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Smart Materials and Structures

TOPICAL REVIEW

Recent trends in piezoelectric actuators for precision motion and their

applications: a review
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 Smart Materials and Structures

Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 (36pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-665X/abc6b9

Topical review

Recent trends in piezoelectric actuators

for precision motion and their
applications: a review
S Mohith1, Adithya R Upadhya1, Karanth P Navin1, S M Kulkarni1 and Muralidhara Rao2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Mangalore 575025, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NMAMIT, Karkala, Nitte 574110, India

E-mail: mohith.sdattanagar@yahoo.com

Received 23 June 2020, revised 29 August 2020

Accepted for publication 1 November 2020
Published 1 December 2020

Abstract
The need for precision positioning applications has enormously influenced the research and
development towards the growth of precision actuators. Over the years, piezoelectric actuators
have significantly satisfied the requirement of precision positioning to a greater extent with the
capability of broad working stroke, high-accuracy, and resolution (micro/nano range) coupled
with the advantage of faster response, higher stiffness, and actuation force. The present review
intends to bring out the latest advancement in the field of piezoelectric actuator technology. This
review brings out the specifics associated with the development of materials/actuators, the
working principles with different actuation modes, and classifications of the piezoelectric
actuators and their applications. The present article throws light on the design, geometrical
features, and the performance parameters of various piezoelectric actuators right from
unimorph, bimorph, and multilayer to the large displacement range actuators such as amplified
actuators, stepping actuators with relevant schematic representations and the quantitative data.
A comparative study has been presented to evaluate the pros and cons of different piezoelectric
actuators along with quantitative graphical comparisons. An attempt is also made to highlight
the application domains, commercial and future prospects of technology development towards
piezoelectric actuators for precision motion applications. The organization of the paper also
assists in understanding the piezoelectric materials applicable to precision actuators.
Furthermore, this paper is of great assistance for determining the appropriate design, application
domains and future directions of piezoelectric actuator technology.
Keywords: piezoelectric actuators, unimorph, bimorph, amplified piezoelectric actuators,
inchworm actuator, inertial actuator, ultrasonic actuator

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction
The technological advancement in the field of science
and engineering has fascinated the researchers towards the
development of miniaturized devices and systems with high
accuracy and precision. The development of technology for
fulfilling the need for miniaturized systems has paved the
way for the growth of Micro/Nanotechnology [1–4]. The
concept of micro/nano system engineering mainly deals with
design, manufacturing, and packaging of micro/nano systems
with their applications extending to fields such as biomedical,
Automobile, Aerospace, Micro Electronics, Micro-optical

