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Diversity of Millipedes (Diplopoda) in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park\

I. Evolutionary Dynamics in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

A. Millipede Diversity in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

a. Species composition

A detailed tapestry of biological diversity may be seen in the diversity of

species of millipedes, a diversified group of arthropods that belong to the class
Diplopoda. Known for their lengthy, elongated bodies with several segments that
each contain two pairs of legs, millipedes can be found in a wide range of
settings across the planet, from moist rainforests to dry deserts. There is an
astounding diversity of species in this taxonomic category, each perfectly suited
to its ecological niche and adding to the complex balance of terrestrial
ecosystems. Because of their unique evolutionary background and ecological
relationships, millipedes display a remarkable range of morphological,
behavioral, and physiological adaptations. They have a diverse range of sizes,
colors, and ecological responsibilities among their more than 12,000 known
species, and there are probably many more out there that have not yet been
discovered.

According to Masse, P. S. M. et al. (2017), the researchers have

determined the diversity and distribution of millipede species in two habitats
types in the CMNP in southern Cameroon. The number of species per local
fauna, or faunule, is high and rather typical of a tropical rainforest (23 and 22 in
primary and SF, respectively). There are only few places on the globe where a
local diplopod faunule exceeds two dozen species, the world records holder
being a patch of rainforest in central Amazonia or a monsoon forest in southern
Vietnam, where 33 and 36 millipede species have been revealed, respectively
(Golovatch, 1997; Golovatch & Kime, 2009; Golovatch, Tiunov & Anichkin, 2011).
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b. Abundance and distribution

Millipedes are intriguing arthropods that are widely distributed over a

variety of habitats worldwide. They are classified as members of the class
Diplopoda. Millipedes contribute considerably to ecosystem dynamics and
nutrient cycling, with over 12,000 species identified. They occupy a variety of
ecological niches and show an astounding array of adaptations. Gaining insight
into their distribution and abundance requires figuring out how biological
elements like reproduction, dispersal methods, and interspecific competition
interact with environmental elements like soil composition, vegetation, and
climate. A number of variables, including habitat type, moisture content, and the
availability of organic matter, might affect the geographical and temporal
variability of millipede abundances. Millipedes flourish in large numbers in
forested ecosystems, especially in damp and decomposing settings, where they
are essential to the breakdown of trash and recycling of nutrients.

According to Bogyo, D. et al. (2015), the results of the study revealed that
millipede assemblages altered in a short distance along the grassland-forest
edge-forest habitat complex. Our study showed a positive edge effect on
millipede abundance and assemblage composition in the studied natural
habitats. We found significant edge-associated millipede species by IndVal
method. On the other hand, there was no edge effect on millipede species
richness and diversity. Our results support the former findings that some
millipede species may be specialized to natural forest edge habitats. Forest
edges may have key habitats in the conservation of millipedes during the next
decades

c. Endemism

Endemism is a phenomenon that is present in all kinds of life on Earth,

from massive trees to microscopic creatures that live in the furthest reaches of
space. The millipede stands out among these various species as an intriguing
example, capturing the spirit of endemism with its own evolutionary path and
specialized adaptations. Fundamentally, endemism is the confinement of a
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species to a certain geographic location, frequently separated from neighboring
regions by natural or man-made barriers. The millipede's tale emerges within this
paradigm as evidence of the complex interactions between biological evolution
and environmental circumstances. Because they can only be found in particular
geographic locations, endemism millipedes are living examples of extinct
ecosystems and evolutionary processes.

According to Ambarish, C. N. et al. (2022 May), Pill-millipedes’ sensitivity

to ecological fluctuations at narrow spatial scales qualifies them to employ as
reliable indicators of superior soil quality or superior habitat for their
restoration. Preservation of native tree classes in the surroundings of the
plantations produces mixed leaf litter suitable feedstock for pill-millipedes.
Even though ex situ annual active periods of pill-millipedes are narrower
than the rest of the soil fauna, they process a large quantity of organic matter and
generate a huge amount of fecal pellets leading to improvement of soil
fertility. There are many knowledge gaps on the pill-millipedes of paleotropics.
Assessment of the diversity and ecological functions of pill-millipedes especially
in Australian and Oriental Zoogeographic regions have been neglected.
Understanding the precise conditions required for their activity and survival will
be valuable for conservation as well as to consider them as indicator species

II. Millipede Habitat Dynamics

A. Habitat Associations of Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

a. Forest type

Researchers from all around the world are typically fascinated and curious
about the great biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems, especially in tropical
rainforests. Millipedes stand out among the many other kinds of species that
contribute to the complex web of life in these ecosystems because they are
vital decomposers that are vital to the cycling of nutrients and the overall
health of the ecosystem. Gaining an understanding of their habitat linkages is
essential to understanding the dynamics of forest ecosystems. Located in the
Philippines' Bukidnon province, Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park is a
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biodiversity hotspot recognized for its wide variety of plants and animals. This
protected area offers a perfect environment for studying the habitat
relationships of millipedes, as it includes a variety of forest types, from mossy
woods to lower montane rainforests.

