Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807

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Automation in Construction
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / a u t c o n

Nondestructive identification of delaminations in concrete floor toppings with

acoustic methods
Jerzy Hola, Lukasz Sadowski, Krzysztof Schabowicz ⁎
Institute of Building Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Plac Grunwaldzki 11, 50-377 Wroclaw, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents an original methodology for the nondestructive identification of delaminations in
Accepted 26 February 2011 concrete floor toppings by means of the combined impulse-response and impact-echo acoustic methods. It is
Available online 31 March 2011 demonstrated that the impulse-response method is highly suitable for the fast exploration of large stretches
of concrete floor and rough location of defective areas while the impact-echo method is ideal for the precise
Keywords:
location of the boundaries of the areas. If the surface area of the tested floor topping is large, the
Concrete
Nondestructive tests
nondestructive tests can be automated by mounting the equipment on a special scanner or robot. An example
Acoustic methods of the practical use of the proposed methodology is presented. It confirms the usefulness of the methodology
Impulse-response for the nondestructive identification of delaminations in large-area concrete floor toppings.
Impact-echo © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction An interesting alternative is the use of nondestructive test

The durability of concrete floor toppings is to a large degree
determined by their pull-off (from the concrete base) strength. In
practice there are cases in which, because of serious errors made
during the laying of the topping, this strength may be equal to zero in
some areas. This is tantamount to delamination at the concrete base/
floor topping interface. The defective areas reduce the durability of the
floor topping whereby the latter is shortly put out of service. For this
reason (among others), prior to accepting and putting floor toppings
(particularly ones covering large areas and heavily loaded) into
service, tests are carried out to early detect any areas in which
delamination may have occurred. Drill cores are pulled off the
concrete base in the way described in American standard ASTM D
7234 [1] and European standard EN 12504-3:2006 [2]. The pulling off
force equal to zero indicates that a delamination is present in the
tested place.
The effectiveness of the pull-off method in such tests significantly
depends on the number of drill cores. In order to precisely determine
the size and boundaries of a detected faulty area for repair planning
purposes, a denser test grid should be used (by increasing the number
of boreholes). But then the labour intensity of such tests increases. In
addition, the areas in which boreholes are drilled need to be repaired.
These drawbacks become particularly apparent when floor toppings
covering large areas (from a few to tens of square meters) are tested.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jerzy.hola@pwr.wroc.pl (J. Hola), lukasz.sadowski@pwr.wroc.pl
(L. Sadowski), krzysztof.schabowicz@pwr.wroc.pl (K. Schabowicz).
methods to test floor toppings (particularly large ones). In order to
precisely locate delaminated areas in the topping it is recommended
to use jointly two nondestructive test methods: the impulse-response
method and the impact-echo method. These state-of-the art acoustic
methods were described by Davis [4], Sansalone and Strett [5] and in
the ACI 228.28–98 report[6].
2. State of the art
The identification of delaminations in concrete toppings was
investigated by Delatte et al. [7]. They proposed a way for making a
map of delaminations determined by the pull-off method. Also
Garbacz et al. [8] proposed the use of the pull-off method to produce
a delamination map on the surface of layered concrete elements,
including floor toppings with an overlaid repair layer. Davis et al. [9]
and Hertlein and Davis [10] recommended the nondestructive
impulse-response method to search for delaminations in concrete
floor toppings. Ottosen et al. [11] and Garbacz [12] proposed the use of
the nondestructive impact-echo for this purpose. They successfully
applied the impact-echo method to small-area floors. Nevertheless,
cases of applying combined impulse-response and impact-echo
methods to delamination identification are hard to find in the
literature on the subject. It was Oh at al. [13] who came up with
this observation.
On the basis of their own experience Hola et al. [14] concluded that
the nondestructive impulse-response and impact-echo methods com-
bined are complementary and highly useful in identifying delamina-
tions, particularly in large-area floor toppings. From amongst the
arguments for this conclusion one should mention the fact that in the

