applied
sciences
Article
Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment and Protection Strategy
in the Coastal Area of China: A GIS-Based DRASTIC Model
Approach
Qian Zhang 1,2, *, Qiang Shan 3,4, *, Feiwu Chen 1,2 , Junqiu Liu 1,2 and Yingwei Yuan 1,2
Citation: Zhang, Q.; Shan, Q.; Chen,
F.; Liu, J.; Yuan, Y. Groundwater
Vulnerability Assessment and
Protection Strategy in the Coastal Area
of China: A GIS-Based DRASTIC
Model Approach. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13,
10781. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app131910781
Academic Editor: Dino Musmarra
Received: 29 August 2023
Revised: 24 September 2023
Accepted: 25 September 2023
Published: 28 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131910781
1 College of Hydraulic Engineering, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin 300384, China;
2208028105@stu.tjau.edu.cn (F.C.); jqliu86@tjau.edu.cn (J.L.); 2108028115@stu.tjau.edu.cn (Y.Y.)
2 Joint Tianjin Agricultural University-China Agricultural University Smart Water Conservancy Research Center,
Tianjin 300384, China
3 Hebei Key Laboratory of Geological Resources and Environment Monitoring and Protection,
Shijiazhuang 050021, China
4 Hebei Geo-Environment Monitoring Centre, Shijiazhuang 050021, China
* Correspondence: cathy_zhang@tjau.edu.cn (Q.Z.); 15102533329@163.com (Q.S.)
Abstract: Groundwater vulnerability reflects the risk level of groundwater contamination and its
self-repairing ability, as well as its sustainability for use. Therefore, it provides significant scientific
support for implementing measures to prevent groundwater contamination, especially in coastal
areas. In this study, considering the lithology of vadose in valley plains and the extent of karst
subsidence areas, a GIS-based DRASTIC model was employed to assess groundwater vulnerability in
Tangshan City, a coastal area in China. The assessment results were presented and mapped using GIS,
based on a comprehensive evaluation of seven parameters, including “Depth of groundwater, Vertical
net recharge, Aquifer thickness, Soil media, Topography, Impact of vadose zone, and Hydraulic
conductivity”. The identified groundwater vulnerability zones included the highest, higher, moderate,
low vulnerability those four zones, which accounted for 4%, 53%, 25%, and 18%, respectively. In
addition, according to the results of field investigation, the karst subsidence area and the mined-out
coastal area were directly classified as the highest vulnerable areas and covered 1.463 km2 ; more
attention is required here in subsequent groundwater protection processes and strategies. Finally, the
groundwater pollution index was used to validate the groundwater vulnerability distribution results,
and these two were in high agreement, with an R2 coefficient of 0.961. The study is crucial for the
rational utilization and protection of water resources in Tangshan City.
Keywords: groundwater; vulnerability assessment; GIS-based DRASTIC model; protection strategy;
coastal areas
1. Introduction
Water resources are a vital and irreplaceable natural asset for human survival and
development. With the rapid progress of national economic construction and the improve-
ment of living standards, the demand for groundwater resources continues to increase,
leading to an increasingly prominent imbalance between supply and demand. Simultane-
ously, the issue of water pollution has become more pronounced due to the continuous
development of industry and agriculture, posing a serious threat to human development.
Shallow groundwater systems are highly susceptible to changes in precipitation levels since
their recharge primarily comes from surface sources [1]. Groundwater, as a crucial water
source, has garnered significant attention.
Under recent climate change, groundwater resources have been increasingly exploited
and utilized worldwide, resulting in pollutant issues, particularly in highly vulnerable
areas [2]. Groundwater extraction, which serves as a widespread and accessible method
for obtaining high-quality freshwater, accounts for up to 30% of total global freshwater
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 2 of 17

utilization [3,4]. However, excessive groundwater exploitation often leads to a continuous

decline in the water table [5–7], posing risks of land subsidence and collapse, especially in
densely populated urban areas such as Tianjin, Jakarta, Konya, Mashhad, and Hanoi [8–12].
Moreover, groundwater exploitation significantly contributes to vulnerability associated
with high levels of human activity [13,14]. The exploitation of groundwater and its impact
on ecological systems pose challenges to global economic and social development [15,16].
Groundwater vulnerability reflects both the extent of contamination and the ability
of groundwater to self-repair and maintain sustainability. As a complex black box system,
groundwater vulnerability factors are diverse, and various research methods are avail-
able. For example, Chaves et al. [17], Van Dijck et al. [18], and Cui et al. [19] employed
Mann–Kendall’s Test, Poisson Distribution, End-member mixing analysis, and other rel-
evant models based on land use change and soil infiltration. These studies revealed that
groundwater responses to precipitation weaken or even disappear due to the thickened
vadose zone and reduced permeability caused by declining groundwater levels and the
conversion of natural grasslands to artificial farmland [20]. In a recent study in Nigeria,
GLSI and LC models were used to conduct a case study of the Ijero mining site, examining
the comparative effect of lateritic shield on groundwater vulnerability [21,22]. Groundwater
vulnerability assessment provides significant scientific support for implementing measures
to prevent groundwater pollution [23,24]. Vaezihir and Tabarmayeh [25] and Wen et al. [26]
selected environmental parameters such as vadose zone impact, hydraulic conductivity,
population density, and river recharge, utilizing the DRASTIC model to evaluate aquifer
vulnerability.
The DRASTIC model aims to use seven factors such as “Depth to water, Net recharge,
Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography, Impact of vadose zone, and Hydraulic Conductiv-
ity”, and allocates the ratings to all factors according to the range of factors [27], which is
simple and widely used in evaluating groundwater contamination vulnerability. However,
previous studies tend to assess groundwater vulnerability subjectively and refer only to a
small number of factors, or have reported only a weak correlation between water pollutant
concentrations (commonly nitrate) and the calculated DRASTIC index [28,29], which pro-
vided difficulties in obtaining conclusion accurately. This research integrated DRASTIC
with additional methods like the GIS techniques, PCA (Principal Component Analysis), and
other statistical approaches, which improve the evaluation systems to be modified to obtain
more accurate results based on local hydrogeological conditions [30–32]. Furthermore,
regression analysis is also applied in the DRASTIC model which has developed a new
system for evaluating groundwater vulnerability, thereby enhancing scientific rigor and
accuracy in utilization.
Groundwater vulnerability studies are crucial foundational work for the rational de-
velopment, utilization, and protection of groundwater resources. To establish timely zoning
systems for groundwater pollution prevention and control, it is necessary to evaluate the
pollution resistance of groundwater systems. In this study, a GIS-based DRASTIC model
was employed to assess groundwater vulnerability, with emphasis on the lithology of the
vadose in the valley plain and the extent of karst subsidence areas. Comprehensive evalua-
tion results based on seven parameters were presented and mapped using GIS to reflect
the typical characteristics of coastal areas, enabling the efficient formulation of protection
strategies. The aim of this study is to construct a set of groundwater vulnerability evalua-
tion index systems and methods in the coastal area, to characterize the spatial distribution
of vulnerability, and to propose corresponding protection measures and environmental
protection strategies for highly vulnerable areas.