According to Amoroso, V. B. et al. (2011), The habitat of the plants,

whether epiphytic, terrestrial or petrophytic / lithophytic, was noted. The
distribution of threatened, endemic and economically important species of
plants was mapped based on elevation and vegetation types. Recording of
altitudinal distribution of the threatened, endemic, and economically important
species in these vegetation types will be an important basis in allocating
priority to their protection and conservation.

b. Litter composition

Tropical rainforests, like the Philippines' Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park,
are home to an amazing variety of flora and animals, including the often-
overlooked but critically important millipedes. A vital component of soil
aeration, decomposition, and nutrient cycling, millipedes support the general
well-being and efficiency of forest ecosystems. The nature of litter, which
includes twigs, leaves, and other organic material, has a significant impact on
the microhabitat conditions that are essential to millipede survival. The
distribution and abundance patterns of millipede species are shaped by
variables like the pH, moisture content, and nutrient availability in the litter
layer. Moreover, the complex interrelationships that exist between millipedes
and their surroundings highlight the necessity for thorough research that
clarifies the associations between these organisms and their habitats.

According to Merciris, G. L. (2008), Millipede densities found in the semi-

evergreen forest ofGuadeloupe were particularly high, reaching 83
individualsper square metre. In comparison to our study, lower densitieshave
been reported from other tropical forests: two millipedesper square metre in a
tropical humid forest of Ivory Coast Aouti 1978), 77 millipedes per square
metre in a tropicalhumid forest of Mexico (Lavelle and Kohlmann 1984),
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and27 millipedes per square metre in a secondary forest ofYurimagas,
Peruvian Amazonia (Lavelle and Pashanasi1989).

c. Soil moisture

With its many ecosystems supporting a wide variety of species, Mt.

Kitanglad Range Natural Park, which is tucked away amid the Philippines'
beautiful landscapes, is a champion of biodiversity. There are interesting
animals living there called millipedes, which are essential to soil health and
nutrient recycling. Recognizing these millipedes' preferred habitats, especially
with regard to soil moisture content. Typically found living in leaf litter and dirt,
millipedes are members of the Diplopoda class and actively aid in the
decomposition process. What makes them so important as ecological
indicators is their sensitivity to environmental factors, especially soil moisture.
The complex interactions between these species and their surroundings can
be better understood by examining the habitat associations they have with
soil moisture in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park.

According to Mawcha, K. et al. (2023), a range of factors can influence

millipede distribution and damage, including climate, plant communities,
natural enemies, human activities, and genetic diversity. Understanding the
complex interactions between these factors is important for developing
effective pest management strategies that balance the needs of agriculture
with the preservation of ecosystem health and biodiversity. A study found that
predators such as centipedes and spiders were important natural enemies of
millipedes, and that the effectiveness of biological control methods was
influenced by the presence of co-evolved bacterial and fungal communities

III. Ecological Significance of Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

A. Ecological Importance of Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

a. Decomposition

By utilizing a multidisciplinary approach that includes behavioral

observations, soil research, and ecological fieldwork, the researchers aim to
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provide insight into the complex dynamics of millipede-mediated
decomposition. We can better appreciate their function as unsung heroes in
maintaining the ecological integrity of the park if we are aware of the
mechanisms that underlie their ecological value. Moreover, the results of this
study have significance outside of Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park,
demonstrating the millipede's global significance in terrestrial ecosystems.
Recognizing and utilizing the contributions of these modest yet essential
creatures become crucial as international efforts to protect and restore natural
environments increase.

