1.4.

Stratification
It is well established that cryogenic liquids experience thermal stratification. This
Condition tends to be a stable one, as the warmer, and hence less dense, fluid is at
The top of the tank. This condition causes the ullage pressure and hence the tank wall
Thickness to be greater than would be necessary if stratification were avoided. Also,
these systems may be described as anisotropic, or nonhomogeneous, which presents
a sampling problem.
Difference between Rocket and Missile

A rocket explores space and is also used in the defense sector. It needs a large amount of fuel to defy
gravity and go beyond space carrying devices and humans. A rocket is also used as a spacecraft and
is programmed to go on its own in a straight path with initial guidance during its takeoff.

A missile is a device that is used only for military purposes. Missiles can change their route and
require constant guidance from the military base. It requires high velocity and gets to its target by
traversing through gravity and friction.

Classify missiles on the basis of its purpose

Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode, Range,
Propulsion, Warhead and Guidance Systems. Type: Cruise Missile. Ballistic Missile.

What are the components of rockets and missiles?

Missiles have five system components: targeting, guidance system, flight system,
engine and warhead.

Rocket parts and functions

A rocket has four (4) main parts: nose cone, fins, rocket body, and engine. The nose cone
carries the payload or cargo. Common payloads include astro- nauts, satellites, scientific
instruments, and even explosives. The nose cone may also contain the guidance system that
controls the flight direction of the rocket.

Electric Propulsion (EP) is a class of space propulsion which makes

use of electrical power to accelerate a propellant by different
possible electrical and/or magnetic means. The use of electrical
power enhances the propulsive performances of the EP thrusters
compared with conventional chemical thrusters. Unlike chemical
systems, electric propulsion requires very little mass to accelerate a
spacecraft. The propellant is ejected up to twenty times faster than
from a classical chemical thruster and therefore the overall system
is many times more mass efficient.

What is the advantage of liquid-propellant rocket compared with solid propellant

rocket?
Advantages. Liquid-fueled rockets have higher specific impulse than solid rockets
and are capable of being throttled, shut down, and restarted.

The main difference between jet propulsion and rocket propulsion is that in
rocket propulsion the oxidizer is carried with the vehicle, but jet propulsion the
 oxidizer is the oxygen in the air sucked into the engine of the plane. Because
there is no oxidizer in space, rockets need to carry their own oxidizers with them.

It's not a lot, but it's enough thrust to move the spacecraft through space — remember we
don't have air resistance or anything when we're off the Earth. So, yes, a rocket still works
in space all thanks to Newton's third law of motion!

Most liquid chemical rockets use two separate propellants: a fuel and an oxidizer. Typical
fuels include kerosene, alcohol, hydrazine and its derivatives, and liquid hydrogen. Many
others have been tested and used. Oxidizers include nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide, liquid
oxygen, and liquid fluorine.

Propulsive efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done on the fluid to the propulsive
power, i.e. thrust times velocity of the vehicle.
Write the names of any two common types of the propellant feed system.

1. Liquid Propellant Feed Systems

2. Gas Pressure Feed Systems
3. Turbopump Feed Systems
4. Gas Generator Cycle
5. Expander Cycle
6. Staged Combustion Cycle

There are three basic types of combustion instability in liquid propellant

rockets and are,
 Low Frequency – Chugging / Feed System Instability.
 Intermediate Frequency – Acoustic Instability / Buzzing / Entropy Waves.
 High Frequency – Screaming / Screeching / Squealing.

What are hybrid rocket engines?

APPLICATIONS
A hybrid-propellant rocket engine is an engine that combines some of the
advantages of both liquid- and solid-fueled rocket engines. The basic design of
a hybrid consists of a combustion chamber tube, similar to that of ordinary solid-
propellant rockets, packed with a solid chemical, usually the fuel.

The boundary layer nature of the combustion process leads one to anticipate that
combustion may occur at a fuel-rich mixture ratio. This has been observed experimentally,
and the boundary layer combustion model suggests a means of improving the
combustion efficiency. This has also been proven experimentally.

he burn rate (or burning rate) is a measure of the linear combustion rate of a compound
or substance such as a candle or a solid propellant.

State double base propellant from a homogeneous propellant grains

Double base propellants are those whose molecules contain both the oxidizer and the
fuel elements in the same molecul. For example, nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose. Here,
nitrocellulose gels in nitroglycerine and sets to a solid mass.

In a homogeneous propellant, the ingredients are linked chemically and the resulting
physical structure is homogeneous throughout. Typical examples of homogeneous
propellants are single-base (NC and additives), double-base (NC, NG and additives), and
triple-base (NC, NG, NQ, and additives) propellants.

Heterogeneous propellants are mixtures of crystalline oxidizer particles binded within a

polymeric fuel matrix. The commonly used oxidizers such as AP and AN produce high
oxygen concentrations on thermal decomposition. The fuel used is the hydrocarbon-based
polymers such as HTPB, CTPB, and PBAN.

Solid fuel/propellants are used in forms called grains. A grain is any individual particle of
fuel/propellant regardless of the size or shape. The shape and size of a grain determines
the burn time, amount of gas, and rate of produced energy from the burning of the fuel and,
as a consequence, thrust vs time profile.

A burn rate modifier can be any material that changes the speed at which a propellant
burns. Most modifiers accelerate the burn rate.

The plasticizer is used as an additive to increase the flexibility, softness and

workability of the propellant. This agent is responsible for the reduction in tensile strength
and elastic modulus of the material

Smokeless powder is a type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less
smoke and less fouling when fired compared to gunpowder ("black powder").
The combustion products are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products
(mostly potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, and potassium sulfide) for black powder.[1] In
addition, smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material
associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel.

What are the stages of ignition?

1) Ignition Delay Period • Physical delay • Chemical Delay 2) Uncontrolled
Combustion 3) Controlled Combustion 4) After Burning

Most liquid chemical rockets use two separate propellants: a fuel and an oxidizer. Typical
fuels include kerosene, alcohol, hydrazine and its derivatives, and liquid hydrogen. Many
others have been tested and used. Oxidizers include nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide, liquid
oxygen, and liquid fluorine.

What are the characteristics of propellants?

The characteristics of good propellant are as follows-

It should have specific impulse (thrust delivered divide by the rate of propellant
burnt). It should produce low molecular weight. Non-toxic gases products (CO, CO2,
N2) only on combustion. It should burn at a slow and steady but predictable rate.

The Volumetric Loading Fraction is defined as the fraction of grain

volume to available chamber volume, and relates the volumetric efficiency of the
motor, as well as a measure of performance efficiency:

where Vp is the grain volume, Va is the available chamber volume, It is the total
impulse (deliverable), and Isp is the propellant specific impulse.

The Web Fraction is the ratio of propellant web thickness to grain outer radius,
and is given by:

where tb is the motor burn time. Clearly, to maximize burn duration, it is necessary
to maximize the web fraction (i.e. thickness). The "price" for maximizing web
thickness is reduction of the grain core diameter. This must be carefully
considered, as explained below.

A guidance system is a virtual or physical device, or a group of devices implementing a

controlling the movement of a ship, aircraft, missile, rocket, satellite, or any other moving object.
Guidance is the process of calculating the changes in position, velocity, altitude, and/or rotation
rates of a moving object required to follow a certain trajectory and/or altitude profile based on
information about the object's state of motion.[1][2][3]
A guidance system is usually part of a Guidance, navigation and control system, whereas
navigation refers to the systems necessary to calculate the current position and orientation based
on sensor data like those from compasses, GPS receivers, Loran-C, star trackers, inertial
measurement units, altimeters, etc. The output of the navigation system, the navigation solution,
is an input for the guidance system, among others like the environmental conditions (wind, water,
temperature, etc.) and the vehicle's characteristics (i.e. mass, control system availability, control
systems correlation to vector change, etc.). In general, the guidance system computes the
instructions for the control system, which comprises the object's actuators
(e.g., thrusters, reaction wheels, body flaps, etc.), which are able to manipulate the flight path
and orientation of the object without direct or continuous human control.
Guidance systems consist of 3 essential parts: navigation which tracks current
location, guidance which leverages navigation data and target information to direct flight control
"where to go", and control which accepts guidance commands to effect change in aerodynamic
and/or engine controls.