1361-665X/21/013002+36$33.00 1 © 2020 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Systems, microfluidics systems, etc [5–8]. The precision
manipulation and positioning have been the primary con-
cern among the research community to fulfil the need for
micro/nano system development and manufacturing. The crit-
ical functionality of such precision manipulation systems aims
at generation of precise, stable motion in the micrometre/nano-
metre range with the capability of quick response, wide range
and speed of motion, sufficient load carrying capacity [9–11].
The actuator serves the purpose of precision manipulation and
positioning of miniaturized systems. Conventional actuators
such as stepper motors, gear drives, sliders, etc may serve
the purpose of micromanipulation and position to some extent
with the benefits of higher stiffer stiffness, load carrying capa-
city and positioning accuracy. However, critical factors such
as friction, wear, fatigue, etc limit their application, which
severely affects positioning accuracy [11–15].
Over the past few years, the industrial and academic
research communities have realized and conceptualized the
utilization of smart materials as actuators, which could over-
come the drawbacks associated with the conventional actu-
ator to a greater extent. In general smart materials refer to
the group of materials which respond to external stimuli to
perform a predetermined task. The active materials such as
piezoelectric [16], shape memory alloy [17], magnetostrict-
ive [18], electrostrictive [19], electro/magnetorheological flu-
ids (ERF/MRF) [20, 21] exhibit direct coupling which can
take either mechanical or non-mechanical field as the input
while other as the output [22]. Implementation of smart mater-
ials as actuator will have a non-mechanical field (i.e. elec-
trical field) as the input and mechanical deformation as the
output. The source of actuation occurs from the deforma-
tion produced due to the electrostriction .i.e. application of
electric field across the polarized smart materials leading to
mechanical deformation, thus the actuation [23, 24]. Among
the different class of smart materials available, piezoelec-
tric materials have gained significant consideration as pre-
cision actuators due to their ability to produce precision
motion coupled with other advantageous features such as
quick response, high output force, high stiffness, high accur-
acy and precision, insensitive to magnetic effect [25, 26].
The additional features such as the compactness, availabil-
ity of different shapes and sizes, biocompatibility (lead-free
piezoelectric materials) make them best suited for many com-
mercial applications. Though the utilization of piezoelectric
materials as actuator offers numerous advantages, the small
range of motion achieved creates a significant hurdle in many
practical applications. The range of motion generated by a
single layer of piezoelectric material may not fulfil the com-
mercial need of large stroke applications. Thus the devel-
opment of piezo actuators with broad working range has
been the topic of interest among the researchers for quite an
extended period. The development and application of multi-
layered piezo stack actuators have been the source of achiev-
ing large stroke actuation [25, 27]. Also, different amplific-
ation mechanisms such as lever [28], bridge [29], stepping
[30] mechanisms have been proposed for amplifying the dis-
placement of the piezo actuator from tens to hundreds of
micrometre range.
2
Topical Review
Considering the potential of the piezoelectric actuator in
precision manipulation and positioning, the present review
provides a detailed description of advancements in the field
of piezoelectric actuators technology. The organization of the
current review is as follows. Section 2 aims at presenting
the concept of piezoelectricity, history of the development of
piezoelectric effect as a source of precision actuation, advance-
ment in the field of piezoelectric materials, and the differ-
ent modes of application of piezoelectric materials as preci-
sion actuators. Section 3 throws light on the classification of
piezoelectric actuators. Sections 4–6 illustrates working prin-
ciples of different piezoelectric actuators like unimorph actu-
ators, bimorph actuators, stepping actuators and multi-degree
actuators with relevant features and specification reported by
the various researchers over the past decade. Further, a com-
parison of the performance of different types of piezoelectric
actuators has been presented in section 7. Section 8 presents
the various application domains and commercial aspects of the
piezoelectric actuators. Section 9 provides the summary and
the insight into the future directions towards the research in
piezoelectric actuators technology.
2. Piezoelectric effect and piezoelectric materials
The growth of the concept of the piezoelectric effect and piezo-
electric materials has taken a long way starting from the late
19th century. Since the discovery of the piezoelectric effect
in 1880 by Pierre Currie and Paul-Jacques Curie performance
piezoelectric materials and application of piezoelectric materi-
als in sensor and actuator applications [31]. Figure 1 represents
the different time phases of the development of piezoelectric
actuators.
The concept of piezoelectricity employs the electromech-
anical interaction of a specific group of materials between
the elastic and electrical behaviour. The polarization of the
piezoelectric materials at high-temperature through the applic-
ation of high electric field in a particular direction results in
an ordered arrangement of randomly oriented electric dip-
loes. This, in turn, induces piezoelectric effect (figure 2). The
application of external stimuli in the form of mechanical stress
or electrical potential across the polarized piezoelectric mater-
ials results in the development of electrical charge (direct
piezoelectric effect, figure 3(a)) or mechanical strain (inverse
piezoelectric effect figure 3(b)) respectively due to the ordered
arrangement of electric dipoles along the poling direction [31].
Si = cij σj + dki Ek (1)
Dm = dmj σj + εmk Ek (2)
Equations (1) and (2) represent the electromechanical coup-
ling of the piezoelectric materials in the form of constitutive
expressions [32]. Where D and E represent the electric dis-
placement vector and electric field vector, S and σ represent
strain vector and stress vector, c is the compliance matrix,
d is the piezoelectric material constant, ε is the dielectric
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Figure 1. Roadmap of development of piezoelectric technology and its application.

Figure 2. Mechanism of Piezoelectric effect (a) Before polarization (b) During polarization (c) After polarization.

