ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

UNIT – 2
ECOSYSTEM
Ecology:
Deals with the study of organism in their natural interacting with their
surroundings i.e. Ecosystem.

Ecosystem:
A structural and functional unit of biosphere or segment of nature consisting of
community of living beings and the physical environment both interacting and exchanging
materials between them.

Concept of Ecosystem:
➢ The study of ecosystem mainly consists of study of certain processes that link the
living biotic. Components to the non living or abiotic components.
➢ Energy transformation, biogeochemical cycles is the main processes that comprise
the field of ecosystem.
➢ Individual studies concerned mostly about thee physiology, reproduction,
development or behavior.
➢ Population studies.
➢ Studies of communities examine how population of many species interacts with
one another.

Structure and function of Ecosystem:

1. Inorganic compounds – C, N, CO2, H2O
2. Organic compounds – Proteins, Carbohydrates
3. Climatic regions – Temperature, Moisture
4. Producers
5. Macro consumers – Phogotrophs (Large animals)
6. Micro consumers – Saprotrophs (absorbers like Fungi)

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Components of Ecosystem:

Components of Ecosystem

Biotic Components Abiotic components

1.

Organic Substance
Autotropic Heterotropic
Inorganic Substance
Climate of the given
Photoautotropic Herbivores region

Chemoautotropic Carnivores

Omnivores

Detritivores

Structural features:
It comprises combination and organization of biological communities and abiotic
components.

Biotic Structures:

Biotic structures

Plants Animals Microbes

These organisms have different nutritional behavior and state in the ecosystem
and hence known as producers and consumers.

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

1. Producers:
a. Photoautotrophs:
Mainly green plants synthesize the food themselves by CO2 in the presence
of air, water and sunlight by involving chlorophyll by the process of photosynthesis
or photoautotrophs.

b. Chemoautotrophs:
➢ Microbes which can produce organic matter to some extent through the
oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight.
➢ In oceans, at depth sunlight is not available.
➢ Chemoautotrophic sulphur bacteria make use of heat generated by the
decay of radioactive elements present in the Earth’s core and released in
the ocean’s depth.
➢ They use their to convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide of H2S, CO2 into
organic compounds.
2. Consumers:
Get organic food by feeding upon other organisms.
a. Herbivores ex: Rabbit
b. Carnivores ex: Fox
c. Omnivores ex: Man
d. Detritivores ex: Bacteria
3. Decomposers:
Derive energy by breaking down the complex organic molecule into simpler
organic compounds and ultimately into organic nutrient.
Example: - Fungi
Abiotic structures:
The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute the abiotic
structure.
Abiotic Structure

Chemical Edaphic Geographic Energy Nutrients Toxic

factors factors factors Substance

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Physical factors:
Sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, temperature, wind, rainfall, latitude and
altitude, soil, water, etc.
Chemical factors:
C, N, P, K, H, O2, S, toxic substance salts causing salinity and various organic
substances present in soil and water.
Funtional attribute:
1. Food chains, food webs and tropic structures
2. Energy flow
3. Cycling of nutrients
4. Primary and secondary production
5. Ecosystem regulation and development

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Energy:
The capacity to do work is called Energy.

➢ Energy is important to all living organisms. Main source of energy is Solar energy.
➢ Producers convert inorganic substances to organic molecule (CH2O --> C6H12O6)
with the help of solar energy.
➢ The food consumed is digested with the help of enzymes in the stomach and
intestine.
➢ The simpler molecules are absorbed into blood stream and transported to
different cells of the body.
➢ Within the cells, organic molecules are broken down through cell respiration to
release energy required by the cell.

Energy Flow
S
u Nutrient Flow
n

Inorganic nutrient pool

Heat Producers

Consumers Decomposers
Heat

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Food Chain:
The flow of energy is mediated through a series of feeding relationships in a
definite sequence or pattern which is known as food chain. (or) The sequence of eating
and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
Example: - Grass --> Grasshoppers --> Frog --> Snake --> Hawk
(P) (P.C) (S.C) (T.C) (T.C)
P – Producers
P.C – Primary Consumers
S.C – Secondary Consumers
T.C – Tertiary Consumers

The organisms, living or dead are potential food for some other organisms and
there is essentially no waste in the functioning of natural ecosystem.

A caterpillar eats a plant leaf; a sparrow eats the caterpillar, a cat or a hawk eats
the sparrow and when die consumed by micro organisms like bacteria or fungi which
break down the organic matter and convert into simple inorganic substances that can
again be used by the plants the primary producers.