0926-5805/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2011.02.002
800 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807

Fig. 1. Idea of impulse-response method: a) measuring system, b) typical mobility N versus frequency curve, c) typical trace of elastic force F generated by hammer, d) typical trace of
elastic wave velocity w recorded by geophone.

impulse-response method test points can be as far apart as 2000 m impact-echo method, the measuring points are closely spaced (a few
whereby this method is not very accurate. However, it is suitable for tens of millimetres apart). For this reason, in the case of larger floors this
quick searching of large flat surfaces and for the approximate method is more labour-intensive. But it is ideal for the precise
identification of areas in which delaminations occurred. As regards the identification of the boundaries of the area previously detected by the

Fig. 2. Idea of impact-echo method: a) measuring kit, b) exciters and measuring probes, c) typical amplitude-frequency spectrum for floor topping thickness measurement, d) typical
amplitude-frequency spectrum indicating defect in floor topping, e) typical amplitude-frequency spectrum indicating delamination in floor topping (when topping and base are
made of different materials).
 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807 801

Fig. 3. Graphic illustration of nondestructive identification of delaminations in concrete floor topping by means of impulse-response and impact-echo methods.
802 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807

Fig. 4. Typical crack in floor topping.

impulse-response method. Nondestructive tests conducted by the two
methods can be easily automated by mounting the test equipment on a
special scanner or robot [3].
Considering the above, this paper presents a methodology for the
nondestructive identification of delaminations in concrete floor
toppings by means of the combined impulse-response and impact-
echo methods.
3. Brief description of the methods
3.1. Impulse-response method
The nondestructive impulse-response method consists of gener-
ating an elastic wave in the tested concrete element by striking its
surface with a calibrated rubber-ended hammer. The tested element is

Fig. 5. Fragment of tested floor topping: fields marked with letters A–F and faulty area approximately located by impulse-response method, b) exemplary arrangement of measuring
points in field C, c) way of testing by impulse-response method.
 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807 803

struck at selected measuring points. The elastic wave propagating in Table 1

the element is registered by a geophone and simultaneously amplified Mobility and stiffness values in tested fragment of floor, determined by impulse-
response method.
by an amplifier. The registered signals are further processed by a
dedicated software installed in a laptop (Fig. 1). Segment Point Mobility Stiffness Segment Point Mobility Stiffness
First the value of elastic force F generated by the hammer is analyzed. no. no. no. no.
Nav Kd Nav Kd
According to [11], it depends on element location x and it is an integral of [m/(s·N)] [m/N] [m/(s·N)] [m/N]
the product of time-dependent function t and exponential function e A 1 5.23 0.27 B 1 6.21 0.21
dependent on the product of imaginary number i, dominant frequency 2 6.91 0.25 2 5.99 0.22
ϖ and time t: 3 6.97 0.21 3 6.78 0.22
4 8.06 0.22 4 6.72 0.21
5 8.99 0.22 5 8.11 0.23
∞ 6a 16.01 0.04 6 7.89 0.22
−iϖt
F ðx; ϖÞ = ∫ f ðt Þe dt: ð1Þ 7 7.03 0.21 7a 16.89 0.09
−∞ 8 7.59 0.21 8a 17.82 0.11
9a 16.11 0.05 9 8.02 0.23
C 1 5.11 0.21 D 1a 17.95 0.09
In the case of concrete and reinforced concrete structures, the 2 6.12 0.22 2a 18.82 0.10
value of this force should be in the range of 4–6 kN at a frequency of 3a 15.91 0.11 3 7.01 0.21
200 Hz (as shown in Fig. 1c). The trace of elastic wave velocity 4 7.23 0.22 4a 18.91 0.11
5 6.01 0.23 5a 16.99 0.10
w registered by the geophone should be without interference.
6a 17.99 0.09 6 7.10 0.22
According to the relation given in [11], the value of velocity w is 7 4.23 0.21 7a 17.95 0.09
defined as an integral of function w, dependent on element location x 8 6.90 0.22 8a 15.86 0.11
and time t, and exponential function e dependent on the product of 9a 16.93 0.10 9 7.14 0.21
E 1 7.51 0.22 F 1a 17.87 0.09
imaginary number i, dominant frequency ϖ and time t:
2 7.43 0.21 2a 16.11 0.09
3 7.81 0.22 3 5.61 0.21
∞ 4 5.32 0.23 4 5.65 0.22
−iϖt
wðx; ϖÞ = ∫ wðx; t Þe dt: ð2Þ 5 6.47 0.26 5 6.88 0.25
−∞ 6 6.91 0.22 6 5.12 0.21
7 8.19 0.27 7 6.78 0.21
8 6.22 0.24 8 7.95 0.22
This means that the geophone should register only one elastic 9 6.74 0.22 9 7.13 0.21
wave velocity maximum in 200 μs, while the rest of the trace should a
Points at which mobility is high while stiffness is low.
oscillate around an average value as shown in Fig. 1d. The mobility
trace is subjected to a preliminary analysis. According to [11], mobility
N is defined as the ratio of maximum velocity wmax and maximum
3.2. Impact-echo method
elastic force Fmax generated by the hammer:

The measuring kit used in the nondestructive impact-echo method

wmax
N= : ð3Þ
Fmax
A mobility trace is considered useful if mobility increases linearly
in the range of 0–80 Hz, whereas in the range of 100–800 Hz it
oscillates around average Nav, as shown in Fig. 1b.
If the above conditions are satisfied, the obtained results should be
processed using the dedicated software. As a result, the values of five
characteristic parameters in the individual points, and ultimately
maps of the distribution of the parameters on the surface of the tested
floor topping, will be obtained. The parameters are: average mobility
Nav, stiffness Kd, mobility slope Mp, mobility times mobility slope Nav
Mp and voids index v. In practice, the most useful guide for the
location of delaminations in concrete floor toppings are maps of the
distribution of parameters Nav and Kd. For the sake of clarity, it is
worth adding that:
- average mobility Nav is an average value of this parameter in the
frequency range of 100–800 Hz, as a function of element thickness
(Fig. 1d). If this value increases locally on the mobility map, this
means that the material is susceptible to deflection, which may be
indicative of a smaller element thickness, delamination, honey-
combing in the concrete layer or a surface crack at the particular
measuring point;
- stiffness Kd is understood as the cotangent of angle α of the
mobility curve slope in the frequency range of 0–80 Hz (Fig. 1d).
Knowing the stiffness value one can infer the quality of the bond
between the layers, and in particular the presence or absence of
delamination at the interface. A local decrease in stiffness on the
map may indicate the lack of interaction between the layers or a
smaller slab thickness.
is shown in Fig. 2. The kit includes measuring probes with exciters in
the form of a set of steel balls of different diameters and a laptop. The
method consists of exciting an elastic wave in the tested element by
striking its surface with an exciter. The specialized software enables
the recording of the graphic image of the elastic wave propagating in
the tested element in the amplitude-time system and the conversion
of this image into an amplitude-frequency spectrum by means of the
fast Fourier transform or artificial neural networks [15]. The spectrum
is subjected to further analysis.
According to [5], this method uses the dependence (described by
relation (4)) between frequency fD, elastic wave velocity in concrete
Cp and the depth at which the defect occurs or element thickness D:
0:96⋅Cp
fT = : ð4Þ
2⋅D
In the amplitude-frequency one can distinguish dominant fre-
quency fD1 corresponding to element thickness, and frequency fD2
corresponding to the reflection of the elastic wave from the defect. If
no defect (delamination) occurs in the tested element, one can
determine element thickness D1 using the amplitude-frequency
spectrum and transforming relation (4) into relation (5), as shown
in Fig. 2c:
0:96⋅Cp
D1 = : ð5Þ
2⋅fD1
If delamination occurs, the amplitude-frequency spectrum has the
form shown in Fig. 2d. It includes a dominant frequency
corresponding to the reflection ( fD2) of the elastic wave from the
804 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807
Fig. 6. Area tested by impact-echo method: a) precisely located area and delamination boundary, b) field B with marked grid of measuring points (crosses mark points for which
results are shown in Table 2).
defect. Using relation (4) one can calculate the depth (from the
surface of the floor topping) at which the defect occurs.
0:96⋅Cp
D2 = : ð6Þ
2⋅fD2
4. Methodology for nondestructive identification
of delaminations
The proposed methodology for identifying delaminations in
concrete floor toppings by means of a combination of two nonde-
structive acoustic methods, i.e. the impulse-response method and the
impact-echo method, is shown graphically and described in Fig. 3.
The nondestructive identification of delaminations should be
conducted in two stages.
In stage 1, floor topping areas in which there is no adhesion at the
topping/base interface are approximately identified by the impulse-
response method. For this purpose a grid of n measuring points spaced
at every 1000 mm (keeping a minimum distance of 500 mm from the
edge) should be marked on the floor topping to be tested. If the
surface area of the floor topping is considerable, it is recommended
that the spacing of measuring points be increased. The test can be
automated by mounting the equipment on a special scanner.
Then an elastic wave is generated at each of the measuring points
in the measuring grid by means of the calibrated hammer and each
time the value of elastic force F is generated by the hammer, the trace
of elastic wave velocity w and the trace of mobility N are analyzed. The
conditions which should be satisfied in order for the results to be
acceptable are given in Section 3.1.
If the results are satisfactory, they should be processed using the
specialized software. As a result, the values of five characteristic
parameters: average mobility Nav, stiffness Kd, mobility slope Mp,
 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807 805