2. Study Area and Data

2.1. Location and Meteorology
Tangshan City is situated in the northeast of Hebei Province, with geographical
coordinates ranging from 117◦ 310 to 119◦ 190 east longitude and 38◦ 550 to 40◦ 280 north
latitude. The total land area of Tangshan City is 13,472 km2 , comprising 5131 km2 (38.09%)
 Tangshan City is situated in the northeast of Hebei Province, with geographical co-
ordinates ranging from 117°31′ to 119°19′ east longitude and 38°55′ to 40°28′ north latitude.
The total land area of Tangshan City is 13,472 km2, comprising 5131 km2 (38.09%) of moun-
tainous terrain and 8341 km2 (61.91%) of plains. Additionally, it has a sea area spanning
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 4472 km2, with a coastline stretching 229.72 km in length. Tangshan experiences a typical
3 of 17

warm temperate sub-humid continental monsoon climate characterized by cold and dry
winters with northerly winds, and hot and rainy summers with southerly winds. The an-
2
nualofaverage
mountainous terrain and
temperature
2
is 8341
10.6 km
°C, (61.91%)
while the of average
plains. Additionally, it has
precipitation a sea1956
from area to 2020
spanning 4472 km , with a coastline stretching 229.72 km in length. Tangshan experiences
amounts to 608.7 mm.
a typical warm temperate sub-humid continental monsoon climate characterized by cold
and dry winters with northerly winds, and hot and rainy summers with southerly winds.
2.2. Hydrogeology
The annual average temperature is 10.6 ◦ C, while the average precipitation from 1956 to
2020 amounts
Based on theto occurrence
608.7 mm. conditions of groundwater and the characteristics of aque-
ous 2.2.
media in Tangshan, three types of groundwater can be identified: pore water in loose
Hydrogeology
rocks, carbonate karst water, and bedrock rock fissure water. Pore water is primarily
Based on the occurrence conditions of groundwater and the characteristics of aqueous
found in the piedmont
media in Tangshan, three plain, coastal
types plain, inter-mountain
of groundwater basin,pore
can be identified: andwater
valley zones of the
in loose
Yan rocks,
Mountain region
carbonate (Figure
karst water,1).
andThe main source
bedrock of recharge
rock fissure water. Porefor this
water groundwater
is primarily type is
found in the piedmont plain, coastal plain, inter-mountain basin,
atmospheric precipitation, and its dynamics closely follow the annual distribution and valley zones of the of rain-
fall. Karst water is predominantly present in the southern foothills of the Yantype
Yan Mountain region (Figure 1). The main source of recharge for this groundwater Mountain,
is atmospheric precipitation, and its dynamics closely follow the annual distribution of
concealed within sloping plains, piedmont areas, and intermountain basins. The degree
rainfall. Karst water is predominantly present in the southern foothills of the Yan Mountain,
of karst development
concealed varies
within sloping and piedmont
plains, is closelyareas,
associated with the local
and intermountain geological
basins. The degreestructure
and ofgeomorphology. Individual well yields typically range from 40
karst development varies and is closely associated with the local geological structure to 25 m 3/h·m, while

spring
andwater flow ratesIndividual
geomorphology. vary between 0.3 and
well yields 3.0 L/s.
typically Fissure
range fromwater
40 to 25 ism 3 /h·m, while
located in the north-
ern hilly area, characterized by a recorded fracture rate of 1.3%. The weatheredthe
spring water flow rates vary between 0.3 and 3.0 L/s. Fissure water is located in zone has
northern hilly depth
an approximate area, characterized
of 50 m, with by asome
recorded fracturefractures
localized rate of 1.3%. The weathered
exceeding 100 mzone
due to sig-
has an approximate depth of 50 m, with some localized fractures exceeding 100 m due to
nificant geological influences [33].
significant geological influences [33].