1. Tracking: The positions of the target and missile are

continuously determined.
2. Computing: The tracking information is used to determine the
directions necessary for control.
3. Directing: The directions or correcting are applied to the
controlling units.
4. Steering: Using the correcting signals to direct movements of
the control surfaces.

Guidance System:
In this lecture, we are going to learn about the guidance system used in
missiles and the types of guidance systems used in missiles.

A guidance system is used to keep the missile on its proper flight path
(trajectory) and headed towards the target.

The guidance system can be thought of as the brain of the missile.

The guidance and control function of a missile is often confused as being
the same.

A guidance system is used to keep the missile on its proper trajectory

while the control system performs two distinct tasks.

First, it maintains the missile at proper flight altitude. Second,

the control system responds to orders from the guidance system and
steers the missile towards the target.

Therefore, the guidance system and control system work together to:

1. Determine the flight path of the missile and

2. Maintain the missile in proper flight attitude(stability)

16.3 PHASES OF GUIDANCE

Missile guidance is generally divided into three phases--boost, midcourse, and

terminal. These names refer to different parts of the flight path. The boost phase
may also be called the launch-ing or initial phase.

16.3.1 Boost Phase.

Navy surface-to-air missiles accelerate to flight speed by means of the booster

component. This booster period lasts from the time the missile leaves the launcher
until the booster burns its fuel. In missiles with separate boosters, the booster drops
away from the missile at burnout. The objective of this phase is to place the missile
at a position in space from where it can either "see" the target or where it can
receive external guidance signals. During the boost phase of some missiles, the
guidance system and the aerodynamic surfaces are locked in position. Other
missiles are guided during the boost phase.

16.3.2 Midcourse Phase.

The second, or midcourse, phase of guidance is often the longest in both distance
and time. During this part of the flight, changes may be required to bring the
missile onto the desired course and to make certain that it stays on that course.
During this guidance phase, information can be supplied to the missile by any of
several means. In most cases, the midcourse guidance system is used to place the
missile near the target, where the
system to be used in the final phase of guidance can take over. In other cases, the
midcourse guidance system is used for both the second and third guidance phases.

16.3.3 Terminal Phase.

The last phase of missile guidance must have high accuracy as well as fast
response to guidance signals. Missile performance becomes a critical factor during
this phase. The missile must be capable of executing the final maneuvers required
for intercept within the constantly decreasing available flight time. The
maneuverability of the missile will be a function of velocity as well as airframe
design. Therefore, a terminal guidance system must be compatible with missile
performance capabilities. The greater the target acceleration, the more critical the
method of terminal guidance becomes. Suitable methods of guidance will be
discussed in later sections of this chapter. In some missiles, especially short-range
missiles, a single guidance system may be used for all three phases of guidance,
whereas other missiles may have a different guidance system for each phase.

Sensors

The guidance system in a missile can be compared to the human pilot of an

airplane. As a pilot guides his plane to the landing field, the guidance system
"sees" its target. If the target is far away or otherwise obscured, radio or radar
beams can be used to locate it and direct the missile to it. Heat, light, televi-sion,
the earth's magnetic field, and Loran have all been found suitable for specific
guidance purposes. When an electromagnetic source is used to guide the missile,
an antenna and a receiver are installed in the missile to form what is known as a
sensor. The sensor picks up, or senses, the guidance information. Mis-siles that are
guided by other than electromagnetic means use other types of sensors, but each
must have some means of receiv-ing "position reports."

The kind of sensor that is used will be determined by such factors as maximum
operation range, operating conditions, the kind of information needed, the accuracy
required, viewing angle, and weight and size of the sensor, and the type of target
and its speed.

16.4.1.1 Radar Control Guidance. Radar control guidance may be subdivided into
two separate categories. The first category is simply referred to as the command
guidance method. The second is the beam-rider method, which is actually a
modification of the first, but with the radar being used in a different manner.
Chapter 15 Guidance and Control
Guidance and Control

16.1 OBJECTIVES AND INTRODUCTION

Objectives

1. Understand the purpose of a guidance system.

2. Understand the three phases of guidance.

3. Be acquainted with the concept and the types of control-guidance systems.

4. Know and understand the methods of homing guidance.

5. Understand the application of monopulse methods to weapon homing systems.

6. Be acquainted with the function and the types of self-contained guidance

systems.

7. Be acquainted with the basic operation and applications of accelerometers.

8. Be acquainted with present guided flight paths.

9. Know and understand the variable flight paths.

Introduction

The term missile in the post- World War II era has generally been used
synonymously with "guided missile," due to the wide impact of guided missile
technology upon the weapons field. In the un-guided case, initial conditions (such
as train, elevation, powder charge in naval guns) and exterior ballistic effects are
paramet-ers that, along with normal distribution, affect the "fall of shot." As
advances in technology permitted (paralleled by in-creasing threat complexity), the
development of guided missiles made possible a significant increase in terminal
accuracy of mil-itary weaponry. The application of automatic control is preva-lent
in broad regions of missile technology including:

Underwater Homing Torpedoes

Surface-to-Surface Aerodynamic Guided Missiles

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles

Air-to-Air Guided Missiles

Surface-to-Air Guided Missiles

Guided Projectiles

This chapter will deal primarily with the aerodynamic guided missile. Various
aerodynamic missile flight paths will be intro-duced and a simplified analysis
included to demonstrate the rela-tive advantages/disadvantages of each.

16.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF GUIDANCE SYSTEMS

16.2.1 Purpose and Function

Every missile guidance system consists of an attitude control system and a flight
path control system. The attitude control system functions to maintain the missile
in the desired attitude on the ordered flight path by controlling the missile in pitch,
roll, and yaw. The attitude control system operates as an auto-pilot, damping out
fluctuations that tend to deflect the missile from its ordered flight path. The
function of the flight path control system is to determine the flight path necessary
for target interception and to generate the orders to the attitude control system to
maintain that path.

It should be clear at this point that the concept of "Gui-dance and Control" involves
not only the maintenance of a part-icular vehicle's path from point A to B in space,
but also the proper behavior of the vehicle while following the path. A missile that
follows a prescribed path half the way to a target and then becomes dynamically
unstable is then incapable of re-maining upon the path (or else fails structurally due
to aero-dynamic loading). Such a vehicle, in order to perform properly, must be
"piloted" and capable of responding to control signals.

The operation of a guidance and control system is based on the principle of

feedback. The control units make corrective adjustments of the missile control
surfaces when a guidance error is present. The control units will also adjust the
control sur-faces to stabilize the missile in roll, pitch, and yaw. Guidance and
stabilization corrections are combined, and the result is ap-plied as an error signal
to the control system.

16.2.2 Sensors

The guidance system in a missile can be compared to the human pilot of an

airplane. As a pilot guides his plane to the landing field, the guidance system
"sees" its target. If the target is far away or otherwise obscured, radio or radar
beams can be used to locate it and direct the missile to it. Heat, light, televi-sion,
the earth's magnetic field, and Loran have all been found suitable for specific
guidance purposes. When an electromagnetic source is used to guide the missile,
an antenna and a receiver are installed in the missile to form what is known as a
sensor. The sensor picks up, or senses, the guidance information. Mis-siles that are
guided by other than electromagnetic means use other types of sensors, but each
must have some means of receiv-ing "position reports."

The kind of sensor that is used will be determined by such factors as maximum
operation range, operating conditions, the kind of information needed, the accuracy
required, viewing angle, and weight and size of the sensor, and the type of target
and its speed.

16.2.3 Accelerometers

The heart of the inertial navigation system for ships and mis-siles is an
arrangement of accelerometers that will detect any change in vehicular motion. To
understand the use of acceler-ometers in inertial guidance, it is helpful to examine
the gen-eral principles involved.