Table 2
Exemplary frequency (corresponding to element thickness) and elastic wave velocity measurements in defective area.

Segment No. of points on Frequency Frequency in place where No. of points on Frequency Frequency in place where
no. measuring grid corresponding to defect (delamination) measuring grid corresponding to defect (delamination)
(column/row) element thickness [kHz] occurs [kHz] (column/row) element thickness [kHz] occurs [kHz]

A 38/26 2.10 – 22/18 2.11 34.42

38/23 2.11 34.55 20/18 2.12 –
35/23 2.09 – 22/12 2.11 –
35/21 2.14 34.50 24/12 2.13 34.41
29/20 2.08 – 24/8 2.10 –
29/18 2.08 34.41 27/8 2.11 34.41
B 27/33 2.09 – 25/14 2.09 –
25/27 2.10 – 29/23 2.10 34.40
28/33 2.08 34.43 28/10 2.08 –
28/27 2.09 34.45 27/19 2.12 34.44
28/26 2.11 – 26/14 2.14 34.46
25/25a 2.11 34.44 31/11 2.13 –
28/25a 2.11 – 31/12 2.06 34.46
26/19 2.09 – 36/12 2.11 34.41
36/11 2.11 –
C 4/18 2.07 – 20/13 2.12 34.49
4/16 2.14 34.44 26/13 2.11 –
9/18 2.07 – 26/12 2.13 34.43
9/16 2.12 34.42 28/15 2.11 34.45
15/15 2.08 – 28/13 2.10 34.46
15/13 2.13 34.41 33/14 2.08 –
20/15 2.06 – 33/12 2.13 34.44
D 4/12 2.11 34.42 19/12 2.08 –
4/10 2.14 – 27/14 2.09 34.39
9/13 2.13 34.45 17/13 2.08 –
9/10 2.08 – 30/15 2.06 34.41
15/15 2.12 34.41 30/13 2.10 –
15/13 2.10 – 39/18 2.14 34.44
19/15 2.11 34.39 39/17 2.07 –
E 5/14 2.12 – 11/11 2.11 –
5/13 2.14 34.41 11/10 2.12 34.40
F 13/36 2.10 34.42 15/36 2.11 –
13/29 2.11 34.43 15/29 2.06 –
11/25 2.13 34.41 13/25 2.11 –
10/21 2.07 34.43 12/21 2.15 –
5/19 2.12 34.41 7/19 2.11 –
a
Points at which exploratory boreholes were drilled.