Figure
Figure 1. The
1. The location
location ofofstudy
studyarea
area and
andits
itshydrogeological
hydrogeologicalcondition.
condition.
2.3. Data Availability
2.3. DataThis
Availability
study is a significant component of the zoning and technical research for ground-
This pollution
water study isprevention
a significant component
and control in Tangshan of City,
the encompassing
zoning and two technical research for
main aspects:
the analysis of groundwater dynamics and the evaluation of groundwater vulnerability.
groundwater pollution prevention and control in Tangshan City, encompassing two main
aspects: In
thetheanalysis
investigation of groundwater
of groundwater dynamics,and
dynamics a total
theofevaluation
75 government-monitored
of groundwater vul-
wells with long-term observation data were carefully selected to ensure completeness,
nerability.
control, and representativeness. For each district or county level, 1–2 monitoring wells were
chosen for analysis, ensuring a uniform distribution across the study area. Specifically, this
study focused on analyzing the response of unconfined groundwater, directly recharged by
precipitation. Based on these principles, data from 24 monitoring wells were ultimately
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 4 of 17

determined. To complement this analysis, three precipitation stations in Zunhua, Tangshan,

and Leting were selected to match similar monitoring wells based on their proximity.
In the evaluation of groundwater vulnerability, data acquisition was conducted
through indoor data collection and gathering relevant information about the study area’s
geology, hydrogeology, and drilling. This included parameters such as groundwater depth,
vertical net recharge, aquifer thickness, soil medium, terrain slope, vadose medium type,
and permeability coefficient. A total of 1599 boreholes and associated information were
gathered from various sources, including survey reports on land pollution from key indus-
tries in Hebei Province, China (974 cases), hydrogeology and engineering geology borehole
construction and in-situ tests (28 cases), comprehensive geological surveys of major cities
and towns (19 cases), the national important geological borehole database service platform
(55 cases, https://zk.cgsi.cn/ (accessed on 28 August 2023)), groundwater level surveys
(164 cases), and geotechnical investigation reports (359 cases). Aquifer permeability data
were obtained by combining the aquifer media type with empirical values from the Hydro-
geological Manual [34]. All data collected are accurate, providing strong support for the
reliability of this study.

3. Methodology
3.1. Description of the GIS-Based DRASTIC Model Framework
In this study, a GIS-based DRASTIC model was employed to assess the vulnerability
of groundwater in Tangshan City, a coastal area in China. The DRASTIC model, initially
developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to evaluate groundwater
pollution potential across the United States [35], considers intrinsic vulnerability based on
hydrogeological characteristics while disregarding the specific contaminants. The use of a
GIS-model interface facilitates data input, and the GIS can also serve as a common platform
for transferring information between different examples of software. By combining various
data sets within the GIS framework, thematic maps can be generated for utilization by the
DRASTIC model. Furthermore, the GIS enables the conversion of these maps into raster
mode, dividing them into pixels with dimensions of 300 m × 300 m. Each pixel is assigned
a numerical value corresponding to the resulting grid, which serves as a basis for the seven
parameters of the DRASTIC model, as detailed in the following equation:

DRASTICindex = WD R D + WR R R + WA R A + WS RS + WT R T + WI R I + WC RC (1)

where, the parameters in Equation (1) include the following: depth of groundwater (D),
vertical net recharge of groundwater (R), aquifer thickness of media (A), soil media (S),
topography (T), impact of vadose zone (I), and hydraulic conductivity (C).
Consequently, vulnerability is calculated at a high resolution for each individual
pixel. The GIS is further utilized to overlay the seven thematic maps, thereby generating
a groundwater vulnerability map. The DRASTIC index computation involves assigning
weights (W) to each parameter and using the assigned values (R).

3.2. Description of the GIS-Based DRASTIC Model Parameters

The seven parameters in Equation (1) that affect and control groundwater flow and
pollutant transport are adopted in DRASTIC to constitute the factor system for vulnera-
bility assessment. Based on the “Delineation of Priority Areas for Groundwater Pollution
Prevention and Control Technical Guideline” published by the China Geological Survey
in 2022 [36], different parameter weights have been assigned by investigation experience
and field experiment. According to the influence of each parameter on groundwater
vulnerability, different weight values are assigned to them in Table 1.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 5 of 17

Table 1. Description of DRASTIC model parameters and its weights.

Parameter Description Relative Weight

Depth of groundwater Depth to groundwater table is the distance from the surface to the submerged
5
(D) surface; unit is m.
Vertical net recharge Approximate using precipitation infiltration recharge instead of vertical net
4
(R) recharge; unit is mm/a.
Aquifer thickness can be analyzed from borehole data; refers to the saturated
Aquifer thickness
zone material properties, which 3
(A)
controls the pollutant attenuation processes; unit is m.
Soil media The soil media is a weathered layer with a thickness of 2 m or less at the surface,
2
(S) which controls the amount of recharge that can infiltrate downward.
Topography Slope values can be automatically generated in GIS after DEM extraction from
1
(T) 1:50,000 or 1:10,000 topographic maps.
Impact of Vadose Zone The unsaturated zone material: it controls the passage and attenuation of the
5
(I) contaminated material to the saturated zone.
Hydraulic conductivity Indicates the ability of the aquifer to transmit water, and hence determines the
3
(C) rate of flow of contaminant material within the groundwater system.

Based on the aforementioned seven parameters, an evaluation level is assigned to

each parameter. As the local groundwater depth increases, vertical net recharge decreases,
aquifer thickness increases, soil and vadose zone cutoff particles become finer, topographic
slope increases, and aquifer permeability coefficient decreases, the scores for each param-
eter will decrease. A lower score indicates a smaller contribution of that parameter to
the groundwater vulnerability assessment index, suggesting a reduced susceptibility to
pollution. Conversely, higher scores indicate a greater contribution of the parameter to the
groundwater vulnerability assessment index, indicating a higher vulnerability to pollution.
The scores for each indicator range from 1 to 10, with specific classifications provided
in Table 2.