According to the Department of Natural Resources (DENR), bout 1,100

hectares of Mt. Kitanglad Kitanglad’s forest have been degrading annually
based on 2003 to 2010 data. The degradation is particularly evident in the
headwaters of Mt. Kitanglad watersheds that drain into the Cagayan de Oro
River basin, which drains into the Macajalar Bay in Cagayan de Oro City in
Misamis Oriental. The intrusion of migrants and timber poachers are some of
the biggest or more serious threats that are being observed within the
MKRNP. As such, MKRNP Protected Area Superintendent (PASu) Daniel F.
Somera said education campaigns in the community and monitoring are
being conducted to eradicate illegal activities.

b. Nutrient cycling

An important ecological mechanism that keeps ecosystems in balance

and productive is nutrient cycling. Different creatures within this complex web
of interactions are essential to the recycling of nutrients, which guarantees
their availability for plant development and maintains the ecosystem's general
health. Renowned for its distinct biological features and abundant biodiversity,
the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park is situated in the Philippines. Millipedes
are abundant in this protected area's different ecosystems and play a major
role in the nitrogen cycling processes. An essential stage in the recycling of
nutrients is the breakdown of organic debris, which is facilitated by these
multi-legged arthropods. Millipedes help break down complex chemicals into
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simpler forms by feeding on decomposing plant material and organic detritus.
This process releases vital nutrients back into the soil.

According to Toth, Zsolt. et al. (2019), Urbanization, as a major cause of

local species extinction and biotic homogenization, drastically alters soil life.
Millipedes are a key group of soil macrodetritivores and significantly influence
soil quality, mainly through their essential role in nutrient cycling. Therefore,
studying their taxonomic and functional responses to urban disturbance is
crucial, as they contribute to the provision of several soil-related ecosystem
services in cities. Differently degraded rural, urban forests and other woody
patches (e.g., parks, gardens, and cemeteries) were sampled on Buda and
Pest sides of the Budapest metropolitan area divided by the Danube River.
We measured the most relevant physical and chemical properties of topsoil to
characterize habitats.

c. Prey for other animals

Although the main food source for millipedes in the park is decomposing
plant waste, they are also an essential source of food for other predators.
Millipedes are a staple food for amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles.
The survival and reproductive success of these higher trophic level species
are facilitated by millipedes acting as prey, which preserves the biodiversity of
the park. Every organism in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park, regardless of
size or apparent insignificance, is an important part of the vast web of life
there. Millipedes are an excellent example of this idea due to their subtle
appearance and essential ecological roles. Millipedes play a multitude of roles
in maintaining the complex balance and biodiversity of this protected region,
including serving as markers of ecosystem health, prey for other creatures,
and facilitators of the cycling of nutrients.
According to Valmores, C. (2003), The Mount Kitanglad Range is located
in Northern Mindanao in the Philippines, and contains the second highest
peak in the country. It is still densely forested and is considered to be one of
the critical sanctuaries for the conservation of the mega-diversity of flora and
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fauna that the Philippines is famous for. Current research has already
identified over 100 species of endemic birds, mammals, and reptiles alone.
The range is the source of several major river systems that cover much of
Northern Mindanao and pass through several major cities.
IV. Threats to Millipede Diversity

A. Threats to Millipede Diversity in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

a. Habitat loss

Surrounded by lush landscapes and pristine habitats, a treasure

trove of species thrives in the verdant sweep of the Mt. Kitanglad Range
Natural Park. Nestled in the center of the Philippines, this natural oasis
provides refuge to a wide variety of flora and fauna, all of which are
essential to preserving the delicate balance of the ecosystems here.
Among its many residents, millipedes are among the most subtle but
crucial members of the complex web of life. But habitat degradation poses
a grave threat to the ecosystems of Mt. Kitanglad, which are known for
their calm. The once-undisturbed sanctuaries of millipedes and other
species are becoming more and more fragmented and degraded as
human activities continue to expand into their natural ecosystems. The
tremendous biodiversity that the park is home to is under risk due to the
ripple effects of habitat degradation.

According to Beukema, W. (2011), Habitat destruction, which has

resulted in the disappearance of vast tracts of forest, mostly restricting
primary forest to mountain ranges or peaks throughout the island, remains
a major threat to the herpetofauna of Mindanao. Among other areas, the
forests of the Mt. Kitanglad Range (Bukidnon Province, north-central
Mindanao) are severely threatened majority of forest occurs from 900 –
1200 m mostly continuously up to the peaks of the mountain range
including the 2938 m high Kitanglad Peak, with a large part of the higher
area falling under the protection of the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

b. Climate change
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A quiet but important battle is taking place beneath the canopy in the
tranquil expanse of the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park, where lush woods
stretch and a variety of ecosystems flourish. In the middle of this diverse array
of life, millipedes—which are inconspicuous but essential elements of the
park's ecosystem—face an increasingly perilous existence. Their predicament
is a result of both habitat loss and the sneaky effects of climate change.
Millipedes and other occupants live in a delicate equilibrium that is upset as
temperatures rise and weather patterns change. Every part of their existence
is impacted by climate change, from worsening habitat degradation to
changing the distribution of food supplies. The perseverance of millipedes is
tested in the face of these difficulties, and the effects are felt throughout the
complex network of life in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park.