An accelerometer, as its name implies, is a device for mea-suring acceleration. In

their basic form such devices are sim-ple. For example, a pendulum, free to swing
on a transverse axis, could be used to measure acceleration along the fore-and-aft
axis of the missile. When the missile is given a forward acceleration, the pendulum
will tend to lag aft; the actual dis-placement of the pendulum form its original
position will be a function of the magnitude of the accelerating force. Another
simple device might consist of a weight supported between two springs. When an
accelerating force is applied, the weight will move from its original position in a
direction opposite to that of the applied force. The movement of the mass (weight)
is in accordance with Newton's second law of motion, which states that the
acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.

If the acceleration along the fore-and aft axis were con-stant, the speed of the
missile at any instant could be deter-mined simply by multiplying the acceleration
by the elapsed time. However, the acceleration may change considerably over a
period of time. Under these conditions, integration is necessary to determine the
speed.

If the missile speed were constant, the distance covered could be calculated simply
by multiplying the speed by time of flight. But because the acceleration varies, the
speed also varies. For that reason, a second integration is necessary.
The moving element of the accelerometer can connected to a potentiometer, or to a
variable inductor core, or to some other device capable of producing a voltage
proportional to the dis-placement of the element.

Usually there are three double-integrating accelerometers continuously measuring

the distance traveled by the missile in three directions--range, altitude, and azimuth
(figure 16-1). Double-integrating accelerometers are devices that are sensitive to
acceleration, and by a double-step process measure distance. These measured
distances are then compared with the desired dis-tances, which are preset into the
missile; if the missile is off course, correction signals are sent to the control
system.

Accelerometers are sensitive to the acceleration of gravity as well as missile

accelerations. For this reason, the acceler-ometers that measure range and azimuth
distances must be mounted in a fixed position with respect to the pull of gravity.
This can be done in a moving missile by mounting them on a platform that is
stabilized by gyroscopes or by star-tracking telescopes. This platform, however,
must be moved as the missile passes over the earth to keep the sensitive axis of
each accelerometer in a fixed position with respect to the pull of gravity. These
fac- tors cause the accuracy of the inertial system to decrease as the time of flight
of the missile increases.

To eliminate unwanted oscillations, a damper is included in the accelerometer unit.

The damping effort should be just great enough to prevent any oscillations from
occurring, but still per-mit a significant displacement of the mass. When this
condition exists, the movement of the mass will be exactly proportional to the
acceleration of the vehicle.

Figure 16-2 shows a mass suspended by a spring in a liquid-damped system. If the

case experiences an acceleration in the direction indicated by the arrow, the spring
will offer a re-straining force proportional to the downward displacement of the
mass, while the viscous fluid will serve to dampen any undesira-ble oscillations.

Figure 16-3 shows a system that is electrically damped. The mass (M) is free to
slide back and forth in relation to the iron core (C). When the vehicle experiences
an acceleration, the voltage (E), which is proportional to the displacement of the
mass, is picked off and amplified. The current (I) (still pro-portional to the
displacement) is sent back to the coil around the core. The resulting magnetic field
around the coil creates a force on the mass, which damps the oscillations. In this
system the acceleration could be measured by the displacement of the mass (X), by
the voltage (E), or by the current (I).

16.3 PHASES OF GUIDANCE

Missile guidance is generally divided into three phases--boost, midcourse, and
terminal. These names refer to different parts of the flight path. The boost phase
may also be called the launch-ing or initial phase.

16.3.1 Boost Phase.

Navy surface-to-air missiles accelerate to flight speed by means of the booster

component. This booster period lasts from the time the missile leaves the launcher
until the booster burns its fuel. In missiles with separate boosters, the booster drops
away from the missile at burnout. The objective of this phase is to place the missile
at a position in space from where it can either "see" the target or where it can
receive external guidance signals. During the boost phase of some missiles, the
guidance system and the aerodynamic surfaces are locked in position. Other
missiles are guided during the boost phase.

16.3.2 Midcourse Phase.

The second, or midcourse, phase of guidance is often the longest in both distance
and time. During this part of the flight, changes may be required to bring the
missile onto the desired course and to make certain that it stays on that course.
During this guidance phase, information can be supplied to the missile by any of
several means. In most cases, the midcourse guidance system is used to place the
missile near the target, where the

system to be used in the final phase of guidance can take over. In other cases, the
midcourse guidance system is used for both the second and third guidance phases.

16.3.3 Terminal Phase.

The last phase of missile guidance must have high accuracy as well as fast
response to guidance signals. Missile performance becomes a critical factor during
this phase. The missile must be capable of executing the final maneuvers required
for intercept within the constantly decreasing available flight time. The
maneuverability of the missile will be a function of velocity as well as airframe
design. Therefore, a terminal guidance system must be compatible with missile
performance capabilities. The greater the target acceleration, the more critical the
method of terminal guidance becomes. Suitable methods of guidance will be
discussed in later sections of this chapter. In some missiles, especially short-range
missiles, a single guidance system may be used for all three phases of guidance,
whereas other missiles may have a different guidance system for each phase.

16.4 TYPES OF GUIDANCE SYSTEMS

Missile guidance systems may be classified into two broad categories: missiles
guided by man-made electromagnetic devices, and those guided by other means.
(See figure 16-6.) In the

first category are those missiles controlled by radar, radio de- vices, and those
missiles that use the target as a source of e-lectromagnetic radiation. In the latter
category are missiles that rely on electromechanical devices or electromagnetic
contact with natural sources, such as the stars (self-contained guidance systems).

All of the missiles that maintain electromagnetic radiation contact with man-make
sources may be further subdivided into two subcategories.

(1) Control guidance missiles

(2) Homing guidance missiles

16.4.1 Control Guidance

Control guidance missiles are those that are guided on the basis of direct
electromagnetic radiation contact with friendly control points. Homing guidance
missiles are those that guided on the basis of direct electromagnetic radiation
contact with the tar-get. Control guidance generally depends on the use of radar
(radar control) or radio (radio control) links between a control point and the
missile. By use of guidance information transmit-ted from the control point via a
radio or radar link, the mis-sile's flight path can be guided. This chapter will use
radar control guidance as a model for discussion because it is by far the most
common application of control guidance methods. The principles discussed may be
readily applied to radio (including television) control guidance.

16.4.1.1 Radar Control Guidance. Radar control guidance may be subdivided into
two separate categories. The first category is simply referred to as the command
guidance method. The second is the beam-rider method, which is actually a
modification of the first, but with the radar being used in a different manner.

16.4.1.2 Command guidance--The term command is used to describe a guidance

method in which all guidance instructions, or com-mands, come from sources
outside the missile. The guidance sys- tem of the missile contains a receiver that is
capable of re- ceiving instructions from ship or ground stations or from air- craft.
The missile flight-path control system then converts these commands to guidance
information, which is fed to the attitude control system.

In the command guidance method, one or two radars are used to track the missile
and target. Figure 16-7 is a block diagram of how this method works in actual
practice. As soon as the radar is locked on the target, tracking information is fed
into the computer. The missile is then launched and is tracked by the radar. Target
and missile ranges, elevations, and bearings are continuously fed to the computer.

This information is analyzed and a missile intercept flight path is computed. The
appropriate guidance signals are then transmit-ted to the missile receiver. These
signals may be sent by vary-ing the characteristics of the missile-tracking radar
beam, or by way of a separate radio transmitter. The radar command guidance
method can be used in ship, air, or ground missile delivery sys-tems. A relatively
new type of command guidance by wire is now operational in some short-range
antitank-type weapons. These systems use an optical sight for tracking the target
while the weapons emits a characteristic infra-red signature, which is used for
tracking the weapon with an IR sensor. Deviation of the wea-pon from the line of
sight (LOS) to the target is sensed, and guidance commands are generated that are
fed to the weapon con- trol system in flight via a direct wire link. Each weapon
con- tains wire spools that pay out as the warhead flies out the line of sight to the
target. Current usage of these systems is in relatively lightweight, portable, short-
range battlefield envir-onments against armored targets where their high accuracy
and substantial warheads are most efficiently employed.