constant matrix. m, k = 1, 2, 3 and i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 represents different direction in Cartesian coordinates.
Application of piezoelectric materials as precision actuators
employs converse piezoelectric effect where the mechanical
strain developed due to the application of electric field results
deformation of the piezoelectric material leading to precision
motion.
Early applications with piezoelectric materials employed
naturally occurring materials such as quartz and Rochelle salt.
The advancement in the field of material technology has led
to the development of synthetic, high-performance piezoelec-
tric materials with single crystal or polycrystalline structure
having higher electromechanical coupling factor. Some of the
synthetic piezoelectric materials are ferroelectric which are
subjected to external poling mechanism to have spontaneous
electric polarization while non-ferroelectric materials do not
require any polling mechanism. Figure 4 represents the clas-
sification of piezoelectric materials. The precision actuat-
ors with piezoelectric materials extensively employ ceramic-
based Lead Zirconium Titanate (PZT) (Pb[Zr(x) Ti(1-x) ]O3 ) as
the piezoelectric materials. The complications associated with
PZT in the disposal and the environmental hazards due to the
presence of lead has led to the adoption of lead-free ceramic
materials such as Barium Titanate (BaTiO3 ), Sodium Niobate

3
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 3. Schematic of (a) Direct piezoelectric effect (b) Inverse
piezoelectric effect.
Figure 4. Classification of piezoelectric materials.
(NaNbO3 ), Potassium Niobate (KNbO3 ), Lithium Niobate
(LiNbO3 ), Lithium Tantalate (LiTaO3 ), Zinc Oxide (Zno) etc.
Also polymer-based materials such as PVDF and copoly-
mers [33], Naffion, Carbon Nanotubes, Cellulose and their
derivative and piezo composites such as PZT: PDMS, PZT:
Zno, Cellulose: BaTiO3 etc have been effectively employed
in piezo actuators [34–39]. Further, the piezoelectric mater-
ials can exist as single crystal constituent of polycrystalline
constituent [31]. Table 1 highlights the range of piezoelectric
properties of some of the commonly used materials in preci-
sion actuators.
The typical application of piezoelectric materials as a pre-
cision actuator depends on the direction of application of the
electric field (E) and the direction of polarization (P). Thus
the piezoelectric materials can be used as an actuator in four
modes, namely longitudinal extension/contraction, transverse
extension/contraction, shear mode [39]. Figure 5 represents
the schematic of the different modes of actuation in piezoelec-
tric materials. The longitudinal extension/contraction (∆T)
and the transverse extension/contraction occur (∆L) when the
applied electric field aligns with the polarization direction
(figures 5(b) and (c)). Linear actuation through the piezoelec-
tric actuator significantly employs longitudinal mode (∆T)
due to the significant deformation along longitudinal com-
pared to the transverse deformation (∆L). When the applied
electric field and the polarization are perpendicular to each
other, the shear mode of deformation occurs (∆x), as shown
in figure 5(d). The bending mode of actuation occurs when the
4
Topical Review
one end of the piezo actuator is fixed (figure 5(e)). The utiliz-
ation of different modes of actuation majorly depends on the
type of precision motion required in the concerned application
where piezoelectric materials are used as the source of actu-
ation. Table 2 represents the expression for displacement in
different modes of piezoelectric materials.
3. Piezoelectric actuators
Over the past few years, piezoelectric actuators turned out to
be a significant contributor in the precision applications due
to their ability to generate precision motion and flexibility to
integrate with the other subsystems. Various types of piezo-
electric actuators have been proposed for different kinds of
applications which require precision motion. Based on the
design and functionality, the piezo actuators are classified
as traditional actuators, piezoelectric stepping actuators and
multi-degree freedom actuators. Figure 6 represents the classi-
fication of the piezo actuators. Traditional actuators typically
consist of unimorph actuators, bimorph actuators, tube actu-
ators, multilayer actuators and amplified actuators. The tra-
ditional piezoelectric actuators are with simple construction
and provide a small range of motion analogous to the applied
voltage. The needs for large range precision motion lead to the
development of piezoelectric motors which typically consists
of traditional actuators as the driving source, which induces
a broad range of motion through complex driving mechan-
isms. Based on the functionality and mode of operation, the
piezoelectric motors are classified as clamping and feeding
actuators, inertial actuators and resonant ultrasonic actuators
[33, 40]. Further, the functionality of piezoelectric actuators
can be enhanced by the integration of multiple piezoelectric
stages to achieve multiple degrees of freedom motion either
through direct actuation from traditional actuators or through
stepping piezoelectric actuators.
The assessment of traditional piezoelectric actuators per-
formance is usually done in terms of the range of free deflec-
tion (∆) and the blocked force (F b ) achieved. The range of
deflection produced when the actuator is free to move and
excited at maximum actuation voltage refers to the free deflec-
tion of the actuator. The blocked force of the actuator corres-
ponds to the maximum force exerted by the actuator when the
excited at maximum actuation voltage and the motion is com-
pletely blocked. Figure 7 represents the relationship between
the free deflections and the blocked forced developed by the
piezo actuator. The piezo actuators are intended to generate
precision motion together with the consistent force for actu-
ation purpose, which represents the optimal performance of
the piezo actuator. The ideal optimal performance of the piezo
actuator corresponds to the point where the blocked force is
one half of the piezo actuator deflection on force vs. deflection
plot. Further, the performances of stepping piezoelectric actu-
ators are assessed in terms of the speed of motion, force/torque
developed and the motion resolution.
The inherent system nonlinearity occurring during the
dynamic operation leads to significant hurdle in the applic-
ation of the piezoelectric actuators. The inherent hysteresis
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Table 1. Properties of commonly used piezoelectric materials [31, 32, 34–39].