mobility times mobility slope Nav·Mp voids index w are determined
for each point in the measuring grid. Then maps of the distribution of
the parameter values on the floor topping surface are produced. By
closely examining the maps one can identify approximately the areas
in which delamination occurs.
In stage 2, defective areas (particularly their boundaries) are more
precisely identified. The impact-echo method is used for this purpose.
First, a grid of k measuring points (at a 100 × 100 mm spacing) is
marked in the area detected and approximately identified in stage 1.
Then in each of the points an elastic wave is excited by means of an
exciter and the amplitude-time spectrum is recorded. Subsequently,
the spectrum is converted into an amplitude-frequency by means of
the dedicated software using the fast Fourier transform algorithm.
Finally, the amplitude-frequency spectrum obtained in each of the
points (Section 3.2) should be analyzed to determine whether
delamination occurs.
The results of the nondestructive identification of delamination
can be practically verified through test pits made in a randomly
selected place(s).
5. Example of using the methodology
5.1. Short description of tested floor topping
A faulty concrete floor topping with an area of 2000 m2 in a
multistorey car park was subjected to testing. The topping was 55 mm
thick. On the lowest storey the topping had been laid on a base in the
form of an 850 mm thick concrete foundation slab and on the higher
storeys it had been laid on a 250 mm thick concrete floor slab. Expansion
gaps dividing the surface into 2200× 4000 to 4000 × 4000 mm fields had
been made in the floor topping. After about one year of service, defects,
such as cracks (Fig. 4) and buckling of some field corners, appeared in
the concrete floor topping. The concrete floor topping would curl under

