6.

2 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
While lead-acid batteries are undoubtedly the most commonly used
batteries in photovoltaic systems, in some photovoltaic applications,
nickel-cadmium may be cost effective on a life-cycle/cost basis. Nickel-
cadmium batteries consist of a positive electrode of nickel (or
hydroxide) and a negative electrode of cadmium hydroxide. They are
commonly used in a sealed configuration in small household appliances,
but larger vented or sealed batteries are also available for PV
applications. Nickel-cadmium batteries have several advantages as listed
below.

Long lifetime and long storage life. In nickel-cadmium batteries, the

positive and negative electrodes undergo oxidation and reduction
reactions. Material does not enter the electrolyte and then re-plate to the
electrodes as it would in lead-acid batteries. This means that the active
material does not shed from the plates, and that a process analagous to
sulfation of a lead-acid battery does not occur. As these processes reduce
the lifetime of lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries have a
higher lifetime. Furthermore, the electrolyte in nickel-cadmium is less
corrosive to battery parts than in a lead-acid battery which also increases
lifetime.

Can be fully discharged. Nickel-cadmium batteries can be fully

discharged without damage to the battery.

Can be overcharged. Nickel-cadmium batteries are less sensitive to

overcharging, thereby reducing the requirements during the charging
regime. Due to the ability to completely discharge, the tolerance to
overcharging and the charging regimes for these batteries, in some cases
the battery regulator may be eliminated.

Reduced sensitivity to temperature. Since the electrolyte composition

does not change during charging or discharging, nickel-cadmium
batteries are not more susceptible to freezing at low levels of charge, in
the same way that lead-acid batteries are. Consequently, nickel-cadmium

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batteries are less sensitive to colder temperature, tolerating temperatures
of -50 C. In addition, the lifetime of

nickel-cadmium batteries are not as strongly affected by high

temperature operations as lead-acid.

Low maintenance requirements. As nickel-cadmium batteries emit fewer

corrosive elements and have lower gassing, they require less frequent
maintenance.

However, they also have a number of disadvantages. Some of the

disadvantages include;

Expense. Nickel-cadmium batteries are typically at least twice as

expensive than lead-acid batteries. However, some of this cost may be
offset by the ability to fully discharge, eliminating the need for
oversizing the battery, and by the possible elimination of the regulator.
Consequently, in applications which are not critical, nickel-cadmium
batteries can be used, assuming that they will be nearly fully discharged
each night. If, however during a charging cycle there is a cloudy day,
then no power would be available. Nickel-cadmium batteries, therefore
can only be used in non-critical loads.

Lower efficiencies. Nickel-cadmium batteries have both lower

coloumbic efficiencies, between 75% to 85%, and lower overall
efficiencies, between 60% to 75%.

Memory effect. Some nickel-cadmium batteries can require full

discharge to prevent "memory" development, and subsequent inability
(in a normal discharge cycle) to discharge below the level it has been
subjected to in the past. Elimination of this effect requires a slow, full
discharge/charge cycle.

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An additional feature of nickel-cadmium batteries is the relatively
constant voltage curve on charging and discharging. While this is an
advantage in discharging in that the voltage stays relatively constant
between 10% and 80% discharge, it is a disadvantage in charging in that
the voltage is a poor indicator of battery state of charge and therefore
determining SOC is more difficult.