BASIC OPERATIONS

UNRESPONSIVE COMPUTERS: SHUT DOWN

BOOTING
• The process of starting a computer is called booting.
• When a computer is off and you switch it on, this is referred to as cold boot.
• When you restart a computer while the computer is on is called warm boot
The booting Process
• power is supplied to the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) stored on the ROM which
contains startup instructions.
• BIOS carries out POST (Power On Self-Test) to check if the hardware devices (RAM,
Adaptor cards etc) are correctly connected and functioning
• If POST is successful, the BIOS looks for the Operating system, first on the hard disk, CD
or USB port.
• If the Operating system is located, its then loaded into memory (RAM) and run.
• Next the kernel which is core of the Operating system is loaded into memory and
remains in memory to manage memory and devices and assign resources such as
devices, programs, data and information.
• Then the operating system loads the system configuration settings stored in the registry.
Registry constantly communicates with the OS for installed hardware and software,
passwords and user preferences.
• Finally, the windows desktop and icons are displayed and the OS executes programs in
the startup folder.
Program failure during booting and shutting down.
Computer reboots when you tell it to shut down: this occurs when there is a system failure at
the shutdown and windows responds by rebooting, giving an impression that it can’t tell the
difference between shutting down and restarting.
This can be prevented by following the steps:
• Click on start and type RUN
• Open RUN
• Type sysdm.cpi and press enter
• Click on the advanced tab on the pop up window and under startup and recovery.
Uncheck automatically restart.

Computer freezes at windows boot up screen

This can be caused either by hardware or software problem. If the OS loads before the
computer freezes then it the software and The event viewer can be used to troubleshoot and
identify the cause of the problem and if it freezes before the computer starts loading the OS,
then its hardware problem, then you have to try booting from the CD or USB flash.

Computer shuts down because of overheating

The more programs are running on the computer; the more heat the system generates. This
can cause the system to shut down so it can cool down. To prevent this, use effective funs or air
conditioning to cool the area around the computer.

Booting or shutting down problems as a result of program removal.

If you removed or deleted a program from the computer manually, related information to the
program can cause this. To resolve this, you can reinstall and then either use remove or delete
tools to remove it.

Computer will not shutdown.

This can be caused by:
• One of the processes or services are not shutting down or still running.
• Faulty or incompatible device driver installed.
• Faulty or incompatible program running.
Ways to solve this:
• Undo recent changes made to the computer system.
• Try last known good configurations
• Use task manager to force quit programs not shutting down.
• Ensure the BIOS setting are correct
• Use Devices manager to check any faulty with the drivers.