Fig. 7. Elastic wave amplitude-frequency spectrum for measuring point 28/25 in field B Fig. 8. Elastic wave amplitude-frequency spectrum for measuring point 25/25 in field B
(no delamination present in floor). (delamination present in floor).
806 J. Hola et al. / Automation in Construction 20 (2011) 799–807
Table 3
Elastic wave velocities in tested floor, frequencies corresponding to element thickness and frequencies at places where delamination occurs, for points 28/25 and 25/25 (where test
pits were later made) in field B.
No. of points on Velocity of elastic Velocity of elastic Mean velocity
measuring grid wave in floor wave in groundslab of elastic wave
(column/row)
Cp1 Cp2 Cp
[m/s] [m/s] [m/s]
28/25 (test pit 2) 3200 4000 3947
25/25 (test pit 3) 3200 4000 3947
moving vehicles. In winter, water from melting snow carried by the
tyres of cars would penetrate into the cracks. As cars drove onto the floor
topping the water would be squeezed out and then would penetrate
into the cracks. Hence it was suspected that there was extensive damage
(lack of cohesion at the topping/underlay interface) in the floor. In order
to locate defective areas and their boundaries a decision was made to
carry out nondestructive acoustic tests. The impulse-response method
and the impact-echo method were used for this purpose.
5.2. Exemplary test results and their analysis
The whole area of the floor topping was subjected to testing, but
here only the tests carried out on a 100 m2 fragment of the floor
topping laid on the lowest storey are presented. The tested fragment
covered six 3800 × 4000 mm fields denoted by the letters A–E (Fig. 5).
In accordance with the proposed methodology, first the floor was
tested by the impulse-response method.
Measuring points were marked on a grid of squares with an 800–
1000 mm side, as shown in Fig. 5. An elastic wave was generated at
each of the points by striking the floor topping's surface with the
hammer (Fig. 5c).
Exemplary test results for this fragment of the floor topping are
shown in Table 1. It is apparent that mobility is high (15–20) and
stiffness is low (0–0.2) in the measuring points: 6 and 9 in field A, 7
and 8 in field B, 3, 6 and 9 in field C, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8 in field D and 1
and 2 in field F. At the other measuring points mobility is low (5–10)
and stiffness is above 0.2.
It is highly probable that delamination is present in the places
where mobility is high while stiffness is low. In Table 1 the points are
marked with an asterisk. This was verified by a test pit made in field D
(Fig. 5): a delamination was found to be present at the topping/base
interface. On the basis of the test results the defective area was
approximately located, as illustrated in Fig. 5a.
In order to precisely determine the boundaries of the defective
area located by the impulse-response method, tests were carried out
using the impact-echo method. The P-wave speed in the concrete was
measured according to [15]. A grid of k measuring points (at a
100 × 100 mm spacing) was marked in this area, as shown in Fig. 6b
for field B. An elastic wave was excited (by means of an exciter placed
in the impact-echo apparatus head) at the measuring points adjacent
to the approximately located boundary of the faulty area (Fig. 2b).
Then using the dedicated software with the fast Fourier transform, the
signals were converted to obtain an amplitude-frequency spectrum of
the registered elastic wave. Exemplary test results are shown in
Table 2.
Two different amplitude-frequency spectra (Figs. 7 and 8) were
obtained during the tests. It appears from the analysis of the
amplitude-frequency spectrum shown in Fig. 7 that dominant
frequency fD1 corresponding to floor topping thickness is 2.11 kHz
(Table 2). Using relation (4) the topping + base (foundation slab)
thickness was calculated. The thickness amounted to about 900 mm
which means that at the measuring points for which such a spectrum
was obtained a defect in the form of a delamination is not present.
Also acoustic signals whose amplitude-frequency spectrum is shown
Frequency corresponding Frequency in Element Depth at which
to element thickness defective place thickness defect is located
fD1 fD2 D1 D2
[kHz] [kHz] [mm] [mm]
2.11 - 900 -
2.11 34.44 900 55
in Fig. 8 were obtained during the tests. Such a signal occurs when the
excited ultrasonic wave is reflected from the bottom and from a
defect. Consequently, two characteristic frequency values are sub-
jected to analysis. The first dominant frequency fD1 (corresponding to
the element thickness) is 2.11 kHz while the second value
corresponding to the frequency (fD2) at the place where the defect
is present is 34.44 kHz (Table 2). It was calculated from Eq. (3) that
the defect occurs at a depth of about 55 mm, i.e. at the topping/base
(foundation slab) interface. This means that delamination is present at
the measuring points for which the spectrum shown in Fig. 8 was
obtained.
The values of the elastic wave velocity, the frequency
corresponding to element thickness and the frequency in the place
where delamination occurs, for the two different amplitude-frequen-
cy spectra obtained while testing the floor in measuring points 28/25
and 25/25 (in which test pits were later made) in field B are compiled
in Table 3.
In addition, in order to verify the nondestructive test results, two
test pits (marked in Fig. 6) were made. No delamination was found to
be present in test pit 2, whereas in test pit 3 delamination was found
to be present at the topping/base interface (Table 3).
6. Conclusion
An original methodology for the nondestructive identification of
delaminations in concrete floor toppings by means of state-of-the-art
acoustic test methods: the impulse-response method and the impact-
echo method has been presented. The nondestructive test methods
are not commonly used and so they are less known. Therefore a short
description of them was included to facilitate the understanding of
the proposed methodology.
Two stages are distinguished in the proposed procedure. In stage 1,
in which a floor topping is investigated by the impulse-response
method, delaminations are approximately identified. In stage 2, in
which the floor topping is investigated by the impact-echo method,
the delamination areas and boundaries are precisely identified. If the
surface area of the tested floor topping is large, the nondestructive
tests can be automated by mounting the equipment on a special
scanner or robot.
An example of the practical use of the proposed methodology was
presented. It confirmed the usefulness of the methodology for the
nondestructive identification of delaminations in large-area concrete
floor toppings.
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