HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

-Peritoneum - serosa lining the abdominal cavity and

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- Includes body membranes, skin, hair,
fingernails, and sweat and oil glands
- The skin has multiple layers that protects the
body, help regulate temperature, and help
excrete waste via sweat
Body Membranes
- Cover surfaces, line body cavities, amd form
protective ( and often lubricating sheets around
organs
→ 2 major groups
● Epithelial membranes - include the
cutaneous (generally called the skin or
integumentary membrane), mucous, and
serous membrane
● Connective tissue membrane - represented
by synovial membrane
covering its organs
-Pleurae - membrane surrounding the lugs
-Pericardia - membranes surrounding the heart
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE
-Synovial membranes are composed of loose areolar
connective tissue and contain no epithelial cells at
all.
-Line the fibrous capsule surrounding joints where
they produce a smooth surface and secrete
lubricating fluids
-They also line small sacs of connective tissue called
bursae and the tubelike tendon sheaths.

CLASSIFICATION OF BODY MEMBRANES

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES

- Also called covering and lining membranes,

include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the
mucous membrane, and serous membrane

CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE
- Composed of two layers, the superficial
epidermis, and the underlying dermis
- Composed of stratified squamous epithelium, THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (SKIN)
whereas the dermis is mostly dense (fibrous)
connective tissue. - The skin and its appendages (sweat and oil
- exposed to air and is a dry membrane glands, hair, and nails) are collectively called
the integumentary system.
MUCOUS MEMBRANE
- composed of epithelium) resting on a loose FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
connective tissue membrane called a lamina
propria
- lines all body cavities that open to the exterior, FUNCTIONS HOW ACCOMPLISHED
such as those of the hollow organs of the
Protects deeper tissues from Physical barrier contains
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive keratin, which toughens cells;
tracts. • Mechanical damage (bumps) fat cells to cushion blows; and
both pressure and pain
- moist membranes that are almost continuously receptors, which alert the
bathed in secretions nervous system to possible
damage.

SEROUS MEMBRANES Chemical damage (acids and Has relatively impermeable

- serosa, is composed of a layer of simple bases) keratinized cells; contains pain
receptors, which alert the
squamous epithelium resting nervous system to possible
- line body cavities that are closed to the damage.
exterior
Microbe damage Phagocytes ingest foreign
- Occurs in pairs:; parietal and visceral layer substances and pathogens,
- serous layers are separated not by air but by a preventing them from
penetrating into deeper
scanty amount of thin, clear fluid, called body tissues.
serous fluid
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Melanin produced by
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melanocytes offers protection
from UV damage.

Thermal (heat or cold) damage Contains heat/cold/pain

receptors.

Aids in body heat loss or heat Heat loss: By activating sweat

retention glands and by allowing blood
(controlled by the nervous to flush into skin
system) capillary beds so that heat can
radiate from the skin surface.

Aids in excretion of urea and Contained in perspiration

uric acid produced by sweat glands.

Synthesizes vitamin D Modified cholesterol molecules

in skin converted to vitamin D
in the presence of sunlight.

-
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
● Melanin - a pigment that ranges in color
from yellow to brown to black, is produced by
- Skin is composed of two kinds of tissue;
special spider-shaped cells called
epidermis and dermis
melanocytes
- Deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous
tissue, or hypodermis, which essentially is
● epidermal dendritic cells - alert and activate
adipose (fat) tissue.
immune system cells to a threat
● such as bacterial or viral invasion
● Merkel Cells- epidermal-dermal junction
which are associated with sensory nerve
endings and serve as touch receptors called
Merkel discs.

DERMIS
EPIDERMIS
- cells of the epidermis are keratinocytes (ker-
- atin cells), which produce keratin
- is avascular; that is, it has no blood supply of
its own.
- is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to
bind the body together.
- Collagen and elastic fibers are found
- connective tissue making up the dermis
consists of two major regions;
● papillary layer - is the superficial dermal
● region.
● dermal papillae - indent the epidermis
above.
● reticular layer - is the deepest skin layer. It
contains dense irregular connective tissue, as
well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands,
and deep pressure receptors called lamellar
corpuscles.