Table 2. The parameter Ranking and Assignment in DRASTIC.

Grade
Parameter
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

D (m) >30 (25, 30] (20, 25] (15, 20] (10, 15] (8, 10] (6, 8] (4, 6] (2, 4] ≤2
R (mm/a) 0 (0, 51] (51, 71] (71, 92] (92, 117] (117, 147] (147, 178] (178, 216] (216, 235] >235
A (m) >50 (45, 50] (40, 45] (35, 40] (30, 35] (25, 30] (20, 25] (15, 20] (10, 15] ≤10
swelling or medium
clay sandy silt-sand/ gravel- thin layer or
S rock silt loam loam condensing sand/coarse
loam loam fine sand cobble missing
clay sand
T(%) >10 (9, 10] (8, 9] (7, 8] (6, 7] (5, 6] (4, 5] (3, 4] (2, 3] ≤2
sandy silt- silty, fine medium sand gravel-
I clay loam fine sand coarse sand
loam soil sand sand sand gravel cobble
C (m/d) [0, ≤4] (4, 12] (12, 20] (20, 30] (30, 35] (35, 40] (40, 60] (60, 80] (80, 100] >100

A step wise flow diagram representing the data processing, preparations of layers,
and assigning of weights has been demonstrated below in Figure 2.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 A step wise flow diagram representing the data processing, preparations of layers,
6 of 17
and assigning of weights has been demonstrated below in Figure 2.

.
Figure
Figure 2. Flowchart
2. Flowchart of of groundwater
groundwater vulnerability
vulnerability assessment.
assessment.

4. 4. Results
Results and and Discussion
Discussion
4.1. Results of Single Parameter Evaluation
4.1. Results of Single Parameter Evaluation
4.1.1. Depth of Groundwater
4.1.1. Depth of Groundwater
A total of 1867 data points were collected for groundwater depth. The depth at
A total
which of 1867 data
groundwater points were
is located collected
primarily for groundwater
determines the depthdepth. The depth at which
of the transmission medium
groundwater is located primarily determines the depth of the transmission
through which pollutants migrate to the aquifer [37]. Generally, a greater groundwater medium
through which pollutants
depth requires more timemigrate to thetoaquifer
for pollution [37].
reach the Generally,
aquifer. a greater
This results in a groundwater
smaller amount
depth requiresentering
of pollution more time
the for pollution
aquifer to reach
and weaker the of
levels aquifer. This results
contamination in athe
within smaller
aquifer,
amount of opposite
with the pollutionbeing
entering
truethe aquifer and weaker levels of contamination within the
as well.
aquifer,The
with the opposite
method being true
for analyzing theas well. map of buried depths differs between moun-
zoning
tainous and plain areas. In the plain andmap
The method for analyzing the zoning of buried
valley regions,depths
waterdiffers between
level data moun-
collected and
tainous and plainsurveys
supplementary areas. Inarethe plain and and
interpolated valley regions,
adjusted water
based onlevel data collected
hydrogeological andand
river
supplementary
conditions. Insurveys are interpolated
mountainous and adjusted
areas, characterized based on hydrogeological
by significant and river
topographic variations and
conditions. In mountainous
complex geological areas,underground
conditions, characterizedwater
by significant
depths aretopographic variations
mainly classified and
according
complex geological
to aquifer conditions,
types. The same type underground water depths
of water-bearing mediumare within
mainlyan classified
area is according
assigned an
to average
aquifer types. The same
value based type of water-bearing
on measured groundwatermedium within an areafor
levels. Additionally, is valleys
assigned an
within
mountainous regions where groundwater exists within loose rock formations, score values
are determined by interpolating the buried depths observed in plain areas.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 average value based on measured groundwater levels. Additionally, for valleys within 7 of 17
mountainous regions where groundwater exists within loose rock formations, score val-
ues are determined by interpolating the buried depths observed in plain areas.
Once
Once the
the above
above analysis
analysis is
is completed,
completed, the
themountainous
mountainousandandplain
plainareas
areasare
aresuperim-
superim-
posed using GIS, ensuring uniform
posed using GIS, ensuring uniform layer attributes. Gradation mapping (Figure 3a)
layer attributes. Gradation mapping (Figure 3a) is
is then
then
assigned
assigned based on Table 2.

Figure 3.
Figure Mappingof
3. Mapping ofDRASTIC
DRASTICparameters
parameters((a):
((a) Depth
Depthof
ofgroundwater;
groundwater;(b):
(b) Vertical
Vertical net
net recharge;
recharge;
(c) Aquifer thickness; (d) Soil media; (e) Topography; (f) Impact of vadose zone; (g) Hydraulic
(c): Aquifer thickness; (d): Soil media; (e): Topography; (f): Impact of vadose zone; (g): Hydraulic
conductivity).
conductivity).

