the athlete m u s t now 'trust' h i s / h e r skills and also be able to
anticipate and react to unexpected circumstances.
Interventions: The athlete should have a solid competition plan, with alternatives
in case of delays, less time to w a r m up, etc. and it is very important that h e / s h e
evaluates h i s / h e r psychological focus and performance after every competition, in
order to m a k e minor adjustments if needed in the competition plan. Media skills
training is also necessary at this stage.
Transitional Phase
At the end of the season it is very important that the athlete evaluates the whole
program and decides on changes that need to be made and set new goals for the
next phase. Equally important is that h e / s h e be able to let go and restore energy.
Life balance skills are going to be important now, particularly in the cases of
outcomes in the extremes, that is, great success and perceived failures.
Sometimes a major success can t u r n into a great 'expectation' weight, while a
perceived failure can be very demotivating if the athlete m a k e s internal
attributions for its cause. In any case, balance m u s t be restored before the next
training session can begin..
Conclusion
This paper proposed a model of psychological skills training that will incorporate
the traditional elements of athlete's needs and sport specific requirements, and
add the d e m a n d s of the c u r r e n t training phase, according to B o m p a ' s
periodization notion 1999.
The model m u s t now be tested empirically to determine whether the outcome is
better t h a n using other approaches. We m u s t also consider the implications that
such a training model has:
a} Different levels of sport skill and experience will have a major impact on the
sequence of skills to be taught;
b) Different sports will have different requirements. Particularly t e a m sports will
require other elements t h a n individual sports, both because of their calendar
and schedule as v~ell as because of the major environmental differences.
c) This model implies that psychological skills training should be conducted in
conjunction with physical training, in the gym, track, field, rather t h a n in the
psychologist's office. The cooperation between psychologist and coach is
essential and m a n y of the interventions will be carried out by the coach, with
the psychologist serving as a consultant.
d) The psychologist working within this framework needs solid knowledge of the
sport and sport sciences.

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Ultimately, the goal is to reach an interdisicplinary model that will enhance the
athlete's sport experience.
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