16.4.1.3 Beam-rider Method--The main difference between the beam-rider method

and the radar command guidance method is that the characteristics of the missile-
tracking radar beam are not varied in the beam-rider system. The missile has been
designed so that it is able to formulate its own correction signals on the basis of its
position with respect to the radar scan axis. The technique is best understood after
reviewing the principles of conical-scan tracking in Chapter 5. The missile's flight
path control unit is sensitive to any deviation from the scan axis of the guidance
radar and is capable of computing the proper flight path correction. An advantage
of this type of system is that is requires only one radar. This radar must, of course,
have a conical-scan feature in order to provide both target-tracking capability and a
missile flight-path correction reference axis. A second advantage is that since the
missile formulates its own directional commands, several missiles may be
launched to "ride" the beam simultaneously, without the need for a cumbersome
and complicated multiple-missile command system.

Figure 16-8 illustrates a simple beam-rider guidance system on a typical LOS

course. The accuracy of this system decreases with range because the radar beam
spreads out, and it is more difficult for the missile to remain in its center. If the
target is moving very rapidly, the missile must follow a continuously changing
path, which may cause it to undergo excessive transverse accelerations.

16.4.2 Homing Guidance

Homing guidance systems control the flight path by employing a device in the
weapon that reacts to some distinguishing feature of the target. Homing devices
can be made sensitive to a variety of energy forms, including RF, infrared,
reflected laser, sound, and visible light. In order to home on the target, the missile
or torpedo must determine at least the azimuth and elevation of the target by one of
the means of angle tracking mentioned pre-viously. Active homing missiles will
also have the means of de-termining range of the target if necessary. Tracking is
perform-ed by a movable seeker antenna or an array with stationary elec-tronically
scanned arrays in development for missiles and opera-tional in some torpedoes.
Determination of angular error by amp-litude comparison monopulse methods is
preferred over the older COSRO systems because of the higher data rate and faster
response time; however, phase comparison monopulse or interferometer meth-ods
have advantages in some applications. Homing guidance meth-ods may be divided
into three types: active, semiactive, and passive homing (figure 16-9). These
methods may be employed in seekers using any of the energy forms mentioned
above, although some methods may be excluded by the nature of the energy form;
for example, one would not build a passive laser seeker or an active or semi-active
infrared seeker.

16.4.2.1 Active Homing. In active homing, the weapon contains both the
transmitter and receiver. Search and acquisition are conducted as with any tracking
sensor. The target is tracked employing monostatic geometry in which the
returning echo from the target travels the same path as the transmitted energy
(figure 16-8). An onboard computer calculates a course to in-tercept the target and
sends steering commands to the weapon's autopilot. The monostatic geometry
allows the most efficient reflection of energy from the target, but the small size of
the missile restricts the designer to high frequencies and low power output from the
transmitter, resulting in short seeker acquis-ition range.

16.4.2.2 Semiactive Homing. In semiactive homing, the target is illuminated by a

tracking radar at the launching site or other control point. The missile is equipped
with a radar receiver (no transmitter) and by means of the reflected radar energy
from the target, formulates its own correction signals as in the active method.
However, semiactive homing uses bistatic reflection from the target, meaning that
because the illuminator platform and weapon receiver are not co-located, the
returning echo follows a different path than the energy incident to the target. Due
to its shape and composition, the target may not reflect energy efficiently in the
direction of the weapon. In extreme cases the weapon may lose the target entirely,
resulting in a missed in-tercept. This disadvantage is compensated for by the ability
to use greater power and more diverse frequency ranges in an illum- ination device
in a ship, aircraft, or ground station.

16.4.2.3 Passive Homing. Passive homing depends only on the target as a source of
tracking energy. This energy can be the noise radiated by a ship or submarine in
the case of a passive homing torpedo, RF radiation from the target's own sensors in
the case of an anti-radiation (ARM) weapon, heat sources such as ship, aircraft, or
vehicle exhausts, contrast with the tempera-ture or visible light environment, or
even the radiation all ob-jects emit in the microwave region. As in the other
homing meth-ods, the missile generates its own correction signals on the basis of
energy received from the target rather than from a con-trol point. The advantage of
passive homing is that the counter detection problem is reduced, and a wide range
of energy forms and frequencies are available. Its disadvantages are its sus-
ceptibility to decoy or deception and its dependence on a certain amount of
cooperation from the enemy.

16.4.2.4 Retransmission Homing or Track Via Missile (TVM). Re-transmission

homing is a blending of the characteristics of both command and semiactive
homing guidance. In command guidance, missile steering commands are computed
at the launch point using target position and missile position data derived from
launch point sensors. In retransmission homing, the missile contains a semiactive
seeker that determines the azimuth and elevation angle from the missile to the
target, which is then coded and transmit-ted to the launch point via data link (down
link). The fire-con-trol system at the launch point can use its own target tracking
data, that of the missile (or both), and missile position data to compute steering
commands, which are then transmitted to the mis-sile via an uplink. This technique
is used in some new AAW mis-sile systems, including the U.S. Army Patriot
system. Specific retransmission or TVM systems may vary somewhat from this
ideal; however, they all will in some way use target angle data from the missile to
compute steering commands at the launch point that are then transmitted to the
missile.

16.4.3 Accuracy. Homing is the most accurate of all guidance systems because it
uses the target as its source when used a-gainst moving targets. There are several
ways in which the hom-ing device may control the path of a missile against a
moving target. Of these, the more generally used are pursuit paths and lead flight
paths, which are discussed in a subsequent part of this chapter. Because monopulse
methods in weapons seekers are advantageous and are becoming the method of
choice in current weapons, it is necessary to address the two basic types:

16.4.3.1 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse. This method, described in Chapter 5,

requires a gimballed seeker antenna covered by a radome at the nose of the
weapon. Because of aerodynamic re-quirements, the radome shape is normally not
optimal for radar performance. Very precise orders to the antenna are required to
achieve target acquisition due to the single antenna's limited field of view. In these
systems the size of the antenna directly determines the limits of the frequency
range of the seeker. Its primary advantage is its consistent performance throughout
the potential speed and maneuverability range of potential targets.

16.4.3.2 Interferometer (Phase Comparison Monopulse). The in-terferometer

eliminates the requirement for a movable antenna, having instead fixed antennas
mounted at the edge of the airframe or on the wing tips, the result being reduced
complexity and a wider field of view. As depicted in figure 16-10, two antennas
separated by a known distance are installed for each mobility axis of the weapon.
In the diagram the antennas A and B, separated by the distance d, receive energy
emitted (passive homing) or reflected (semiactive homing) from the target.

Because the distance to the target is relatively large, it is assumed that the RF
energy arrives as a series of planar waves with wavelength . In accordance with the
discussion of electronic scanning in Chapter 7 and towed acoustic arrays in chapter
9 it is evident that for the geometry pictured, the phase sensed by antenna B will
lag that sensed by antenna A by some phase angle which is proportional to d sin ;
therefore:

= 2d sin

If is known and the phase angle can be determined, then the look angle, , can be
calculated.

The interferometer provides the advantage of wide field of view, flexibility in

airframe design, unobstructed use of weapon interior space, and the ability to cover
broad frequency bands without constraints imposed by limited antenna size. The
separation between the antennas governs the performance of the system, with
missile body diameter or fin spread separation as the usual arrangement. The
disadvantage of the interferometer is the angular ambiguity that may exist for
wavelengths less than the separation between the antennas at a specific angle of
incidence. If the distance between the antennas at an angle of incidence is d sin ,
and is less than d sin , then it is not possible to determine if the phase angle
measured is just that or + n2 radians, where n is any integer. However, this is a
minor problem in most homing systems because the absolute look angle is not as
important as the rate of change of that angle.

The interferometer has an advantage in resolving multiple targets at twice the range
of a typical amplitude comparison monopulse seeker in the same size weapon. This
gives the missile twice the time to respond to the changeover from tracking the
centroid of the group to tracking one specific target, thus in-creasing the hit
probability.