→ composed of 5 layers or strata: SKIN COLOR

● stratum basale - deepest cell layer. contains Three pigments contribute to skin color: melanin,
the most adequately nourished of the carotene, and hemoglobin.
epidermal cells because nutrients diffusing
from the dermis reach them first.
● stratum spinosum - move away from the
dermis and become part of the more
superficial layers
● stratum granulosum - become flatter and APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
increasingly keratinized. skin appendages include cutaneous glands,
● stratum lucidum - cells leave the stratum hair and hair follicles, and nails
granulosum they die
● stratum corneum- outermost layer
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CUTANEOUS GLANDS
- all exocrine glands that release their secretions
to the skin surface via ducts.
- They fall into two groups: sebaceous glands
- and sweat glands.
- Sebaceous (Oil) Glands - are found all over the
skin, except on the palms of the hands and the
soles of the feet.
- Sebum - product of sebaceous gland, mixture
of oily substances and fragmented cells. Sebum
is a lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist
and prevents the hair from becoming brittle.
- arrector pili - connect each side of the hair
follicle to the dermal tissue.
NAILS
- is a scalelike modification of the epidermis
that corresponds to the hoof or claw of other
animals. Each nail has a free edge, a body
(visible attached portion), and a root
(embedded in the skin)

SWEAT GLANDS
- also called sudoriferous glands, are widely
distributed in the skin. Their number is
staggering—more than 2.5 million per person.

→ 2 types of sweat gland;

● eccrine glands - are far more
● numerous and are found all over the body.
they produce sweat
● Apocrine glands are largely confined to the
axillary (armpit) and genital areas of the body,
secretion contains fatty acids and proteins,

HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES

- minor protective functions, such as guarding
the head against bumps, shielding the eyes
(via eyelashes), and helping to keep foreign
particles out of the respiratory tract
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE OF THE SKIN
HAIRS
- flexible epithelial structure.
INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
- forms by division of the well-nourished
stratum basale epithelial cells in the matrix
Athlete’s foot. An itchy, red, peeling condition
(growth zone) of the hair bulb at the deep
of the skin between the toes,
end of the follicle. resulting from an
infection with the fungus Tinea
pedis.

Boils (furuncles) and Boils are caused by

carbuncles inflammation of hair follicles
and surrounding tissues,
commonly on
the dorsal neck. Carbuncles are
clusters of boils often caused by
the bacterium
Staphylococcus aureus.

Cold sores (fever blisters). Small fluid-filled

blisters that itch and sting,
caused by human
herpesvirus 1 infection.

Contact dermatitis. Itching, redness, and swelling

of the skin, progressing to
blistering. It is caused by
exposure of the skin to
chemicals

HAIR FOLLICLES
- . This dermal region supplies blood vessels to Impetigo Pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions
the epidermal portion and reinforces it. that develop a
yellow crust and eventually
- hair bulb (the deepest part of the follicle). rupture
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Psoriasis Rapid overproduction of skin
pigmented spots and apply the ABCDE rule for
cell recognizing melanoma:

(A) Asymmetry. Any two sides of the pig-

BURNS
- tissue damage and cell death caused by
intense heat, electricity, UV radiation
(sunburn), or certain chemicals (such as
acids), which denature proteins and cause
cell death in the affected areas.
→ classification of burns
● first-degree (superficial)- only the superficial
epidermis is damaged. The area becomes red
and swollen.
● Second-degree burns -involve injury to the
epidermis and the superficial part of the
dermis.
● Third-degree burns -destroy both the
epidermis and the dermis and often extend
into the subcutaneous tissue,
● Fourth-degree burns- are also full-thickness
burns, but they extend into deeper tissues
such as bone, muscle, or tendons. These
burns appear dry and leathery, and they
require surgery and grafting to cover exposed
tissue.
mented spot or mole do not match.
(B) Border irregularity. The borders of the
lesion are not smooth but exhibit indentations.
(C) Color. The pigmented spot contains areas
of different colors (black, brown, tan, and
sometimes blue or red).
(D) Diameter. The lesion is larger than 6 milli-
meters (mm) in diameter (the size of a pencileraser).
(E) Evolution. One or more of these character-
istics (ABCD) is evolving, or changing.
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN AND BODY
MEMBRANE
During the fifth and sixth months of development,
a fetus is covered with a downy type of hair called
Lanugo

SKIN CANCER
- neoplasms (tumors) arise in the skin. Most
skin neoplasms are benign and do not spread
(metastasize) to other body areas.
- some skin neoplasms are malignant, or
cancerous,
Basal Cell Carcinoma
- the least malignant and most common skin
cancer.
The skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated in our
youth but loses elasticity and thins as we age. Skin
cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive
sunlight.
Balding and/or graying occurs with aging. Both are
genetically determined but can also be caused by
other factors (drugs, emotional stress, and so on).

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

- noma arises from the cells of the stratum
spinosum, appears
- most often on the scalp, ears, back of the
hands, and lower lip, but can appear
anywhere on the skin.

Malignant Melanoma
- cancer of melanocytes.
- arises from accumulated DNA damage in a
skin cell and usually appears as a spreading
brown to black patch

The American Cancer Society suggests that people

who sunbathe frequently or attend tanning parlors
examine their skin periodically for new moles or
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