Strain developed/Electric field (10–12 m V−1 ) Electric field per applied stress (10–3 V-m N−1 )
Material d33 d31 d15 g33 g31 g15

PZT ≈152–593 ≈-37 to −274 ≈330–741 ≈19–39 ≈ −9 to −16 ≈26–51

PZ ≈46–640 ≈-5 to −259 ≈43–724 ≈15–40 ≈-2 to −16 ≈26–39
BaTiO3 ≈85–191 ≈-34 to −79 ≈270–392 ≈11–58 ≈-4 to −23 ≈15–19
PVDF ≈-33 ≈18–24 — ≈330–340 ≈216 —

Figure 5. (a) Representation of the piezoelectric materials with corresponding coordinate systems, the direction of polarization/electric
field (b) Longitudinal expansion/Contraction mode (c) Transverse expansion/Contraction mode (d) Parallel shear mode (e) Bending mode.

Table 2. Different actuation modes of piezoelectric materials.

Mode Coupling Coefficient Linear Expression

Longitudinal expansion/Contraction mode d33 ∆T = E3 d33

∆L ∆W E3 d31
Transverse expansion/Contraction mode d31 L = W = T
Parallel shear mode d15 ∆x = E3 d15

existing in the piezoelectric actuator is one of the major
contributors to the occurrence of nonlinearity. Ideally, the pre-
cision positioning applications require linear characteristics of
the actuator during the increasing and decreasing cycles of
the input voltage to achieve higher accuracy. However, the
memory-based hysteresis effect between the applied voltage
and the output deflection in the piezoelectric actuators leads
to deviation in the deflection curve during the increasing and
decreasing cycle of the input voltage. The deviation of the
output deflection depends on the amplitude and frequency
of excitation resulting in positioning errors. Apart from hys-
teresis, other factors such as the creep and vibration in the
piezoelectric actuators also contribute significantly in indu-
cing system nonlinearity. Creep corresponds to drift in the out-
put displacement of the piezoelectric actuator when there is a
sudden change in the input voltage. The creep phenomenon

5
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Figure 6. Classification of the piezo actuators.

occurs due to the interaction between the applied electric field

and the residual polarization in the piezoelectric actuator. The
vibration in piezoelectric actuator results in non-uniformity
in output response leading to system nonlinearity. Thus there
is a need for appropriate modelling and control approaches
along with the physical implementation in various applica-
tions to address the issues of nonlinearity in piezoelectric actu-
ators. Implementation of well-defined modelling and control
methods which takes account of nonlinearity due to hyster-
esis, creep, and vibration can lead to almost a linear response
which is a major requirement in precision positioning applic-
ations [31, 32]. The scope of the present review is limited to
understand the latest advancement, classification, functioning
and utilization of piezoelectric actuator technology.

4. Traditional piezoelectric actuators

The following section highlights design/working principle
and performance feature of different types of traditional
piezoelectric actuators like the unimorph actuator, bimorph
actuator, tube actuator, multi-layered actuator and amplified
actuator.
4.1. Unimorph piezoelectric actuator
Unimorph piezoelectric actuators are characterized by the
single layer of piezoelectric materials sandwiched between
layers of thin electrically conductive metal electrodes [41–43].
Figure 8(a) represents the different configuration of the mono-
layer piezo actuator. The unimorph piezoelectric actuators
are used as precision actuators in different shapes such as
square/rectangular, circular, ring shaped or cantilever type.
Based on the direction of electric field and direction of the
polarization, the unimorph actuators can undergo longitudinal
Figure 7. Piezoelectric actuator performance parameters.
contraction/expansion (d33 ), transverse contraction/expansion
(d31 ) or bending mode as shown in figures 8(b) and (c). Since
the length of the piezo layer is considerably large when com-
pared with the thickness, significant deformation occurs along
the transverse direction (∆L) when compared with the longit-
udinal direction (∆T). The cantilever configuration of the uni-
morph actuator can induce significant bending motion when
subjected external electric field [44, 45]. Unimorph piezoelec-
tric materials are most commonly employed as sensor ele-
ments in various applications. But the integration of mono-
layer piezoelectric actuator with the structural members can
impart stretching or bending, thus providing precision motion.
Table 3 represents the details of unimorph piezoelectric actu-
ators implemented by some of the researchers in recent years
for different applications.