4.1.2. Vertical
4.1.2. Vertical Net
Net Recharge
Recharge
Net recharge
Net recharge refers
referstotothe
theamount
amountofof water
waterper unit
per area
unit thatthat
area infiltrates the surface
infiltrates and
the surface
reaches
and the aquifer.
reaches Contaminants
the aquifer. can enter
Contaminants the aquifer
can enter vertically
the aquifer through
vertically this recharge
through this re-
water [38].
charge waterIn[38].
the In
DRASTIC model,model,
the DRASTIC net recharge represents
net recharge the total
represents theamount of water
total amount of
applied
water to thetosurface
applied and and
the surface infiltrated intointo
infiltrated thethe
aquifer.
aquifer.InInTangshan
Tangshan City, atmospheric
City, atmospheric
precipitation serves as the primary source of regional recharge, and therefore, the vertical
net recharge can be estimated using precipitation infiltration [39]. Generally, the equation
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 8 of 17

R = P × α is used, where R denotes the vertical net recharge, P represents the precipitation
infiltration coefficient, and α represents the annual precipitation.
The annual precipitation data for the region were obtained from the 2020 precipitation
records of four gauging stations. In 2020, Tangshan City experienced rainfall ranging
from 480–720 mm, with higher precipitation observed in the northern mountainous area
compared to the southern plain area. Notably, Luannan County in the southern plain
area received relatively higher precipitation. In the study area, the values of α range from
0.15–0.2 in the plain area, 0.09 in the igneous and metamorphic rock area, and 0.08 in the
carbonate rock area. The empirical values of the precipitation infiltration coefficient were
adjusted based on field seepage test results (30 groups) to ensure accuracy. The resulting
vertical net recharge is illustrated in Figure 3b.

4.1.3. Aquifer Thickness

Aquifer thickness (Figure 3c) is determined by combining groundwater depth mea-
surements with borehole data [40]. The data sources include the national important geo-
logical borehole database service platform (55 points), Geo-technical Investigation Reports
(359 points), and borehole data collected during field investigations (30 holes), totaling
444 points.
In the bedrock mountain areas, the thickness of the weathered fissure layer is primarily
considered, and it is obtained by subtracting the groundwater depth. The average value is
then calculated for different regions. In the metamorphic rock and igneous rock mountain
areas of Tangshan City, the thickness of the weathering layer ranges from 40–50 m, with
some areas reaching up to 60 m. For the bare leaky karst mountains, the thickness of the
strong water-bearing zone identified through borehole data is used to determine the aquifer
thickness. Again, the average value is calculated for different regions. For example, in
the northern part of Yutian County, Tangshan City, the thickness of the Jixian dolomite
strong water-bearing zone is 40–45 m. In the plain area, the shallow aquifer thickness in
the coastal region is relatively thin, mostly less than 10 m. This is determined based on
calculations using borehole data and groundwater depth measurements.

4.1.4. Soil Media

Soil refers to the biologically active upper layer of the seepage zone. The influence of
soil on groundwater vulnerability primarily relies on the physicochemical properties of
different soil types [41]. In the study area, there are various soil media, with sandy loam
and swelling or condensing clay being widely distributed. In the northern mountainous
area of Tangshan City, the surface soil layer is very thin in some areas, while the lower part
consists of weathered bedrock crust. This results in predominantly thin or deficient soil
media. In the middle region, sandy loam, silty sand, and fine sand are widely distributed.
In the coastal area, clay loam (clay), and silty loam are prevalent. The soil media were
classified into different grades as shown in Figure 3d.

4.1.5. Topography
Topographic slope plays a significant role in groundwater migration and subsequently
affects groundwater vulnerability [42]. In this study, a digital elevation model (DEM) of
the research area was acquired through a measurement system. The DEM had an accuracy
of 12.5 m, which met the guidelines’ requirements. Using the GIS’s slope tool, the slope
was calculated based on the projected DEM map. Then, according to the scoring standard,
each zone’s attributes were determined through reclassification (Figure 3e). Due to the high
resolution of the data, fragmentation zones were formed considering the impact of rivers
and dams in the plain area on slope classification. This evaluation utilized the geomorphic
zones of the study area as a reference, and the average terrain slope within each zone was
considered the representative slope value.
The study area exhibits significant variations in topographic slope, generally decreas-
ing from north to south. High topographic slope values are concentrated in the northern
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 9 of 17

mountainous area, while the intermountain basin, piedmont plain, and coastal plain exhibit
relatively low slopes. The highest topographic slope values are found along the northern
edge of Yutian County, the southern part of Zunhua City, the northern part of Fengrun
District, the southern part of Qianxi County, the western part of Qian’an City, and the
northwestern part of Luanzhou City. Conversely, the lowest slope values are primarily
distributed in Caofeidian District along the southern coast.

4.1.6. Impact of Vadose Zone

The unsaturated zone, also known as the vadose zone, refers to the area between the
Earth’s surface and the water table. The type of vadose zone medium plays a crucial role
in controlling water exchange between the soil layer and aquifer, the migration and trans-
formation of pollutants, as well as various physicochemical and biological processes [43].
Additionally, the vadose zone medium determines the length and path of percolation.
Therefore, it serves as an important indicator for evaluating groundwater vulnerability.
In the plain area of the study region, the vadose zone mainly consists of Quaternary
sediments, which can be categorized into nine types. When assessing the self-purification
capacity of the vadose zone, factors such as particle size and permeability of the Quaternary
sediments are primarily considered. The assigned values range from 1 to 10. In the moun-
tain aquifers, the vadose zone comprises regolith with varying degrees of metamorphic
rocks and igneous rocks, as well as dissolution layers of dolomites and limestone in karst
areas. Based on vulnerability assessments conducted in different mountainous regions
in China, the medium score for the vadose zone in bedrock regolith is determined to
be 4 points.
This determination takes into account the extent of fracturing and dissolution observed
in the surface regolith of the Tangshan mountain area, finally showed in Figure 3f. For
dolomite or limestone vadose zones, the medium score is set at 8 points.