There are two major food chains available in nature.

1. Grazing Food Chain:

➢ General seen in grassland, pond or lake ecosystems where a substantial part
of the net primary production is grazed by herbivores.
➢ 50% of NPP is grazed by animals.
➢ 50% goes to decomposers organisms as dead organic matter.
➢ Thus this is a herbivore based food chains where it starts with green plants
and culminates in carnivores.
2. Detritus Food Chain:
Detritus Food Chain starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores
and decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even
the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators. This is seen in
forest ecosystem.

Predominant primary consumers are herbivores. Insects consume less than

10% of NPP and 90% as dead plant material by small detriters feeding organisms.

Significance of Food Chain:

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

➢ Understands the feeding relationship and the interaction between organisms in

the ecosystem.
➢ Understands the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in ecosystem.
➢ Understands the movement of toxic substances and the problem of biological
magnification in the ecosystem.
➢ Analyze the biological diversity in an ecosystem.

Food Web:
Food web is defined as a network of food chains where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic (food) levels, so that there are no. of options
of eating and being eaten at each tropic level. Thus, a single plant or an animal may
become food for more than one animal. Thus, each organism in an ecosystem may be a
member of more than one food chain.
Food web consists of several interlinked food chains and each organism in a food
web will be a member of more than one food chain.

Tiger
Eagles Birds
Birds
Snakes Cattles Deer Fishes
Insects
Rats Insects
Grass

FOOD WEB
Differences between Food Chain and Food Web:
Food Chain
➢ In a linear food chain, if one species ➢
get affected (or) becomes extinct,
then the species in the subsequent
tropic level also get affected.
➢ Only one organism forms food for
each organism at each tropic level.
➢ Ecological imbalance takes place if
the chain is distributed.
Food Web
If one species gets affected, it does
not affect other tropic levels so
seriously.
➢ There are no. of options available at
each tropic level.
➢ Maintains stability in an ecosystem.

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

➢ The sequence of eating and being ➢ It is network of food where

eaten in an ecosystem in food different types of organisms are
chain. connected at different tropic levels.

➢ Example: - ➢ Example: -
Grass --> Grasshoppers --> Frog --> Snake --> Hawk
Tiger
Eagles Birds
Birds
Snakes Cattles Deer Fishes
Insects
Rats Insects
Grass

Ecological Pyramids
These are also called “Eltonian Pyramids” after C.Elton (1927). He explained the
concept of ecological pyramid who noted ‘that the animals at the base of a food chain are
relatively abundant while those at the end are relatively few in number.

Ecological Pyramid:
A graphical representation of an ecological parameter like number of individuals
or amount of biomass or amount of energy present in various tropic levels of a food chain
with producers forming the base and top and carnivores at the tip.

Graphical representation of tropic structure is done by ecological drawing

ecological pyramids where the basal, mid and top tiers show the parameter value for
producers, herbivores and carnivores in the ecosystem.
An ecological pyramid may be of
1. Upright Pyramid (tapering towards tip)
2. Inverted Pyramid (tapering towards down)
3. Spindle shaped

On the basis of parameters used ecological pyramids are of three types :

1. Pyramids of Number
2. Pyramids of Biomass
3. Pyramids of Energy

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Each step food web is called tropic level. These tropic levels together form the
ecological pyramid. Energy is transferred from one level to another level. At each transfer,
large amount of energy is lost in the form of heat.

Graphic representation of tropic structures and function of an ecosystem starting with

producers at the base and successive tropic levels forming the apex is known as ecological
pyramid.
Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers
Primary Consumers

Producers
Ecological Pyramid

1. Pyramid of Number:
In graphical representation the no. of individual organisms at each tropic
level is pyramid of number. We may have upright or inverted pyramid.

Hawk B. Fish
Frogs S. Fish

Insects Zooplanktons
Grass Phytoplanktons

Grass land Pond Ecosystem

(Upright) (Upright)

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
The total biomass i.e. dry organic matter at each tropic level in a food chain is
represented graphically is known as pyramid of biomass.