According to Opiso, E. M. et al. (2014). The results of this study revealed

that there were 2 species of fishes, 6 orders of macro-invertebrates, 14
species of plankton and 237 species of vascular plants were identified. The
surrounding land uses and human activities along the river were found to
have significant impact on the overall water quality and biodiversity of
the aquatic biota and riparian vegetation of Alanib River. The increasing
human population and agricultural intensification at the lower section of the
river contributed to the relatively lower water quality, presence of pollution
tolerant phytoplankton and macro-invertebrate groups as well as invasive
species of vascular plants. Hence, the overall results of this study revealed
that the integrity of Alanib River in terms of its biophysical and
chemical condition is severely threatened especially in the downstream
section due to various anthropogenic activities which can degrade its overall
environmental quality

c. Invasive species

All invasive species have the capacity to spread quickly and displace
native species from their habitats. This includes both plants and animals as
well as microbes. They can push native species to the verge of extinction
because to their unrestrained expansion, which also damages ecosystems
and biodiversity. These intruders are a major problem for the millipedes in Mt.
Kitanglad Range Natural Park because they ruin food chains, change the
makeup of the soil, and drastically change the ecosystem that is vital to them.
The researchers delve into the pernicious threat posed by invasive species to
millipede diversity within this ecological haven. Through understanding the
mechanisms by which these invaders infiltrate and transform ecosystems, we
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illuminate the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to mitigate their
impact and preserve the delicate balance of Mt. Kitanglad's natural heritage.

According to the Bukidnon News (2011), Department of

Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and the University of the
Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) has identified species considered as “invasive”
and “alien” to the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park in Bukidnon. Invasive
alien species, the DENR said, are plants, animals, pathogens and other
organisms that are not originally from the ecosystem that may cause
economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health. According
to the DENR, the team was conducting preparatory activity in the
identification of potential pilot area for a project on the management of
invasive species in the forests of Southeast Asia. The DENR said the
identification of alien invasive species is part of the international commitment
of the Philippine government in the protection of forests in Southeast Asia.

V. Preservation Efforts for Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

A. Conservation of Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park

a. Monitoring programs

A vital project is being carried out in the undisturbed regions of the Mt.
Kitanglad Range Natural Park, where biodiversity thrives among lush
landscapes and a variety of habitats: the establishment of millipede
monitoring programs. Conservationists are guardians of this biological
treasure trove, and they understand how important these inconspicuous
arthropods are to preserving the park's fragile ecosystems. The foundation of
conservation efforts are monitoring programs, which offer vital information
about the condition and patterns of millipede populations in the park. These
projects provide a window into the health of ecosystems by identifying
possible risks and guiding focused conservation measures through
systematic observation, data gathering, and analysis. Monitoring programs
are essential for protecting Mt. Kitanglad's natural heritage because they may
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be used to measure population dynamics, assess habitat quality, and identify
new threats.

According to Saway, A. L. et al. (n.d.), The PAMB’s initiative to consider

protected areas priority activities in their investment plan has helped to
gradually consolidate the LGUs and DENR concerns. The PASU that serves
as the PAMB secretariat is mandated to market protected area plans to
potential service providers including the LGUs, who responded positively.
NCIP and the DENR on the other hand have already come up with a joint
memorandum on issues affecting their operations. Though not all of the
concerns are being addressed, this conveys to implementers that both
agencies are harmonizing their programs and policies. The constraining factor
is that national government agencies have not harmonized their priority
programs resulting in uncoordinated priorities on the ground. The PAMB is
challenged to ensure participation by each members in its decision-making
process to ensure their support for all decisions. Initiatives to stimulate
discussion failed, hence PAMB resorted to implementing programs with
“friendly” IP communities to prove that the government is supporting their
interest. Expectedly and through time, both parties will soften and understand
the intricacies of the situation.

b. Habitat protection

At Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park, protecting habitat is essential to

conservation efforts because it acts as a barrier against human activity
encroachment and other impending hazards. We protect not just the
presence of millipedes and many other species, but also the integrity of the
park's ecosystems and the benefits they offer to humans and wildlife by
maintaining the intact habitats that support them. The researchers explore the
vital role of habitat protection in the conservation of millipedes within Mt.
Kitanglad Range Natural Park. Through understanding the intricacies of their
habitat requirements and the broader implications of habitat loss, we
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illuminate the imperative of proactive measures to preserve and restore the
natural habitats that sustain life in this ecological gem.