4.1.7. Hydraulic Conductivity

The permeability of an aquifer is influenced by the type of aquifer medium, and the
permeability coefficient partially reflects the lithological composition of the aquifer [44].
Generally, larger particle sizes or more voids in the aquifer medium indicate greater
permeability, lower dilution capacity, and higher potential for pollution [45]. The aquifer’s
permeability coefficient is determined based on the type of aquifer medium, combined with
empirical values, and adjusted using data obtained from field exploration and pumping
tests (30 groups). The classification of aquifer medium types refers to the data source of
aquifer thickness.
In the plain area, the permeability coefficient was obtained by interpolating the col-
lected drilling data using Kriging interpolation with software such as Golden Surfer. For
mountain aquifers, the permeability coefficient is classified based on weathered fissure
aquifers in metamorphic rocks, weathered fissure aquifers in igneous rocks, and karst
fissure aquifers. The assignment of permeability coefficients is performed according to the
aquifer types derived from pumping test results from hydrologic boreholes. GIS technology
is utilized to overlay the mountain and plain areas, harmonize layer attributes, and assign
values to each partition following evaluation guidelines.
In the northern mountainous area of Tangshan City, the permeability coefficient mostly
ranges from 0.5–5 m/d, with some areas reaching up to 10 m/d. In the southern coastal area,
where silt is the predominant aquifer type, the permeability coefficient is relatively low,
mostly below 12 m/d. The Shanqian area in central Tangshan exhibits higher permeability
coefficients, with the lowest values observed in the north of Zunhua City, Qianxi County,
and the northwest of Qian’an City. Conversely, the highest values are found in the east
of Fengrun District, the south of Kaiping District, the south of Guye District, and the
south of Luanzhou City. The assignment result for hydraulic conductivity in the DRASTIC
parameter is presented in Figure 3g.
 Qianxi County, and the northwest of Qian’an City. Conversely, the highest valu
found in the east of Fengrun District, the south of Kaiping District, the south o
District, and the south of Luanzhou City. The assignment result for hydraulic condu
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 in the DRASTIC parameter is presented in Figure 3g. 10 of 17

4.2. Results of Comprehensive Vulnerability Assessment and Its Validation

4.2. Results of Comprehensive Vulnerability
4.2.1. Results of Groundwater Assessment and Its Validation
Vulnerability
4.2.1. Results of Groundwater Vulnerability
Vulnerability mapping was conducted using the Geographic Information S
Vulnerability mapping
(GIS) based on was conducted using
hydrogeological theofGeographic
data Information
the study area and withSystem (GIS)
reference to the DR
based on hydrogeological data of the study area and with reference to the DRASTIC model,
model, as shown in Figure 4. The groundwater vulnerability index values for Tan
as shown in Figure 4. The
City range groundwater
from vulnerability
85 to 173, classified index
into four values
levels for Tangshan
according City
to the DRASTIC cla
range from 85 tion
to 173, classified into four levels according to the DRASTIC classification
principle (refer to Table 3). Higher vulnerability assessment index values ind
principle (referhigher
to Table 3). Higher vulnerability
susceptibility to pollution,assessment
while lowerindex values
values indicate
suggest a higher
a lower vulnerabili
susceptibility to pollution, while lower values suggest a lower vulnerability and reduced
reduced susceptibility to pollution. Additionally, karst collapse areas and regions a
susceptibility to pollution. Additionally, karst collapse areas and regions affected by mining
by mining subsidence are directly classified as the highest vulnerability areas.
subsidence are directly classified as the highest vulnerability areas.

Figure 4. Comprehensive evaluation of vulnerability of groundwater in Tangshan.

Figure 4. Comprehensive evaluation of vulnerability of groundwater in Tangshan.
Table 3. Classification of vulnerability of shallow groundwater in Tangshan City.
Table 3. Classification of vulnerability of shallow groundwater in Tangshan City.
Groundwater Vulnerability
Vulnerability Level
Composite Index Value
Groundwater Vulnerability Com-
Vulnerability Level
(70, 100] posite Index Value Potentially contaminated Low
(100, 120] (70, 100] Easily contaminated Moderate
Potentially contaminated Low
(120, 150] highly prone to be contaminated
(100, 120] Easily contaminatedHigher Moderat
>150 Particularly vulnerable to be contaminated Highest
highly prone to be contami-
(120, 150] Higher
nated
The vulnerability assessment map of shallow groundwater in Tangshan City reveals
the following distribution results. Firstly, the shallow groundwater in Tangshan City
exhibits high vulnerability, with the highest vulnerability area accounting for 4% of the total
study area, the higher vulnerability area accounting for 53%, and the moderate vulnerability
area accounting for 25%. Together, these three categories account for 82% of the area, while
the low vulnerability area only accounts for 18%. This highlights the weak protection
performance of shallow groundwater in the region, making it susceptible to pollution.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 11 of 17

Secondly, the spatial variability and causes of groundwater vulnerability in the study
area are complex. The area around Luannan County has relatively shallow groundwa-
ter depth, significant vertical recharge, and a thick aquifer, leading to its classification
as an area with high underground vulnerability. The valley area in the study region is
also classified as a high vulnerability area due to its homogeneous lithology, simple rock
structure, and strong permeability. These areas experience frequent agricultural activities
and have well-developed aquaculture, resulting in a high pollution load and easy pollution
of groundwater [46]. Similarly, highly vulnerable areas are also found in the central and
southeastern regions of Tangshan, characterized by high vertical net recharge, relatively
high permeability coefficients, good water permeability, and limited self-purification ca-
pacity. In addition, the karst subsidence area and the mined-out coastal area were directly
classified as the highest vulnerable areas, covering 1.463 km2 . These factors contribute to
weak anti-pollution capabilities of groundwater, making it prone to pollution. Additionally,
these areas are marked by intense human activities, including urban industrial and do-
mestic sewage discharge from Tangshan City, as well as excessive fertilization and sewage
irrigation in agricultural regions. Therefore, they should be prioritized as key areas for
groundwater protection.
Thirdly, low-vulnerability areas are scarce and mainly concentrated in the northern
part of Tangshan, such as the northern edge of Zunhua City, Qianxi County, and the
northwest of Qian’an City. In these areas, groundwater depth is significant, the vadose
zone exhibits fine lithology, and recharge amounts are limited, reducing vulnerability to
external pollutants.