6
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Table 3. Details of unimorph piezoelectric actuators reported in recent years.

Ref. Type of Actuator/ Dimension Actuation Deflection Range Blocked

Author Year No Mode of Actuation Material (mm) Voltage (V) (µm) Force (N)

D O Lee 2011 [46] Rectangular PZT 38.1 × 12.7 600 700–900 0.2–0.4
(Bending) × 0.254
M W Ashraf 2012 [47] Disc type PZT ∅ = 3.00 160 16–20 —
(Bending)
J Ma 2012 [48] Ring Type PZT ∅ = 3.00, 100 12.9 —
(Bending) t = 0.04
W Liu 2013 [49] Cantilever Type PZT _ ×_ × 0.28 ±5 V −15.00–18.00 —
(Bending)
J Choi 2014 [50] Cantilever Type PZT _ ×_ × 0.10 140 172.2–182 —
(Bending)
C H Cheng 2015 [51] Square Plate PZT 5.5 × 5.5 × 0.15 200 2.5–3.5 —
(Bending)
H K Ma 2015 [52] Disc type PZT t = 0.2 ±70 190 —
(Bending)
W Parinya 2016 [53] Cantilever Type PMN-PT 4 × 15 × 1 ±30 5.343 —
(Bending)
T Ozaki 2018 [54] Cantilever Type PIN-PMN-PT — 30 120–145 —
(Bending)
N Chen 2020 [55] Rectangular PZT 11.3 × 2.5 × 0.1 ±100 +23.1/–26.7 —
A Gunda 2020 [56] Disc type PZT ∅ = 4, t = 0.127 ±70 7.00–8.00 —
(Bending)

Figure 8. (a) Different configurations and actuation modes of the unimorph piezoelectric actuator (b) Linear expansion/Contraction mode
of the unimorph piezo actuator (c) Bending mode of the unimorph piezo actuator.

4.2. Bimorph piezoelectric actuators
A bimorph piezoelectric actuator typically consists of two
layers of piezoelectric materials bonded with or without
metal shim. Figure 9 represents the schematic of the pol-
ing configuration, wiring configuration, actuator configura-
tions, and actuation modes of the bimorph piezo actuator. The
bimorph piezoelectric actuators can undergo extension/con-
traction (figure 9(a)) or bending motion (figure 9(b)) depend-
ing on the direction of the polarization and the wiring of
piezoelectric layers across which electric field is applied [57].
The bending mode of bimorph finds extensive application
in precision motion. The application of electric field across
bimorph actuator results in contraction of one of the layer
and expansion of the other, thus achieving a curvature on the
surface. Typically this type of actuator can generate micro-
metre level (tens to thousands of microns) motion with a small
force of actuation (tens to hundreds of grams).
The piezoelectric layers are polarized either in the same
direction or in the opposite direction. The wiring of piezo-
electric layers in the bimorph actuator is of either the anti-
parallel or the parallel configuration. The anti-parallel con-
figuration (figure 9(c)) of the bilayer piezo actuator attribute
to the instantaneous application of the electric field across

7
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Figure 9. Schematic of (a) Linear expansion/Contraction actuation mode of bimorph piezoelectric actuator (b) Bending mode of bimorph
piezoelectric actuator (c) Anti-parallel wiring configurations of bimorph piezoelectric actuators (d) Parallel wiring configurations of
bimorph piezoelectric actuators (e) Different design configurations of bimorph piezoelectric actuators.