16.4.4 Composite Systems. No one system is best suited for all phases of guidance.
It is logical then to combine a system that has good midcourse guidance
characteristics with a system that has excellent terminal guidance characteristics, in
order to in-crease the number of hits. Combined systems are known as compos-ite
guidance systems or combination systems.

Many missiles rely on combinations of various types of gui-dance. For example,

one type of missile may use command guidance until it is within a certain range of
a target. At this time the command guidance may become a back-up mode and a
type of homing guidance commenced. The homing guidance would then be used
until impact with the target or detonation of a proximity-fixed war-head.
16.4.5 Hybrid Guidance.

A combination of command guidance and semi-active homing guidance is a type

of hybrid guidance. It achieves many advantages of both systems. It attains long-
range capabilities by maintaining the tracking sensors on the delivery vehicle (ship,
aircraft, or land base) and transmitting the data to the missile. By having the
missile compute its own attitude adjustments, the entire mechanization of the fire
control problem can be simplified.

16.5 SELF-CONTAINED GUIDANCE SYSTEMS

The self-contained group falls in the second category of guidance system types. All
the guidance and control equipment is entirely within the missile. Some of the
systems of this type are: pre-set, terrestrial, inertial, and celestial navigation. These
sys-tems are most commonly applicable to surface-to-surface missiles, and
electronic countermeasures are relatively ineffective against them since they
neither transmit nor receive signals that can be jammed.

16.5.1 Preset Guidance. The term preset completely describes one guidance
method. When preset guidance is used, all of the control equipment is inside the
missile. This means that before the missile is launched, all information relative to
target loca-tion as well as the trajectory the missile must follow must be calculated.
After this is done, the missile guidance system must be set to follow the course to
the target, to hold the missile at the desired altitude, to measure its air speed and, at
the cor-rect time, cause the missile to start the terminal phase of its flight and dive
on the target.

A major advantage of preset guidance is that it is rela-tively simple compared to

other types of guidance; it does not require tracking or visibility.

An early example of a preset guidance system was the German V-2, where range
and bearing of the target were predetermined and set into the control mechanism.
The earliest Polaris missile was also designed to use preset guidance during the
first part of its flight, but this was soon modified to permit greater launch flex-
ibility.

The preset method of guidance is useful only against sta-tionary targets of large
size, such as land masses or cities. Since the guidance information is completely
determined prior to launch, this method would, of course, not be suitable for use
against ships, aircraft, enemy missiles, or moving land targets.

16.5.2 Navigational Guidance Systems. When targets are located at great

distances from the launching site, some form of naviga-tional guidance must be
used. Accuracy at long distances is achieved only after exacting and
comprehensive calculations of the flight path have been made. The mathematical
equation for a navigation problem of this type may contain factors designed to
control the movement of the missile about the three axes--pitch, roll, and yaw. In
addition, the equation may contain factors that take into account acceleration due
to outside forces (tail winds, for example) and the inertia of the missile itself. Three
navigational systems that may be used for long-range missile guidance are inertial,
celestial, and terrestrial.

16.5.2.1 Inertial guidance. The simplest principle for guidance is the law of inertia.
In aiming a basketball at a basket, an attempt is made to give the ball a trajectory
that will terminate in the basket. However, once the ball is released, the shooter has
no further control over it. If he has aimed incorrectly, or if the ball is touched by
another person, it will miss the bas-ket. However, it is possible for the ball to be
incorrectly aimed and then have another person touch it to change its course so it
will hit the basket. In this case, the second player has provided a form of guidance.
The inertial guidance system sup-plies the intermediate push to get the missile
back on the proper trajectory.

The inertial guidance method is used for the same purpose as the preset method
and is actually a refinement of that method. The inertially guided missile also
receives programmed informa-tion prior to launch. Although there is no
electromagnetic con-tact between the launching site and the missile after launch,
the missile is able to make corrections to its flight path with amaz-ing precision,
controlling the flight path with accelerometers that are mounted on a gyro-
stabilized platform. All in-flight accelerations are continuously measured by this
arrangement, and the missile attitude control generates corresponding correction
signals to maintain the proper trajectory. The use of inertial guidance takes much
of the guesswork out of long-range missile delivery. The unpredictable outside
forces working on the mis-sile are continuously sensed by the accelerometers. The
genera-ted solution enables the missile to continuously correct its flight path. The
inertial method has proved far more reliable than any other long-range guidance
method developed to date.

16.5.2.2 Celestial Reference. A celestial navigation guidance system is a system

designed for a predetermined path in which the missile course is adjusted
continuously by reference to fixed stars. The system is based on the known
apparent positions of stars or other celestial bodies with respect to a point on the
surface of the earth at a given time. Navigation by fixed stars and the sun is highly
desirable for long-range missiles since its accuracy is not dependent on range.
Figure 16-12 sketches the application of the system as it might be used for a guided
mis- sile.

The missile must be provided with a horizontal or a vertical reference to the earth,
automatic star-tracking telescopes to de-termine star elevation angles with respect
to the reference, a time base, and navigational star tables mechanically or electric-
ally recorded. A computer in the missile continuously compares star observations
with the time base and the navigational tables to determine the missile's present
position. From this, the proper signals are computed to steer the missile correctly
toward the target. The missile must carry all this complicated equip-ment and must
fly above the clouds to assure star visibility.

Celestial guidance (also called stellar guidance) was used for the Mariner
(unmanned spacecraft) interplanetary mission to the vicinity of Mars and Venus.
ICBM and SLBM systems at present use celestial guidance.

16.5.3 Terrestrial Guidance Methods.

Prior to micro-miniaturization of computer circuits, the various methods of

terrestrial guidance proposed had significant limita-tions. These proposed early
systems included an inertial refer-ence system, a television camera to provide an
image of the earth's surface, and a film strip of the intended flight path. The
guidance system would compare the television picture with the projected film strip
image and determine position by matching the various shadings in the two images.
This method proved too slow in providing position data, even for a sub-sonic
missile. Its other distinct disadvantage was that it required extensive low-level
aerial photography of each potential missile flight path. The danger to flight crews
and loss of the element of sur-prise involved in extensive pre-strike photo
reconnaissance made such a system impractical.

With the availability of compact mass memory and vastly in-creased

computational capability compatible with missile space and weight limitations,
terrestrial guidance methods became prac-tical. The advent of small radar
altimeters of high precision (Chapter 2) provided an alternative to photographic
methods with the added advantage that weather and lighting conditions were
relatively inconsequential. The radar altimeter provides a coarse means of
detecting surface features by their height, which can then be compared with stored
data concerning expected land contours along the missile flight path. The missile
guidance system contains expected land-elevation values to the left and right of the
missile's intended ground track. The guidance sys-tem will determine that the
missile is located at a position where the stored data most closely matches the
observed altitudes as pictured in figure 16-13. Once the direction of turn and the
distance required to correct the error have been determined, the missile will turn to
resume the intended track. This method is called Terrain Contour Matching or
TERCOM. Even the most capable TERCOM system has insufficient memory to
perform contour matching throughout a flight path of several hundred miles.
Therefore, the missile will be provided with a series of small areas known as
TERCOM maps along the route to the target. The number of TER-COM maps and
their separation is determined by the quality of in-formation available on the area
and the accuracy of the missile's inertial navigation system. Sufficient data is
available from various sources to support TERCOM such that aerial
reconnaissance of most target areas is not required prior to the engagement.
TERCOM has sufficient accuracy to find, for example, a large military base within
a region; however, it could not provide the accuracy to hit a specific section of that
base, such as a group of hangars at an airfield. For this reason, a missile using
some variation of TERCOM only would require a nuclear warhead.

Delivery of a conventional high-explosive warhead requires precision that can only

be provided by some form of optical device in the terminal stage of flight. A cruise
missile flies at altitudes and ranges that would prevent transmission of images back
to the launch point. Advances in digitized imagery permit computer storage of
grey-shaded scenes in the vicinity of the target. The digitized scene can be
compared to data from a tele-vision camera in the missile and values of grey
shading matched to determine actual position relative to desired position. The
missile can correct its flight path to that desired and even fi-nally pick out its
target. This method, called Digital Scene Matching Area Correlator or DSMAC, is
sufficiently accurate to permit the use of a conventional high-explosive warhead.
The DSMAC technique would be used only for the last few miles to the target,
with the TERCOM method being used for the majority of the flight path. Both of
the above methods are limited by the accur-acy of information used to create the
digital TERCOM maps and DSMAC scenes that are loaded in the missile's
memory. Building and formatting these data files for cruise missiles requires
considerable support facilities and talented personnel.