Security and viruses

A computer security risk is an event or action that causes loss of data, and damage to hardware,
software, information or processing capabilities.
Users are at risk from unauthorized access, spyware, and adware. To prevent unauthorized
access the operating system provides access control.
Access control is a security measure that establishes permission or access rights to computer
resources. Access control is implemented through identification and authentication.
Identification verifies that an individual is a valid user.
Authentication verifies that the user is the person he or she claims to be.
Identification and authentication takes place through the use of the username and passwords
where a user is supposed to log on to be granted access to the computer or network and log off
to secure the computer.
Username is a series of characters that uniquely identifies a specific user. User names are
created in user accounts which allow each user to log on to a computer or network.
A password is a combination of characters that are linked to the user name and is used to
control access. To make a strong password make sure it has a minimum of eight characters
(alphabetical letters, numbers and symbols), uses uppercase and lowercase and not a birth
date, family name or anything easy to guess. Must make sure it’s a secret and it’s changed at
regular basis and always to be careful entering it in public places.
Log on is the process of entering a username and password to gain access to computer and log
off is the process of disconnecting a user from a computer or network.
Insecure passwords can lead to security risks such as:`
• Information theft: this occurs when someone steals personal or confidential
information using methods such as credit card number, ATM spoofing, PIN capturing
and database theft.
• Identity theft: this is a crime in which an imposter illegally obtains your personal
information, such as credit card and bank account details, username and password.
• Phishing: this is a scam in which an offender sends an e-mail to you that appears to
come from trustworthy source, such as bank or online auction site. The sole purpose is
to trick you into supplying your personal or financial details.
Safety procedures
Antivirus software
A computer virus is a computer program specially created to cause harm on a computer
system. It usually alters or damages data or program files and maybe installed without the
owners knowledge.
Anti-virus software sometimes known as anti-malware software, is computer software used
to prevent, detect and remove malicious software
How Antivirus Works?
Antivirus software scans the file comparing specific bits of code against information in its
database and if it finds a pattern duplicating one in the database, it is considered a virus,
and it will quarantine or delete that particular file.
Good habits to prevent virus infections
• Use antivirus software: Good antivirus software is the first line of defense in a
computer system.
• Ensure your firewall is turned on: A firewall is like a “wall around a castle”; it controls
what comes in & goes out of a computer.
• Use an anti-malware utility. If a piece of malware makes it past your firewall &
antivirus the next thing you should be using is an antimalware utility
• Run updates: A computer virus infects windows and other software by taking
advantage of design flaws.
• Avoid clicking on everything. There are thousands of banner ads and pop-ups on the
internet that are designed to get your attention and make you click
• Beware of misleading pop-ups. Some of the most nefarious pop-ups on the internet
are designed to mimic the look of legitimate anti-virus software.
• Clear your cache. Pop-ups can store information in your browser's cache, leading to
them reappearing constantly
• Be selective with your downloads. Download from trusted locations only.
• Look at the extension. Mischievous files often have fake extensions designed to trick
you, such as ".txt.vb" or ".jpg.exe".
• Scan your downloaded files and external devices. If you have an antivirus program
installed, you should make a habit of scanning files that you've downloaded from
unknown locations
• Be careful opening email attachments.
 Copyright
Copyright is a legal term describing ownership of control of the rights to the use and
distribution of certain works of creative expression, including books, video, movies, music and
computer programs
Copyright law

Limitations imposed by copyright

When you buy software, for example, copyright law forbids you from:

• giving a copy to a friend

• making a copy and then selling it
• using the software on a network (unless the liscence llows it)
• renting the software without the permission of the copyright holder
Verify the authenticity of software
The following constitute proof of license:
• End user license agreement: An End User License Agreement (EULA) is a legal contract
between a software application author or publisher and the user of that application.
• Certificate of authenticity: is a seal or small sticker on a computer program that proves
the customer purchased it legally and it includes product name, certificate number,
product key or serial number.
• Cancelled cheques indicating payments for the software.
• Other licensing documents such as purchase orders and product activation keys.
Open Source VS Proprietary Software
Open Source Software (OSS) is a type of software in which its source code is freely available to
the Internet, whereby its copyright holder allows others to collaborate, inspect, and modify the
code.

Proprietary software, on the other hand, (sometimes referred to as “closed source software”)
describes software in which only its original authors can legally control, inspect, edit or alter it.
These types of software usually come with a license agreement which users have to agree to
before they can use it. Common examples of proprietary software you have probably used are
Microsoft Office and Adobe Acrobat.

Differences between open source and proprietary software

Open source Proprietary
 Licensing Users are licensees. They have the right Users are licensees. They
to copy, modify and share the product cannot copy, modify or share
the product
Cost of product Free Not free (unless it is freeware)
Example Python, Mozilla Firefox, Google Internet Explorer, Photoshop,
software Chrome, Mysql, GIMP, Linux Call of Duty, Windows, iOS,
iTunes
Vendor lock-in Users can switch to other alternative Users rely on the vendor to
open source products, or modify the support and update the
software product
Updates and A community of contributors with a The vendor is in complete
improvements range of expertise can contribute to the charge of the update cycle and
continuous improvement of the product developing new features
Advantages of Proprietary Software
• Its tailor made to an organization’s specifications
• There no unwanted features.
• You can easily have it modified to include amendments.
• It can be developed to run on specified hardware
• It can be integrated with existing software
Disadvantages of Proprietary Software
• It’s expensive developing it.
• It takes a lot of time to develop and test
• Training and support costs are high
• Problems with it are difficult to resolve
• It has less support and online help
Advantages of Open Source Software
• The source code is free
• Flexible incorporating the latest features and developed ideas
• No need to wait for updates and support.

Advantages of Open Source Software

• Programs may be incomplete
• No support and might end up paying for help.