According to UNESCO (2024), it is the habitat of 661 species of plants

(Amoroso et al, 2010) many are endangered, endemic, rare, and
economically important floral species (Amoroso et 2015). At least 58 families
and 185 species of trees and other woody vegetation species have been
recorded in the park. Gingers are abundant also (9 species) with 94%
endemism (Mendez et al, 2019), nine (9) species of Rhododendrons
(Amoroso et al, 2011), and the Balanophora vast community of four (4)
species. As to its fauna resources, the park is endowed with a variety of rare
and endemic species. The park serves as a crucial habitat for various
species, playing a significant role in maintaining biodiversity. Furthermore, it
holds cultural importance as a sacred site for indigenous communities.
Notably, the park is a habitat of the critically endangered and thought to be
extinct Rafflesia and has played a pivotal role in influencing the nesting
behavior of the Philippine eagle, also an iconic and critically endangered
species. Despite its ecological and cultural significance, the park faces
challenges such as environmental degradation and habitat destruction,
necessitating urgent conservation efforts.

c. Public awareness

Amid the foggy peaks and lush valleys of the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural
Park, a subtle but urgent cry for public awareness and the preservation of its
sometimes disregarded residents, the millipedes, resounds through the thick
underbrush. These inconspicuous arthropods may not attract as much notice
as more captivating species, but they play an essential part in forming the
ecosystems of the park. We have a responsibility to acknowledge the
importance of millipedes and the pressing need for their conservation as
stewards of this rich hotspot of biodiversity. We have the ability to bring about
good change and guarantee the survival of Mt. Kitanglad's natural legacy for
future generations via outreach, education, and community involvement. Let's
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answer the call to safeguard not just the well-known species that captivate
our attention, but also the unsung heroes, like the millipedes, who silently
maintain the park's dynamic ecosystems, as we set out on our conservation
mission.

According to Catacutan, D. C. (n.d.), The reasons for this development

were: enforcement of the preventive rules by the park management, the
involvement of communities in non-destructive livelihood projects in the buffer
zone, involvement of indigenous peoples in decision-making and planning at
the Protected Area Management Board, and the increase in awareness level
and participation of people outside the buffer zone in natural resource
management projects, through the LGUs watershed resources management
plans. In this respect, the LGU officials have strongly demonstrated their
supporting lead roles in protected area and watershed management.

VI. Understanding the Biogeographic Evolution of Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad

Range Natural Park

A. Evolutionary Relationships of Millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural

Park
a. Phylogenetic analysis

Researchers trace the genetic strands that unite extant and extinct
millipedes by traveling across time via the prism of phylogenetics. They
decipher the complex web of evolutionary links, explaining the branching
patterns of millipede lineages and revealing hints of their common history, by
examining DNA data and morphological features. The researchers delve into
the realm of phylogenetic analysis as a means to understand the evolutionary
relationships of millipedes in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park. By peering
into the genetic code of these fascinating arthropods, we aim to unveil the
hidden stories of their evolutionary past and gain a deeper appreciation for
the rich tapestry of life that thrives within this biodiverse sanctuary.
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According to Enghoff, H. et al. (2011), A phylogenetic analysis of 40
species (22 genera) of the Palaearctic millipede family Julidae was made
based on partial sequences of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA (16S) gene and
the nuclear 28S rRNA (28S) gene, respectively. The two data sets (16S rDNA
and 28S rDNA) were analysed individually and in combination using direct
optimization as implemented in POY. The 16S rDNA and the 28S rDNA
sequences vary from 410 to 449 bp and from 467 to 525 bp in length,
respectively. All searches were performed under six different gap opening
costs, an extension gap cost of 1, and a substitution cost of 2. Incongruence
length difference values were used to select the preferred tree. The order
Julida was recovered as monophyletic under all weight sets.

b. Morphological adaptations

The fascinating evolutionary path of millipedes is best seen in the vast

expanse of the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park, where biodiversity thrives
in the midst of lush landscapes and clean ecosystems. With their diverse
morphological adaptations, these intriguing arthropods provide a glimpse into
the evolutionary interactions that have molded life inside this ecological
refuge. Millipedes are the perfect example of the wonders of adaptation, with
their segmented bodies covered with many legs, array of sensory
appendages, and defense devices. Their evolutionary history, which has seen
them diversify and adapt to the many niches found across the park's
ecosystems, is evidence of the dynamic interaction between form and
function.