16.6 GUIDED FLIGHT PATHS

A guided missile is usually under the combined influence of natural and man-made
forces during its entire flight. Its path may assume almost any form. Man-made
forces include thrust and directional control as shown in figure 16-14. The vector
sum of all the forces, natural and man-made, acting on a missile at any instant, may
be called the total force vector. It is this vector, considered as a function of time in
magnitude and direction, that provides velocity vector control. Paths along which a
guided missile may travel may be broadly classified as either preset or variable.
The plan of a preset path cannot be changed in mid-flight; the plan of a variable
path is altered according to conditions occurring during flight.

16.6.1 Preset Flight Paths.

Preset flight paths are of two types: constant and programmed.

16.6.1.1 Constant. A preset guided missile path has a plan that has been fixed
beforehand. This plan may include several different phases, but once the missile is
launched, the plan cannot be changed. The phases must follow one another as
originally planned. The simplest type of preset guided missile path is the constant
preset. Here, the missile flight has only one phase.
The term constant preset may be broadened to include flights that are constant after
a brief launching phase that is different in character from the rest of the flight.
During the main phase of a constant preset guided-missile flight, the missile
receives no control except that which has already been built into it. How-ever, it
receives this control throughout the guided phase of flight. Often it is powered all
the way. The nature of a con-stant preset guided-missile flight path depends on
how it is pow-ered, and the medium through which it travels.

A torpedo fired from a submarine to intercept a surface tar-get, figure 16-15, may
describe a straight line--a constant pre- set guided path.

16.6.1.2 Programmed. A missile could be guided in a preset path against a fixed

target; the joint effect of missile power and gravity would then cause the path to
become a curve. A missile following a preset path may be guided in various ways--
for in-stance, by an autopilot or by inertial navigation. The means of

propulsion may be motor, jet, or rocket. A more complex type of preset path is the
programmed preset. Here, the weapon flight has several phases: for example: a
torpedo, as illustrated in

figure 16-16, executing a search pattern. During the first phase, the torpedo, having
been launched in some initial direc-tion other than the desired ultimate direction,
gradually finds the desired direction by control mechanisms such as gyros and
depth settings. The torpedo then maintains this direction for the remainder of this
first phase, at the end of which it is presumed to be in the neighborhood of a target.
During the sec-ond phase, the torpedo executes a search pattern, possibly a circular
or helical path.

16.6.2 Variable Flight Paths.

The guided flight paths of greatest interest are those that can vary during flight. In
general, the heading of the weapon is a function of target position and velocity.
These parameters are measured by continuous tracking, and the resultant missile
flight path is determined, assuming that the target motion will remain unchanged
until new data is received. There are four basic types of variable flight paths in
common use: pursuit, constant-bear-ing, proportional navigation, and line of sight.

16.6.2.1 Pursuit. The simplest procedure for a guided missile to follow is to remain
pointed at the target at all times. The mis-sile is constantly heading along the line
of sight from the mis-sile to the target, and its track describes a pursuit path with
the rate of turn of the missile always equal to the rate of turn of the line of sight.
Pure pursuit paths are highly curved near the end of flight, and often the missile
may lack sufficient
maneuverability to maintain a pure pursuit path in the terminal phase of guidance.
When this is the case, the missile can be designed to continue turning at its
maximum rate until a point is reached where a pursuit course can be resumed. The
most common application of the pursuit course is against slow-moving targets, or
for missiles launched from a point to the rear of the target.

Pursuit: Lead or deviated pursuit course is defined as a course in which the angle
between the velocity vector and line of sight from the missile to the target is fixed.
For purposes of illustration, lead angle is assumed to be zero, and only pure pursuit
is described. (M = ). (See figure 16-17).

16.6.2.2 Constant Bearing. At the opposite extreme to a pursuit path is a constant-

bearing or collision path. The missile is aimed at a point ahead of the target, where
both the missile and target will arrive at the same instant. The line of sight to this
point does not rotate relative to the missile. The missile path is as linear as the
effect of gravity and aerodynamic forces allow. If the target makes an evasive turn
or if the target's velocity changes, a new collision course must be computed and the
missile flight path altered accordingly. The outstanding feature

of this course is that for a maneuvering constant-speed target, the missile lateral
acceleration never exceeds the target's lateral acceleration. The major drawback
lies in the fact that the control system requires sufficient data-gathering and
processing equipment to predict future target position.

Constant Bearing: A course in which the line of sight from the missile to the target
maintains a constant direction in space. If both missile and target speeds are
constant, a collision course results. (See figure 16-18.)

d==0

dt

16.6.2.3 Proportional Navigation. The more advanced homing mis-siles will

employ some form of proportional navigation. The mis-sile guidance receiver
measures the rate of change of the line of sight (LOS) (bearing drift, if you will)
and passes that informa-tion to the guidance computer, which in turn generates
steering commands for the autopilot. The missile rate of turn is some fixed or
variable multiple of the rate of change of the LOS. This multiple, called the
navigation ratio, can be varied during mis-sile flight to optimize performance. A
missile employing this method is said to use proportional navigation ratio may be
less than 1:1 early in the flight to conserve velocity and increase range. As the
flight proceeds, the navigation ratio will in-crease to 2:1, 4:1, or even more to
ensure that the missile will be agile enough to counter target maneuvers in the
terminal phase of flight.
Proportional: A course in which the rate of change of the missile heading is
directly proportional to the rate of rotation of the line of sight from missile to
target. (See figure 16-19.)

dM = Kd or M = K

dt dt

16.6.2.4 Line of Sight. Here, the missile is guided so that it travels along the line of
sight from the launching station to the target. This is, of course, the flight path
flown by a beam-riding missile. An alternative form of a beam-riding path is the
constant lead angle path. Here the beam that the missile follows is kept ahead of
the line of sight by a constant offset. The major advantages of the line of sight path
are its flexibility and the minimal complexity of the equipment that must be carried
in the missile, since the major burden of guidance is assumed at the launching
station.

Line of Sight: Defined as a course in which the missile is guided so as to remain on

the line joining the target and point of control. This method is usually called "beam
riding."(See figure 16-20.)

Table 16-1. Guidance Law Comparison

Law Advantage Disadvantage

Pursuit Simple Poor Against

Mechanization Maneuvering Targets

Launch Geometry

Restrictions

Fixed Lead Angle Simple Poor Against Maneuvering

Mechanization Targets

Line-of-Sight Less Geometry Lead Angle Correct for

Restricted Than Fixed Geometry Only

Pursuit

Constant Bearing Requires Minimum Requires Infinite Gain and Collision

Maneuver Capability No-Time Lags--Most
Complex in Data

Gathering and

Processing

Proportional Good Against More Complex

Navigation Maneuvering Mechanization

All-Aspect Targets

Capability

Optimal Homing Solves Specific More Complex

Problems Such As Mechanization

Long Range

May Improve

Proportional

Navigation

Shortcomings

Missile System Nears Production." International Defense

Review, Vol. 15 (1982): 132-36.