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Lion (1kg)
Fox (10kg)

Rabbit (100kg)
Grass (1000kg)

Terrestrial Ecosystem
➢ In a terrestrial ecosystem, the maximum biomass occurs in producers and there is
progressive increase in biomass from lower to higher tropic levels.
➢ It is found that 10 -20% of biomass is transferred from one tropic level to next in
the food chain.
➢ Thus 1000kg of vegetation produces a biomass of only 100kg of herbivores, which
in turn form only 10kg of biomass of first order, carnivores that gives rise just 1kg
of biomass of second order carnivores and so on.
Thus, a vegetation diet can support a large population than a non vegetarian diet.
3. Pyramids of Energy:
The graphical representation of the amount of energy present at each tropic
level is known as Pyramid is Energy. This pyramid is always upright. At each
successive tropic level, there is huge loss of energy in the form of heat.

L. Fish
126 KJ/m2

Insects S. Fish
840 KJ/m2 1260 KJ/m2

Zooplanktons
7980 KJ/m2

Phytoplanktons
31080 KJ/m2

Pyramid of Energy in Food Chain

UNIT 2: ECOSYSTEMS Page 9

C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Bio Geo Chemical Cycles:

The movement of chemical substances from the living form to atmosphere and
from atmosphere to living form in a cyclic path way.
The two types are: 1. Gaseous Cycles 2. Sedimentary Cycles
Types of Ecosystems:
Aquatic-Forest-Grassland-Desert
Aquatic Ecosystem:
Pond or Lake Ecosystem:
Littoral Zone:
➢ Top most zone which extends from the edge of the pond to the area where the
rooted plants are grown.
➢ Shallow region and water is warmed as it absorbs the sun in rays.
➢ Consists microphytic and macrophytic producers insects, snails, fishes and
amphibians.
Limonitic Zone:
➢ It is the area of the pond which receives sufficient light. Hence, the production rate
is higher than respiration rate.
➢ Consists of phytoplanktons, zooplanktons. When the plankton dies it falls into the
profundal zone.
Profundal Zone:
➢ It is the bottom most and oldest area of pond present 3m below the limonitic zone.
As it receives less amount of sunlight. Hence, production rate of flora is less than
its respiration rate.
➢ This zone consists of detritivore organisms.

River or Stream Ecosystem:

The running water of a stream or river is usually well arcygenated because it has a
large surface area to absorb O2 from the air and constant motion which churns the water
and provides abundant O2.
Abiotic components: - has lesser mineral content and greater penetrate of light.
Producers:
Phytoplanktons, water grasses, and other amphibious plants.
Consumers:
Flat worms, leeches, water insects, snails, fishes and crocodiles. Many birds and
mammals also get their food from rivers and streams.

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Decomposers:
Several bacteria and fungi represent this group.
➢ The stream animals usually have a narrow range of tolerance to oxygen.
➢ That is the reason why they are susceptible to any organic pollution which depletes
dissolved O2 in water.
➢ These are the worst victims of industrial development.

River Ecosystem:
Rivers are the large streams that flow downward from mountain highlands and
flowing through the plains fall into sea. So, the river ecosystem show a series of different
ecosystems.
The mountain highland:
Phase – I:
This part is cold, clear water rushing down as waterfalls with large amount of
dissolved O2. The plants are attached to rocks and fishes are cold water, high O2 requiring
fish like trout.
Phase – II:
On the gentle slopes, the waters are warmer and support a luxuriant growth of
plants and less O2 requiring fishes.
Phase – III:
➢ Very rich in biotic diversity.
➢ Moving down the hills, rivers shape the land.
➢ They bring with them the lots of silt rich in nutrients which is deposited in the plains
and in the delta before reaching the ocean.
➢ Due to the deforestation in the hills, the water in the streams that once flowed
throughout the year becomes the seasonal. Streams dry up after the monsoons.
Ocean or Marine Ecosystem:
➢ Oceans cover more than 2/3rd of the Earth’s surface.
➢ High concentration of salts and mineral ions.
➢ Very large and stable ecosystem.
Abiotic components:
➢ More stable chemical composition due to being saline.
➢ Other physio-chemical factors such as dissolved oxygen, light and temperature
different waves of various kinds and tides prevail there.
Biotic components:

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Producers: - Phytoplanktons and larger marine plants

Consumers: - Heterotrophic macro consumers
Primary consumers: - Mollusk, Fish etc.
Secondary consumers: - Carnivore Fishes
Decomposers: - Bacteria and same fungi

Carbon Cycle:
Prior to industrial evolution
CO2 can – 250ppm
1994 – 358ppm
21st century – 600ppm
➢ ‘C’ is in the form of CO2 taken by the green plants or a raw material for
photosynthesis, through which a variety of carbohydrates and other substances
are produced.
➢ Respiration by all organisms produces CO2 while the latter is used up by the plants

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle:
➢ Nitrogen is abundantly available in the atmosphere and is fixed either by the
physical features or biologically by same bacteria.