the actuator layer. Thus the electrical potential across each

layer will be equal to the total applied electric potential
divided by the number of piezoelectric layers. Parallel con-
figuration (figure 9(d)) of the bi-layered piezo actuator refers
to the case where the electric potential is applied to each
layer individually; thus, electrical potential across each layer
of piezoelectric material equals the applied electric poten-
tial [57–59]. Bimorph piezoelectric actuators are available
as extenders or benders in different forms such as rectangu-
lar, square, circular, and cantilever configuration implemen-
ted in different applications (figure 9(e)). Table 4 represents
the details of bi-layered piezoelectric actuators implemented
by some of the researchers for various applications in recent
years. Figure 10. Schematic of piezoelectric tube type actuator (a) axial
Mode and radial mode (b) Lateral (Bending) mode.
4.3. Piezoelectric tube actuators

Piezoelectric tube actuators typically consist of piezoelectric

materials in the form of thin cylinder polarized along the radial
direction along with electrode layers. Figure 10 represents
the schematic representation of the piezoelectric tube actuat-
ors. Precision actuation through piezoelectric tube actuators
could be achieved either in the axial/radial mode (figure 10(a))
or in the lateral mode (figure 10(b)) [70, 71]. The axial/ra-
dial mode piezoelectric tube typically consists of continuous
layers of piezoelectric material and electrode which elong-
ates or contracts along the length simultaneously generating
elongation or contraction along the radius of the tube. The
lateral mode of actuation involves bending of the piezoelectric
tube with the application of an electric potential of different
polarity across segmented layers of the electrode on the tube
surface as represented in figure 10(b). The piezoelectric tube
under bending is capable of producing multi-axis motion due
to the flexibility of bending in different directions. The more
segmented arrangement of external electrode layer helps to
achieve accurate control of motion without undesirable bend-
ing or tilting motion [72]. Table 5 represents the details of the
recently reported piezoelectric tube actuators.

8
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Table 4. Details of bimorph piezoelectric actuators reported in recent years.

Type of Actuat- Actuation Deflection Blocked Force (N)

Author Year Ref. No or/Mode Material Dimension (mm) Voltage (V) Range (µm)

Asha J 2012 [60] Cantilever Type PZT 36 × 6.5 × 0.75 ±36 11 000 —
(Bending)
El Sayed 2013 [61] Cantilever Type PZT 57.2 × 31.8 50 1150 0.1–0.15
(Bending) × 0.38
Y Yuan 2013 [62] Cantilever Type ZnO 1 × 0.5 × 0.001 10 0.122 —
(Bending)
R K Jain 2015 [63] Cantilever Type PZT 40 × 11 × 0.6 ±60 −1500–1500 0.230
(Bending)
B Ghosh 2017 [64] Cantilever Type PZT 31 × 9 × 0.65 ±30 −500–500 0.104
(Bending)
Y Z Liu 2019 [65] Cantilever Type PVDF 60 × 20 ×– 800 V 10 000 —
(Bending)
A Almeida 2019 [66] Cantilever Type PZT 40 × 10 × 0.5 ±45 V −1000–1000 —
(Bending)
R M Dasjerdi 2019 [67] Square Plate Zn0 10 × 10 × 0.1 200√2 −2.00 to + 2.00 —
P Shahabi 2020 [68] Cantilever Type PZT 24.53 × 6.4 4 60–80 —
(Bending) × 0.63
A Ali 2020 [69] Cantilever Type PZT 100 × 30 × 20 40 3.5 —
(Bending)

Table 5. Details of h piezoelectric tube actuators reported in recent years.

Dimension Actuation Deflection

Author Year Ref. No Type of Actuator/Mode Material (mm) Voltage (V) Range(µm)

B Bhikkaji 2007 [73] Lateral Mode PZT — 30 1.5–2.0

M Mohammadzaheri 2012 [74] Lateral Mode PZT — 60 0.8–1.0
H Lu 2014 [75] Lateral Mode PZT — 160 10.00
D Habineza 2015 [76] Lateral Mode PZT — ±200 ±20.00 –
± 30.00
D Habineza, 2015 [77] Lateral Mode PZT OD = 3.2, ±250 ±35.00
ID = 2.2,
L = 30
O Aljanaideh 2016 [78] Lateral Mode PZT OD = 3.2, ±250 ±35.00
ID = 2.2,
L = 30
L Li 2019 [79] Lateral Mode PZT — — 100 × 100 × 10
M Al Janaideh 2020 [80] Lateral Mode PZT OD = 5, ±250 ±35.00
ID = 3, L = 27