Table 16-3. Current Guidance System Examples

Weapon Guidance

Air-to-Air

Phoenix Semiactive/Active Command

Sparrow Semiactive

Sidewinder Passive (IR)

Air-To-Surface

Harpoon Active Radar

Maverick T.V. (passive)

Walleye T.V. (passive)

Shrike Passive (RF)

Sram Inertial

Standard Arm Passive (RF)

Antisubmarine

Subroc Inertial

Asroc Ballistic

Surface-to-Air

Sea Sparrow Semiactive

Hawk Semiactive

RAM Passive IR/RF (Interferometer)

Patriot Command, Semiactive (retransmission)

Standard MR (SM-1) Semiactive

Standard ER (SM-1) Semiactive

Standard SM-2 MR (Aegis) Command; Semiactive

Standard SM-2 ER Command; Semiactive

Surface-to-Surface

Poseidon Inertial

Tomahawk (Land Attack) Terrestrial (terrain following)

Trident Inertial

Standard Semiactive

Harpoon Active-Radar

Tomahawk (Antiship) Inertial/Active Radar

Battlefield Support

Lance Inertial

Tow Wire-Guided (command), Optically Tracked

Dragon Wire-Guided

Stinger Passive (IR); Proportional Navigation

16.7 SUMMARY

The three phases of guidance are boost, midcourse, and terminal. The distinction
between phases is primarily based upon a break-down of the flight path rather than
in any change-over points in guidance methods. The terminal phase is, however,
the most critical and demands peak performance form the guidance system.

Guidance systems are divided into two broad categories; those that use man-made
electromagnetic devices and those that use some other means. The various
subcategories of guidance systems are shown in table 16-2. Guided missile paths
may be classified as either preset or variable. Preset guided paths have planned
flight routines that cannot be changed in mid flight on the basis of updated data. A
preset plan may be for a one-phase flight (constant preset) or a flight of several
phases (programmed preset). Variable guided flight paths have plans that can be
changed in mid flight; thus they make possible the successful intercept of a target
that makes evasive maneuvers. Prediction of target position is con-tinuously
reappraised and the missile course is recomputed in the light of new target data.
Variable guided flight paths include pursuit, constant bearing, proportional
navigation, and line of sight.

The interception by a missile of a moving target depends on the prediction of

future target position, and requires certain assumptions. When using bullets,
ballistic missiles, or preset guided missiles, it is assumed that the target motion
measured while tracking will remain unchanged during missile flight. When using
variable guided missiles, it is assumed that the target mo-tion, measured at any
instant by almost continuous tracking, will remain unchanged over a short time
interval.

Liquid-propellant systems carry the propellant in tanks external to the combustion

chamber. Most of these engines use a liquid oxidizer and a liquid fuel, which are transferred
from their respective tanks by pump

Gelled propellants are produced from liquid fuels and gelling agents. Once in a tank, i.e.
in idle state, they change from solid into liquid state when shear stress is applied. This
 particular feature provides a combination of major advantages to gelled propellants for use in
liquid and solid propellants.

COMMONLY USED INJECTION ELEMENTS IN ROCKET

ENGINES

1.3 LIKE IMPINGING

Like impinging (or self-impinging elements) impinge the injected streams

directly on other streams of the same propellant. The most common of these,
a doublet type, has two like-fluid streams angles together to an impact point,
producing a fan shaped spray of droplets similar to that of an unlike doublet.
These fans can also travels in a direction determined by the resultant of the
momentum vectors of the incoming streams before the impingement.
However there is no mixing within this fan, since only one reactant is present
in each. Energy dissipated by the impingement atomizes the liquids.
Orientation of the initial fans for the secondary impingement and overlapping
of these sprays mixes the two propellants. Again this efficient mixing is related
to the arrangement of fuel doublet adjacent to the oxidizer doublet.

1. Studies have shown that mass and mixture ratio distributions are the functions
of element size, spacing between fuel and oxidizer fans, fan inclination or cant
angle.
 2. Spray drop size is the function of orifice size, injection velocity, impingement
angle and impingement distance.
3. These injector elements were used in large Lox/RP1 injectors for F1 rocket
engine used in Saturn v rocket, Atlas 1 st stage booster and sustainer and first
stage of Titan 1 engines.

Table 1.
Advantages Disadvantages Rockets Using these
elements
Easy to manifold Requires increased axial Gemini LV first stage,
distance to mix fuel and
oxidizer
Well understood Sensitive to design Titan 1 and 2- first
tolerances stages
Proven dependability Redstone, Jupiter,
Thor.
Good mixing Atlas boosters
Very stable element H1, F1 engines
Not subjected to blow Uppers Stage VEGA
apart

1.4 UNLIKE IMPINGING

Unlike impingement doublet is the commonly used element for storable

propellant engines. Consist of single fuel and oxidizer streams separated at an
angle impinging at a prescribed distance. Commonly used angle is 60° and 45°.
They accomplish atomization and mixing by direct impingement of fuel and
oxidizer jets. This impingement provides direct mechanical mixing by
dissipative exchange of momentum. Virtually all mixing and atomization
happens near the vicinity of the impingement point. Since all mixing happens
 near the impingement point, ignition and chemical reactions occur near the
injector face and there by results in a high heat flux near injector face.
Table 2.
Advantages Disadvantages Rockets using these
elements
Proven dependability Subject to blow apart Used in reaction control
with hypergolic engines of Apollo LEM
propellants ascent engines
Good overall mixing Wall compatibility
problems due to
Simple to manifold Sensitive’s to design
tolerances
Extensively studied Performance sensitive
to continuous throttling

1.5 TRIPLET

Different injector elements

The mismatch in stream size and momentum between the oxidizer and fuel in
unlike elements will force the spray away from the desired axial direction and
distort the fan, resulting in poor mixing. This problem may be avoided unlike
triplet elements. They consists of two outer jets impinging on a centrally
located axial jet. A typical spray pattern will be narrower than an equivalent
doublet, and the mass more concentrated as a result. Unlike –triplet injectors
 have demonstrated high levels of mixing and resultant combustion efficiency,
but also tend to be sensitive to stability problems.

1.6 NON IMPINGING

In these types of injector elements mixing and atomization are controlled by

shearing of liquid by gas. The most common type is the coaxial configuration,
characterizes the SSME injector and other oxygen/hydrogen engines. The
coaxial, or concentric, injection element usually has a slow moving central
stream of liquid oxidizer surrounded by a high velocity concentric sheet of
gaseous fuel. It has a well-earned reputation as high-performance, stable
injection element for gaseous fuel and liquid oxidizer. The liquid oxidizer is
deliberately injected at lower velocities, with the usual injection pressure drop
accomplished by an upstream metering orifice in each element, and diffused to
a reduced velocity in the tubular LOX post. On the other hand, the fuel
injection pressure is turned into high injection velocity in the annular gap
around the LOX post.

Mixing, atomization of the liquid, and mass distributions are provided by the
shearing action of the high velocity gaseous fuel on the surface of the liquid.
The coaxial element is less well suited to liquid fuels, or even very dense
gaseous fuels, since the velocity relationships required to make it work well are
difficulty to obtain.
One of the other notable element is shower head type. It is one of the first
injector used on a production rocket. It was used in German V2 rocket and X-
15 engine.

The propellant feed system has two principal functions: to raise the pressure of the
propellants and to feed them to one or more thrust chambers. The energy for these
functions comes either from a high-pressure gas, centrifugal pumps, or a combination of
the two.

What materials are used in rocket nozzle?

The materials used included refractory metals, refractory- me tal carbides, gr
aphites , c eramic s , cermets, and fiber - r einforced plastics. Three propellants
with widely differing flame temperatures and oxidation characteristics were used.
The flame temperatures were 4700°, 5600°, and 6400' F.

What materials are used for combustion chambers?

The raw materials used are Hastelloy X and Inconel 718, which are the same as
those used for manufacturing the structural components of combustion chambers.

Why are superalloys used in rocket engines?

Superalloys are known for their ability to tolerate high-temperature
environments such as jet and rocket engines. They are made primarily of nickel
with the addition of alloying elements such as molybdenum, chromium, and iron to
provide strength and durability at high temperatures

Generally, Casings are made of metallic alloys. For applications in smaller rockets, titanium
alloys and aluminium alloys are used and for bigger rockets nickel alloy steels are use

What are the classification of composite materials?

Composites are usually classified by the type of material used for the matrix. The
four pri- mary categories of composites are polymer matrix composites (PMCs),
metal matrix compos- ites (MMCs), ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), and
carbon matrix composites (CAMCs).
Which of the following composite material is used for high temperature resistance?
Saphikon (alumina) is another monofilament fiber, which is one of the most
expensive of the ceramic fibers but has the highest creep resistance strength, elastic
modulus and excellent high temperature performance

Why do rocket engines fail?