Freeware shareware and end-user license

 • Freeware is software that is available for use at no monetary cost. In other words,
while freeware may be used without payment it is most often proprietary software.
Examples of freeware include Skype and Adobe Acrobat Reader. There is no agreed
set of rights or a license.
• Shareware is a type of proprietary software which is initially provided free of charge
(trial) to users for a certain period and then required to pay after the trial.
• End-user license agreement (EULA) or software license agreement is the contract between
the licensor and purchaser, establishing the purchaser's right to use the software. The
license may define ways under which the copy can be used and limit the number of
computers it can be installed in. <3333!
Storage media
Types of memory
Storage is divided into two types of memory: primary and secondary.
PRIMARY MEMORY
Primary memory is the main memory of computer system. The instructions that have to be
currently executed is copied to the primary memory because CPU can directly access the data from
primary memory. Accessing data from primary memory is faster as it is an internal memory and
processor accesses data from primary memory using data bus.

The primary memory is usually volatile in nature which means data in primary memory does not exist
if not saved, in case the power failure occurs. The primary memory is semiconductor memory and
is more expensive than secondary memory. The primary memory capacity is limited in computer
and is always smaller than secondary memory.

Primary memory can be divided into two types of memory that are RAM (Random Access Memory)
and ROM (Read Only Memory).

RAM is a both read and write memory. The data which has to be currently processed is kept in RAM
which can be quickly accessed by the CPU. RAM is volatile and loses data if the power is switched off.
RAM can be static or dynamic.
ROM is a read only memory; its content cannot be altered. It has the instructions that are used
when the system is booted up. ROM is a non-volatile memory i.e. it retains its content even if the
power is switched off. The types of ROM are PROM, EPROM and EEPROM

SECONDARY MEMORY
Secondary memory is an auxiliary memory of the computer. The data that has to be permanently
stored is kept in secondary memory. The CPU cannot directly access the data in secondary memory.
The data has to be initially copied to primary memory then only it can be processed by CPU. Hence,
accessing data from secondary memory is slower. The secondary memory can be accessed using the

input-output channel. The secondary memory is nonvolatile in natu\re,

which means that the content of the secondary memory exist even if the power is switched off. The
secondary memory is magnetic memory or optical memory and it available at cheaper rates as
compared to the primary memory.

Secondary memory is available in bulk and always larger than primary memory. A computer can
even work without secondary memory as it an external memory. The examples of secondary
memory are the hard disk, floppy disk, CD, DVD, etc.

BASIS FOR PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY

COMPARISON

Basic Primary memory is directly Secondary memory is not

accessible by Processor/CPU. directly accessible by CPU.

Altered Name Main memory. Auxiliary memory.

Data Instructions or data to be Data to be permanently

currently executed are copied stored is kept in
to main memory. secondary memory.

Volatility Primary memory is usually Secondary memory is

volatile. non-volatile.

Formation Primary memories are made Secondary memories are

of semiconductors. made of magnetic and
optical material.

Access Speed Accessing data from primary Accessing data from

memory is faster. secondary memory is
 slower.

Access Primary memory is accessed Secondary memory is

by the data bus. accessed by input-output
channels.

Read texSize The computer has a small The computer has a larger
primary memory. secondary memory.

Expense Primary memory is costlier Secondary memory is

than secondary memory. cheaper than primary
memory

Memory Primary memory is an internal Secondary memory is an

memory. external memory.

Storage capacities
The hard disk

The hard disk is the main storage device in your computer. It is a bit like a filing
cabinet: all of your data files and applications software are stored on it.
The hard disk contains a number of metal platters which have been coated with a
special magnetic material.
The data is stored in this magnetic material. Thus, the hard disk is known as a
magnetic storage device.
In order to access the data, the platters spin many thousands of times a second and
a magnetic read and write head floats just above the surface of the platter. Which is
measured in revolutions per minute.
When you hear the term 'hard disk crash', this refers to the read/write head crashing
down onto the surface of the hard disk. There is a risk every time this happens that
the data stored in the section just where the head crashes might be damaged. That
 is why it is a bad idea just to switch the computer off at the wall without shutting it
down properly.
Hard disks are measured in Gigabytes and Terabytes. Typical hard disks range
from around 120 Gb - 3 Terabytes.
Hard disks can be internal or external. External hard disks are standalone and they
use a USB port to connect to the computer. Internal hard disks are faster than
external hard disks.
Advantages
• Necessary to support the way your computer works
• Large storage capacity
• Stores and retrieves data much faster than a floppy disk or CD/DVD
• Stored items are not lost when you switch off the computer
• Cheap on a cost per megabyte compared to other storage devices
Disadvantages
• Far slower to access data than ROM or RAM chips
• Hard disks can crash which stop the computer from working
• Regular crashes can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data in that
sector
• The disk is fixed inside the computer and cannot easily be transferred to another
computer.