4.4. Multilayer piezoelectric stack actuator
The multilayer piezoelectric actuators also termed as piezo
stack actuators typically consist of multiple layers of
piezoelectric materials stacked one over the other with suit-
able adhesives. The piezo stack actuators are beneficial in
terms of generating a higher range of motion ranging from
few microns to tens of microns and the actuation force from
few hundreds to thousands of newton [81, 82]. Each layer
of the piezo stack actuator consists of piezoelectric materials
with electrodes separated by suitable insulation. The elec-
trode layers having the same polarity are connected to an
external electrode [83, 84]. The combined effect of displace-
ment achieved through the application of the electric field
across the different piezoelectric layers results in a broader
range of motion. Depending on the construction and poling
direction of the piezoelectric layer, the piezo stack actuators
can execute either longitudinal or shear mode of actuation
[46, 85].
Figures 11(a) and (b) represents the schematic of longit-
udinal and shears piezo stack actuators with the polariza-
tion directions. The constructional features longitudinal and
shear stacks are similar except for the direction of polariza-
tion of each layer as represented in figure 11. The expression
for the output displacement corresponding to the longitudinal
mode (∆L) and shear mode (∆S) of the piezo stack actuator
having n number of layers is represented by ∆L = nE3 d33 ,
∆S = nE3 d15 respectively. Depending on the type applica-
tion, the piezo stack actuators are available in square, cir-
cular, and ring configurations [86–88] (figures 11(c)–(e)).
In addition, the dynamic performance of longitudinal piezo
stack actuators can be enhanced by incorporating a pre-stress

9
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Table 6. Details of multi-layer/stacked piezoelectric actuators reported in recent years.

Ref. Type of Actuat- Actuation Voltage Deflection Blocked

Author Year No. or/ Mode Material Dimension (mm) (V) Range (µm) Force (N)

S H Choy 2010 [93] Parallel Pre- BNKLBT 10 × 10 ×— 20 0.06 —

stressed
(Square)
D D Jang 2011 [94] Longitudinal PZT ∅O = 35, 150 50 —
Stack (Ring) ∅I = 14, L = 71
D H Wang 2011 [95] Parallel Pre- PZT — 200 62.5 —
stressed
(Square)
S B Choi 2012 [96] Longitudinal PZT ∅ = 13, L = 36 160 3.4 220
Stack (Circular)
B Sahoo 2012 [97] Longitudinal PZT ∅ = 8.7, L = 36 175 10 1427
Stack (Ring)
M Meftah 2013 [98] Parallel Pre- PZT 5 × 5 × 10 150 48.5 950
stressed
(Square)
L Wang 2013 [99] Longitudinal PZT 7 × 7 × 32.5 200 45 —
Stack (Square)
J H Park 2013 [100] Longitudinal PZT 2×3×9 150 13 300
Stack (Square)
J Jeon 2014 [101] Longitudinal PZT ∅ = 25, L = 100 150 100 —
Stack (Circular)
Z Xuan 2014 [102] Longitudinal PZT ∅ = 25, L = 100 1000 80 20 000
Stack (Circular)
Y L Yang 2015 [103] Longitudinal PZT 5 × 5 × 20 150 20 —
Stack (Square)
Muralidhara 2015 [104] Longitudinal PZT 10 × 10 × 20 150 11.5 —
Stack (Square)
C Zhou 2016 [105] Longitudinal PZT 7 × 7 × 36 120 38 1850
Stack (Square)
W Dong 2016 [106] Shear Stack PZT 10 × 10 ×— 100 0.021
(Square)
Z Bu 2018 [107] Longitudinal PZT 7 × 7 × 32.5 200 45 —
Stack (Square)
X Gao 2018 [108] Shear Stack PZT ∅ = 40, L = 5 400 6.5 18
(Circular)
H S Hwang 2019 [109] Longitudinal PZT ∅ = 25, L = 114 1000 110 —
Stack (Circular)
H Huang 2019 [110] Shear Stack PZT 12 × 10 × 8 300 4.9 —
(Square)