“Loss of liquid engine thrust” is the most common cause of mission failures for
space launches over the last 35 years. Included in the liquid engine loss of thrust
failure mode are those cases where the engine simply ran out of propellant early.

1. TYPES OF TESTS Before rocket propulsion systems are put into operational use, they are
subjected to several different types of tests, some of which are outlined below in the
sequence in which they are normally performed. 1. Manufacturing inspection and
fabrication tests on individual parts (dimensional inspection, pressure tests, x-rays, leak
checks, electric continuity, electromechanical checks, etc.). 2. Component tests (functional
and operational tests on igniters, valves, thrusters, controls, injectors, structures, etc.). 3.
 Static rocket system tests (with complete propulsion system on test stand): (a) partial or
simulated rocket operation (for proper function, calibration, ignition, operation--often
without establishing full thrust or operating for the full duration); (b) complete propulsion
system tests (under rated conditions, off-design conditions, with intentional variations in
environment or calibration). For a reusable or restartable rocket propulsion system this can
include many starts, long-duration endurance tests, and postoperational inspections and
reconditioning. 4. Static vehicle tests (when rocket propulsion system is installed in a
restrained, nonflying vehicle or stage). 5. Flight tests: (a) with a specially instrumented
propulsion system in a developmental flight test vehicle; (b) with a production vehicle.

Typical personnel and plant security or safety provisions in a modern test facility include the
following: 1. Concrete-walled blockhouse or control stations for the protection of personnel and
instruments (see Fig. 20-3) remote from the actual rocket propulsion location

. Remote control, indication, and recording of all hazardous operations and measurements; isolation
of propellants from the instrumentation and control room. 3. Automatic or manual water deluge and
fire-extinguishing systems. 4. Closed circuit television systems for remotely viewing the test. 5.
Warning signals (siren, bells, horns, lights, speakers) to notify personnel to clear the test area prior
to a test, and an all-clear signal when the conditions are no longer hazardous. 6. Quantity and
distance restrictions on liquid propellant tankage and solid propellant storage to minimize damage in
the event of explosions; separation of liquid fuels and oxidizers. 7. Barricades around hazardous test
articles to reduce shrapnel damage in the event of a blast. 8. Explosion-proof electrical systems,
spark-proof shoes, and nonspark hand tools to prvent ignition of flammable materials. 9. For certain
propellants also safety clothing (see Fig. 20-4), including propellant- and fire-resistant suits, face
masks and shields, gloves, special shoes, and hard hats.

10. Rigid enforcement of rules governing area access, smoking, safety inspections, and so forth. 11.
Limitations on the number of personnel that may be in a hazardous area at any time.

Cryogenics is used in a variety of applications. It can be used to produce cryogenic fields

for rockets, in MRI machines that use liquid helium and require cryogenic cooling, storing
large quantities of food, special effects fog, recycling, freezing blood and tissue samples,
and even cooling superconductors.

The austenitic stainless steels such as 304 and 316 retain these engineering properties at
cryogenic temperatures and can be classified as ‘cryogenic steels.’ They are commonly
used in arctic locations and in the handling and storage of liquid gases such as liquid
nitrogen and liquid helium. Liquid helium is the coldest material known with a boiling point of
-452°F (-269 °C).

Definition of 'gas liquefaction'

Gas liquefaction is the process of refrigerating a gas to a temperature that is
below its critical temperature in order to form a liquid. Gas liquefaction, i.e. their
conversion into the liquid state, is achieved by cooling them below the boiling point at
a given pressure
Adiabatic demagnetization comes under magnetic cooling, exploiting paramagnetic
properties to cool some materials down. It is based on the fact that the entropy of
paramagnetic materials is lower in the magnetic field. The magnetic regions aligned in the
paramagnetic field originate lower entropy.

A cryopump is an accumulating type vacuum pump. The pump condenses and adsorbs
gases on a cryogenic surface installed in the pump to create a condition from high vacuum
to ultra-high vacuum.

in 1877, French physicist Louis-Paul Cailletet (1832–1913)

and Swiss physicist Raoul-Pierre Pictet (1846–1929)
succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air, and in
1883 the first measurable quantity of liquid oxygen was
produced by Polish chemist and physicist Zygmunt Florenty
Wroblewski (1845–1888) at the University of Krakow. Oxygen
was found to liquefy at 90K (–297°F[–183°C]), and nitrogen at
77K (–320°F[–196°C]).

Cryogenic detectors have driven the utilisation of cryogenics in space, determining the
requirements in terms of operating temperature, temperature stability and
architecture of the payload system. This trend is now well- established across the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Which is known as Meissner effect?

Meissner observed that a material which is in a process in forming a
superconductor expels magnetic field. The material loses its resistance to electric
current. This happens when material is cooled below a transition temperature close
to absolute zero.

The effect occurring when two containers of superfluid helium are connected by a capillary tube and o
ne of them is heated, so that helium flows through the tube in the direction of higher temperature.

More formally, it is the temperature at which two crystalline forms of a substance can
co-exist in equilibrium. For example, when rhombic sulfur is heated above 95.6 °C, it
changes form into monoclinic sulfur; when cooled below 95.6 °C, it reverts to rhombic sulfur.
At 95.6 °C the two forms can co-exist.

Figure 1 is the phase diagram of 4He.[17] It is a pressure-temperature (p-T) diagram indicating the
solid and liquid regions separated by the melting curve (between the liquid and solid state) and
the liquid and gas region, separated by the vapor-pressure line. This latter ends in the critical
point where the difference between gas and liquid disappears. The diagram shows the
remarkable property that 4He is liquid even at absolute zero. 4He is only solid at pressures above
25 bar.
Figure 1 also shows the λ-line. This is the line that separates two fluid regions in the phase
diagram indicated by He-I and He-II. In the He-I region the helium behaves like a normal fluid; in
the He-II region the helium is superfluid.

as hydrogen and helium are smallest of all elements. they are non polar in nature,so it is
not easy to operate attractive forces between them. So they can't be liquified by linde's
method.

Definition of Debye temperature

: the temperature at which the atomic heat of a pure cubic crystal equals 5.67
calories per gram atom per degree. — called also characteristic temperature.
Cryogenics is the study of material sciences at extremely low temperatures. Cryogenic
temperatures are generally regarded to be below -180° Celsius. Cryogenics has many use
cases in manufacturing and is often used in stress tests to evaluate the design of materials
and products used in winter environments.

A type I superconductor keeps out the whole magnetic field until a critical app- lied
field Hc reached. Above that field a type I superconductor is no longer in its
superconductiong state. A type II superconductor will only keep the whole magnetic field out
until a first critical field Hc1 is reached.

powerful superconducting electromagnets used in maglev trains, magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) machines, magnetic confinement
fusion reactors (e.g. tokamaks), and the beam-steering and focusing magnets used in
particle accelerators. low-loss power cables.

Ortho hydrogen molecules are those in which the spins of both the nuclei are in the same
direction. Molecules of hydrogen in which the spins of both the nuclei are in the opposite
direction are called para hydrogen.

A refrigerator designed to reach cryogenic temperatures (below 120 K, −153 °C) is often called
a cryocooler.

 Cryocoolers are small refrigerators that can reach cryogenic

temperatures and provide refrigeration in the temperature range 10 K
to 120 K.
Cryocooler may be classified as follows :

1. Heat exchangers and regenerators

2. Regenerative
3. Recuperative
4. Stirling refrigerators
5. Gifford – McMahon refrigerators
6. Pulse Tube refrigerators
7. Joule – Thomson refrigerators

The Stirling cycle is a closed cycle, which means that the cryogenerator working gas
(which is Helium gas) never comes into contact with the substance (gas or liquid)
being cooled.
Ideal cycles are simplified thermodynamic closed cycles to analyze the compression,
combustion, and expansion process in an engine with a focus on extraction of work
from combustion of the fuel–air mixture.
Bv bv