4.2.2. Validation for the Mapping of Groundwater Vulnerability

Groundwater with high vulnerability is more easily contaminated and thus more likely
to have poorer water quality conditions. Currently, there are fewer methods to validate
the vulnerability of groundwater, and the pollution distribution of “NO3 − , NO2 − , NH4 + ”
is generally used to compare with the vulnerability distribution of groundwater [47,48].
Xu et al. utilized single and combined factors to evaluate the water quality of groundwater,
and then examined the correlation between the evaluation level and the vulnerability
index [49]. Chao et al. chose typical water quality indicators characterizing groundwater
taste, color, and scaling, which were selected to calculate the value of the groundwater
pollution index according to the “Groundwater Quality Evaluation Standards” [50], and
then compared them with the spatial distribution of groundwater vulnerability. Since this
study also addresses the vulnerability of shallow groundwater, and there are similarities
with the above studies, similar validation methods were selected.
We selected 11 water quality indicators (in Table 4) from nearly 30 well sites to calculate
the Groundwater Pollution Index (GPI), which summed every index up after assigned
number based on different categorization criteria in Table 4. The GPIs, ranging from 26 to
72, were used to validate the groundwater vulnerability and mapped in Figure 5, which
demonstrates that high groundwater vulnerability corresponded to a high groundwater
pollution index. These two were in high agreement, with a R2 coefficient of 0.961, as
shown in Figure 6. This certificated that the GIS-based DRASTIC model for groundwater
vulnerability assessment was scientific and reliable, and could provide reliable experience
for groundwater pollution prevention and management.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 vulnerability assessment was scientific and reliable, and could provide reliable experience
12 of 17
for groundwater pollution prevention and management.

Table 4. Assignment criteria of groundwater pollution index.

Table 4. Assignment criteria of groundwater pollution index.
Assigned TH TDS SO42− NO3− NO2− Cu Mn
Assigned pH TH TDS F−Fmg/L
− ClCl
− mg/L
− SO4 2− NO3 − NO2 − FeFe
mg/L Cu Mn
Index pH mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Index mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
1 6.5–8 150 300 0.2 50 50 2 0.005 0.1 0.01 0.01
1 6.5–8 150 300 0.2 50 50 2 0.005 0.1 0.01 0.01
33 6–6.5; 8–8.5
6–6.5; 8–8.5
300
300
500
500
0.5
0.5
150
150
150
150 5
5 0.01
0.01
0.2
0.2
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
55 5.5–6.0; 8.5–9
5.5–6.0; 8.5–9 450
450 1000
1000 11 250
250 250
250 2020 11 0.3
0.3 11 0.1
0.1
77 1–5.5; 9–13
1–5.5; 9–13 650
650 2000
2000 22 350
350 350
350 3030 4.8
4.8 22 1.5
1.5 1.5
1.5
10
10 0–1; 13–14
0–1; 13–14 >650
>650 >2000
>2000 >2
>2 >350
>350 >350
>350 >30>30 >4.8
>4.8 >2
>2 >1.5
>1.5 >1.5
>1.5

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Themapping
Figure5.5.The
Figure mappingofofgroundwater
groundwatervulnerability
vulnerabilityindex
indexand
andgroundwater
groundwaterpollution
pollutionindex.
index.

1.00
Normalized groundwater vulnerability index

Verification of the fitted line

0.80
y = 1.0204x - 0.21
R2 = 0.961

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Normalized Groundwater Pollution Index
Groundwatervulnerability
Figure6.6.Groundwater
Figure vulnerabilityassessment
assessment and
and verification
verification index
index correlation.
correlation.

4.3. Groundwater Protection Strategy in Coastal Area

4.3.1. Groundwater Protection Objectives Based on Groundwater Vulnerability
According to the results of the vulnerability assessment of shallow groundwater in
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 13 of 17

4.3. Groundwater Protection Strategy in Coastal Area

4.3.1. Groundwater Protection Objectives Based on Groundwater Vulnerability
According to the results of the vulnerability assessment of shallow groundwater in
Tangshan City, the following medium- and long-term objectives for groundwater protection
have been formulated in view of the current water quality and water environment.
1. To guarantee water safety and prevent groundwater pollution. Groundwater is
one of the important sources of drinking water, and protecting groundwater means
guaranteeing people’s drinking water safety and basic usage of water.
2. To maintain ecological balance on this basis. Protecting groundwater can maintain
the water supply of wetlands, keep the stability of the ecological environment, and
promote the maintenance of species diversity and the balance of the natural ecosystem.
3. To pay attention to the protection of water sources for agricultural irrigation to ensure
the sustainability of agricultural irrigation and maintain the normal growth of crops,
paying particular attention to reducing the adverse effects on soil salinization in the
coastal area.
4. To prevent the decline in groundwater level and ground subsidence. Over-exploitation
of groundwater will lead to the decline in groundwater level and ground subsidence,
which will in turn lead to geological disasters and ground subsidence. One of the
objectives of groundwater protection is to avoid these problems and maintain the
stability of the groundwater system.
To realize the sustainable management and utilization of groundwater and to sup-
port the sound economic development of Tangshan City, groundwater resources are non-
renewable resources, and the protection and rational utilization of groundwater is an
important part of realizing the sustainable development of the region, which is also an
important goal of this study.