Compact Disks (CDs)

Compact Disks come in 3 main forms:
CD-ROM - CD Read Only Memory. This means that when you buy the disk, it
already has the data or program stored on it. You can read it, but can't save to it.
An example would be a music CD that you buy from a shop.
CD-R (recordable)/(WORM – CD) Write Once Read Many. This means that you
are able to save to this disk one time, so you can store your data or an application
on it of your choice. However, once you have saved onto the disk once, you can
access the data many times but can't save onto it again.
CD-RW - CD Rewriteable. This means that you can save data to your disk over
and over again, just like you can with a floppy disk.
 Compact disks are known as optical storage devices. Data is burned onto the
surface of the disk using a laser beam in the CD drive. A laser beam is also used to
read the data stored on the disk.
A typical CD can store around 650 Mb of data - equivalent to 450 floppy disks.
The entire contents of four text based encyclopedias (no images) could be stored
on a single CD.
The process of writing to a CD is called burning.
The process that burns a title to a CD or DVD that has been specially treated
Advantages
• Small and portable
• Very cheap to produce
• Most computers can read CDs. If there is no CD drive, a DVD drive can usually
read them
• Fairly fast to access the data - quicker than a floppy disk or magnetic tape
Disadvantages
• Fairly fragile, easy to snap or scratch
• Smaller storage capacity than a hard drive or DVD
• Slower to access than the hard disk.

Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

DVDs are amongst the most common methods of copying and backing up data at
home.
A DVD is similar to a CD in that it is an optical device and that a laser is used to
store the data and read the data.
A single sided DVD can store about 4.7Gb of data. DVDs which store data on both
sides can hold over 9Gb of data.
One problem with the DVD is that the different companies which make them
haven't agreed on a standard format.
Because of this, you will see various kinds of DVD disks for sale: DVD-R,
DVD+R, DVD-RW and DVD+RW.
 You have to make sure that you buy the right kind of disk to go with your DVD
equipment.
Advantages
• Very large storage capacity
• Sound and picture quality is excellent, making them ideal for storing films with
video and sound.
• DVDs are now mass produced so they are relatively cheap
• DVD players can read CDs
Disadvantages
• DVDs do not work in CD drives
• There is no single standard of DVD
• They can be easily damaged by breaking or scratching

Blu-Ray
Blu-ray disk can store even more data than a DVD. A single layer disk can hold
25GB whilst a double layer disk can store up to 50GB.
The look quite similar to a CD or DVD as they are the same size (form factor),
however, only a dedicated Blu-ray player can play them.
They are mainly used to store high quality commercial movies. But you can buy a
Blu-ray burner for a personal computer and write-able blank Blu-ray disks.
The name comes from the fact that the players use a blue laser to read and write
data and this explains why DVD player cannot use them as a DVD player uses a
red laser.

Advantages
• They store much more data than a DVD disk
• They are able to store a full length high definition film
Disadvantages
• You need a dedicated Blu-ray player to play the disks
• Loading a film can take minutes as so much data needs to be read

Flash Memory
Flash memory storage devices are typically small, lightweight,
removable and rewritable. They consist of a small printed circuit board
which is encased in plastic or metal casing. They usually have a
removable cap which covers and protects the part of the stick which is
inserted into a USB port.
Memory sticks are available from 1 Gb upwards.
Advantages
• They are more compact and portable than CDs or DVD.
• They hold more data than a CD, many gigabytes
• They are reliable as they have no moving parts (unlike a hard disk)
• They are easily branded on their cover to reflect the organisation
• They are not affected by magnetic fields (unlike magnetic tape)
Disadvantages
• More expensive than CD or DVD as a medium
• They can be easily lost
• The metal part which is inserted into the USB port can be snapped off or
damaged if they are handled roughly