UNIT 2: ECOSYSTEMS Page 12

C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

➢ Conversion of nitrogen into nitrates is called nitrogen fixation. There are three
types of fixations.
1. Atmospheric Fixation
2. Biological Fixation
3. Industrial fixation
➢ It cannot be absorbed and used directly or a nutrient by molecular plants or
animals.
➢ It consists of 4 process
1. Nitrogen fixation
2. Ammonification
3. Nitrification
4. Detrification

Nitrogen Cycle

Hydrological Cycle:
Hydrological cycle involves three steps:
1. Evaporation:

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Heat energy from the sun constantly cause evaporation from all surfaces like
oceans, rivers, streams and lakes.

2. Condensation and Precipitation:

Precipitation occurs due to the condensation of water from a gaseous state in
the atmosphere and falls to the earth.
3. Transpiration and Respiration:
Water is lost to the atmosphere from the leaves of the plants by transpiration.

Hydrological Cycle

Oxygen Cycle:
➢ Oxygen is the essential element for living organisms.
➢ Large quantities in the atmosphere and is also seen in bond state in water oxides
and carbonates.
➢ Dissolved O2 in the water is the source of O2 for aquatic organisms
➢ O2 also occurs in the combined state in CO2, H2O.
O2 Utilization:
➢ Plants and animals taken in O2 for respiration in gaseous state and is released in
the combined state (CO2).

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 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

➢ CO2 is used by plants during photosynthesis.

O2 production:
➢ Mainly produced during photosynthesis of water in the night phase of
photosynthesis during which molecular O2 is released into the atmosphere for
secure in respiration.

Oxygen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle:
➢ Reservoir of phosphorus lies in the fossil which is used as fertilizer.
➢ Farmers use the phosphate fertilizer indiscriminately as a result excess
phosphate are lost or run off which causes the problem of eutrophication or
once nourishment of laser leading to algal blooms.
➢ Sea binds on the other hand, are playing an important role in phosphorus
cycle.
➢ They eat sea fishes, which are phosphorous rich and the droppings or excreta
of the birds return the phosphorus on the land.

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Phosphorus Cycle

Sulphur Cycle:
➢ Sulphur is present mainly in soil, water etc.
➢ Combustion of fossil fuels causes increased levels of atmosphere sulphur can be
poured which creates problems related to acid rains.
➢ Industrial process and combustion of coal to generate electricity releases large
quantities of SO2 into the atmosphere, leading to acid rains.

Sulphur Cycle

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Ecological Succession:
➢ Ecosystem is not static in nature it changes its structure and function with time.
➢ Because of this non static nature it is observed that one type of community or
ecosystem changed to another type of community or ecosystem over a period of
time. This is known as ecological succession.
➢ This ecological succession is an orderly process of changes that causes changes in
the structure and functions of ecosystem and forms a stabilized ecosystem is
known as climax.
➢ The sequence of communities which are formed intermediately to this climax is
known as intermediate stage or serial stages whereas community establishes first
at particular area is called pioneer community.

Process of Succession:
Succession occurs in the sequential steps.
1. Nudation:
It is the development of bare area without any life formed due to disasters.
2. Invasion:
It is the establishment of one or more species on a bare area either by
dispersal or migration.
3. Competition:
The competition between different species will be seen and only the fittest
will survive and continue its growth.
4. Reaction:
The process of change in the growth with the environment by using
nutrients and water is reaction.
5. Stabilization:
These modifications will end in a stable community called climax. This
process is stabilization.

Based on the type of ecological changes, ecological successions are categorized

into two: -
1. Autogenic Succession (self generated)
2. Allogenic Succession (externally generated)

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Autogenic Succession Allogenic Succession

1. Ecological succession by internal
actions.
Example: - Succession on bare rock
or sand dunes
1. Succession changes are brought by
outside forces such as change in
environmental conditions which in
turn influences the composition of
the plant community.
Example: - Silt deposition (changes
in aquatic habitat to terrestrial
habitat)

Ecotone:
An ecotone is the transition between two biomes. It is where two communities
meet and integrate.
Example: - The place where marine water and fresh water meet (estuary).

Biome:
The major ecosystems with their groups of climax plants and associated animals
are called biomes.
A biome is a large area with similar flora, fauna and micro organisms and is
generally designated by dominant vegetation. The major biomes of the world are
mountains, deserts etc.

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C.KISHORE KUMAR, MECS