4.3.2. Groundwater Protect Measures in Study Area

Based on the results of vulnerability assessment of groundwater in Tangshan City and
the above protection objectives, we have clarified that the protection performance of shallow
groundwater is weak, and the current status of shallow groundwater pollution is serious,
so we propose the following protection measures for the current situation characteristics.
1. Reasonable land use and control of new highly polluting enterprises to reduce ground-
water pollution: Urban planning, especially industrial zoning, should consider vul-
nerable areas and restrict the establishment of industrial zones in areas vulnerable to
groundwater pollution, such as the center of Tangshan City, Kaiping District, Guye
District, and Luannan County. In addition, wastewater discharge from industrial
zones must be strictly managed to ensure that standards are met and groundwater
pollution is controlled [51]. By controlling the sources of pollution, restricting the
discharge of hazardous substances, and rationally managing groundwater extraction,
it is possible to ensure that the quality of groundwater meets safety standards.
2. Balanced control of groundwater exploitation: Over-exploitation of groundwater
will lead to increased water hardness, groundwater pollution, and even ground
subsidence. At this stage, deep wells with serious over-exploitation should be closed,
the amount of groundwater extraction should be limited, and the number of new
wells should be controlled.
3. Regulate sewage irrigation and fertilizer use: It is important to control the amount
of fertilizers used in agricultural areas and promote their effective use in order to
minimize the amount that enters groundwater. Additionally, effluent used for irriga-
tion should be analyzed and tested to ensure that it does not adversely affect soil and
groundwater quality [52].
4. The establishment of a comprehensive groundwater monitoring network and early
warning system throughout the region is essential. Regular water quality monitoring
should be carried out to detect early warning signs in time for timely interventions
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 14 of 17

to mitigate serious consequences and to report data to ecological and environmental

authorities.

4.3.3. Rigorous Implementation Plans for Groundwater Exploitation in High Vulnerability Area
Based on the above groundwater protection objectives and implementation methods,
this study suggests that the Tangshan area should follow the following most stringent
groundwater exploitation plan to ensure the sustainable development of groundwater
resources.
(1). Key groundwater pollution sources such as chemical and metal products industrial
clusters, landfills, hazardous waste disposal sites, and other key groundwater pollu-
tion sources should be investigated and evaluated as soon as possible to map out the
status of groundwater pollution, establish a system of seepage and leakage prevention
for key groundwater pollution sources, carry out seepage and leakage prevention
inspections every year, formulate seepage prevention and renovation plans for seep-
age prevention measures that do not satisfy the corresponding seepage prevention
specification requirements, and take technical and management measures in a timely
manner to eliminate hidden dangers.
(2). For areas where groundwater pollution exists, detailed investigation and assessment
of groundwater shall be further carried out, and where groundwater treatment and
remediation or risk control is required after detailed investigation and assessment,
control shall be strengthened and appropriate management shall be carried out in a
timely manner. In areas where the health risk of groundwater pollution is unaccept-
able, the use of groundwater should be prohibited, and drainage methods such as
pits and ponds should be restricted to reduce the disturbance of the polluted area; if
drainage is really needed, it should be discharged in compliance with the standard
after treatment.
(3). Penalties should be established for enterprises and individuals who do not comply
with the rules on groundwater protection, and they should be ordered to rectify the
situation thoroughly before continuing production.
(4). In areas where karst is strongly developed and where there are many fallout holes
and karst funnels, construction projects that may cause groundwater pollution shall
not be newly built, altered, or expanded.

5. Conclusions
Being a typical coastal city, Tangshan City exhibits a high level of vulnerability in its
shallow groundwater system. The highly vulnerable area accounts for 4% of the total study
area, while the areas classified as moderately and highly vulnerable account for 25% and
53%, respectively. Collectively, these three categories encompass 82% of the study area,
leaving only 18% categorized as having low or minimal vulnerability. The groundwater
pollution index was used to validate the groundwater vulnerability distribution results,
and these two were in high agreement, with an R2 coefficient of 0.961.
The study area, characterized by complex hydrogeological conditions and high vul-
nerability, is situated along the coast. The valley regions, with their homogeneous lithology,
simple rock structure, and high permeability, are particularly vulnerable according to the
assessment results. Additionally, the karst subsidence area and the mined-out coastal area
were directly classified as the highest vulnerable areas, covering 1.463 km2 , where more
attention is required in subsequent groundwater protection processes and strategies.
Based on the vulnerability assessment outcomes for shallow groundwater in Tangshan
City, it is evident that the current state of shallow groundwater pollution is severe, indi-
cating a weak performance in safeguarding the quality of shallow groundwater resources.
Therefore, it is recommended that relevant departments address these concerns by taking
appropriate actions informed by the evaluation results. These actions should focus on
improving and developing groundwater resources in a rational manner, implementing
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10781 15 of 17

effective measures to control groundwater pollution, and undertaking remediation efforts

to restore polluted groundwater.

Author Contributions: Q.Z.: Writing—Original Draft; Q.S.: Writing—Review and Editing; F.C.:
Drawing Pictures; J.L.: Writing—Review and Editing; Y.Y.: Data. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by [the National Natural Science Foundation of China] (NO.
41907149), [Open Funding from Hebei Key Laboratory of Geological Resources and Environment
Monitoring and Protection] (NO. JCYKT202210), [the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation] (NO.
2018M631732), and [Tianjin Graduate Research Innovation Project (No. 2022SKY195)].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All the data in this manuscript are derived from the field surveys,
reports and references.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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