According to Musser, G. G., et al. (2014), Results reflect an alpha-level

systematic contribution that frames species limits based upon our
interpretation of present morphological and geographic data, a hypothesis
readily testable by using a combination of qualitative anatomical,
morphometric, and molecular approaches drawn from additional material
collected in unsurveyed regions of Sulawesi. Because of the intimate bond
between parasite and the parasitized, morphological and eventually molecular
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comparisons among the Polyplax residing on different species of Echiothrix
might add another set of data potentially useful for discerning species limits of
the hosts. In the meantime, the new record broadens the inventory of sucking
louse species (in Polyplax and Hoplopleura) found on endemic Sulawesian
rodents in general (Musser et al., 2010) and murines in particular

c. Biogeography

Millipedes have made a home for themselves in this biodiverse refuge in

the Philippines, displaying a wide range of adaptations that have been refined
over millions of years of evolution. However, their biogeographic adaptations
and evolutionary links are still up for debate and investigation. the millipedes'
evolutionary mosaic found at Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park. Through the
intricate interaction of biogeography, adaptability, and evolutionary
connections, we may better understand how these amazing arthropods have
adapted to and survived in this unusual environment. We get a deeper
appreciation for the wonders of nature thriving in this pristine wilderness by
comprehending the processes guiding their growth and the interactions they
uphold with their surroundings and with each other.

According to Gomez, A. P. (2022), biogeography of Chilean millipedes

represents a significant gap in knowledge. To reduce this gap, we conducted
a study: (1) to investigate the current state of knowledge of millipede diversity,
and (2) to assess the pattern and causes underlying the latitudinal diversity
gradient in Chilean millipedes. In Chile, 95 native millipede species have been
recorded. However, rarefaction and extrapolation curves showed that
increased sampling effort will reveal more species. An asymptotic estimate of
diversity predicted that millipede diversity fluctuates between 125 and 197
species. The estimate, though, was based on a limited data set. These
environmental variables are proxies for two of the five biogeographic
hypotheses we tested in this study, i.e. the water-energy balance hypothesis
and climatic stability hypothesis. Both hypotheses suggest that millipedes
need stable, humid and warm climates to grow, survive and reproduce (niche
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conservatism). These climatic conditions are only found in central Chile,
which is consistent with the diversity peak observed in that region.

Reference:

[1] Masse, P. S. M., et al. (2017). Diversity and distribution of millipedes (Diplopoda) in
the Campo Ma’an National Park, southern Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology.
https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Millipedes

[2] Bogyo, D., et al. (2015 June 30). Distribution of millipedes (Myriapoda, Diplopoda)
along a forest interior – forest edge – grassland habitat complex. ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279476350_Distribution_of_millipedes_Myriap
oda_diplopoda_along_a_forest_interior_-_Forest_edge_-_Grassland_habitat_complex

[3] Amoroso, V. B., et al. (2011). Diversity and assessment of plants in Mt. Kitanglad
Range Natural Park, Bukidnon, Southern Philippines. Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 63(1
& 2): 219–236. 2011. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/sbg/research/publications/gardens-
bulletin-singapore/-/media/sbg/gardens-bulletin/gbs_63_01,-a-,02_y2011_v63_01,-a-
,02/63_01,-a-,02_219_y2011_v63p1,-a-,p2_gbs_pg_219.pdf

[4] Merciris, G. L. et al. (2008 October). Litter N-content influences soil millipede
abundance, species richness and feeding preferences in a semi-evergreen dry forest of
Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles). ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44709641_Litter_N-
content_influences_soil_millipede_abundance_species_richness_and_feeding_preferen
ces_in_a_semi-evergreen_dry_forest_of_Guadeloupe_Lesser_Antilles

[5] Mawcha, K., et al. (2023 June 19). From Beneficial Arthropods to Soil-Dwelling
Organisms: A Review on Millipedes. Preprints.org. https://retractionwatch.com/wp-
content/uploads/2023/07/Mawcha-et-al-2023.pdf

[6] Mayuga, J. L. (2021 September 26). Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park: A bastion of
PHL’s unique biodiversity, natural heritage. BusinessMirror.
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