on to the piezo stack through elastic mechanism. Such pre-
stressed actuators are termed as parallel pre-stressed actuat-
ors [89–91]. Typically such actuator consists of elastic springs
integrated parallel to piezo longitudinal actuators as shown
in figure 11(f ). In general, the piezo stack actuators can sus-
tain compression to some extent but cannot withstand ten-
sion. Thus introducing the pre-stress springs ensures the stack
actuator bear enough tension, thus improving its life and
dynamic characteristics [92]. Table 6 represents the details of
multi-layer/stacked piezoelectric actuators reported in recent
years.
4.5. Amplified piezoelectric actuators
The displacement limitation associated with the piezo stack
actuator can be overcome with amplified piezo actuators
(APA) which generates a larger range of motion with mod-
erate force. Typically amplified piezo actuator consists of
an external structural amplifier which amplifies the displace-
ment of the multi-layered piezo actuator [85, 111]. The early
phase of amplified piezo actuator started with the growth of
Moonie actuator type (figure 12(a)), rainbow type actuator
(figure 12(b)) and cymbal actuator type (figure 12(c)) which
consisting of end caps attached to piezo disks or multilayer
piezo actuator [112–115]. The mechanical strain developed
due to the piezo actuator deforms the external end caps, thus
producing the amplified motion as represented in figure 12.
The later development of amplified piezo actuators incor-
porated flexural hinged and compliant mechanisms made of
a single elastic structural member. The elastic deformation
of the mechanisms induced due to the force exerted by
the multilayer piezo actuator generates the amplified motion

10
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Figure 11. Schematic of (a) Longitudinal Stack (b) Shear Stack (c) Square section piezo stack actuators (d) circular section piezo stack
actuators (e) ring type piezo stack actuators (f ) parallel pre-stressed piezo stack actuators actuator (PPA).

Figure 12. (a) Moonie type actuator (b) Rainbow type actuator (c) Cymbal type actuator.

[116, 117]. Figure 13 represents the commonly adopted flex-
ural based amplified piezo actuators. One of the simplest forms
of amplification approach for multi-layered piezo actuators
is the use of the lever principle through flexural hinges, as
shown in figure 13(a). The lever amplified motion achieved
through the lever mechanism is parallel to the direction
of motion of the piezo stack actuator [118, 119]. Another
amplification strategy is the Scott-Russell (S-R) mechanism
(figure 13(b)), which involves a flexural hinged framework
that produces amplified straight-line motion in the right angle
direction [120, 121]. The tensural displacement type mech-
anism (figure 13(c)) is also known for generating ampli-
fied motion through symmetrical compliant mechanism con-
figuration. The flexural hinges of the tensural amplifier is
loaded in tension and bending when the primary multi-
layered piezo stack actuator deforms due to applied electric
potential [122, 123].
In addition, honeycomb type [124] (figure 13(d)), sym-
metric five bar type [125, 126] (figure 13(e)), bridge-
type [127, 128] (figure 13(f )) and rhombus/elliptical type
[129, 130] (figures 13(g) and (h)) flexural amplification mech-
anisms are also incorporated effectively for enhancing the per-
formance of the piezo actuator. All these actuators adopt a sim-
ilar approach towards the amplification. Among the different
amplification configurations mentioned above, the lever type
and Tensural type produces amplified motion parallel to the
direction of motion of the piezo stack actuator. All other types
of actuators have their output perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the piezo actuator. The rhombus type and elliptical
type amplifiers are found to effective in amplifying the dis-
placement of the piezo multilayer actuator due to the absence
of flexural hinges which avoids the risk of fatigue failure and
improves the dynamic performance of the actuator as a whole
thus enhancing the life of the actuator. Table 7 highlight the

11
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 13. (a) Lever type atuator (b) Scott-Russell type atuator (c) Tensural displacement type atuator (d) Honey comb type atuator
(e) Symmetric five bar type atuator (f ) Bridge type atuator (g) Rhombus type atuator (h) Elleptical type atuator.
performance of the different amplified piezo actuators repor-
ted in recent years. The selection of suitable amplification
mechanism majorly depends on the range of motion and force
required for the particular application. Though amplified piezo
actuators can enhance the performer of the piezo stack actu-
ator, the reduction in the effective blocked force and stiffness
is inevitable.
5. Piezoelectric stepping motors
The stepping piezoelectric actuators have been proposed in
different forms for satisfying the requirement of a broader
range of motion in micromanipulator applications with greater
accuracy and precision. Such stepping piezoelectric actuat-
ors are also termed as piezo motors because of their abil-
ity to generate continuous motion. The stepping piezo motors
can generate either linear or rotational motion depending on
the design of the actuator configuration [40, 160, 161]. The
clamping and feeding mode piezoelectric motors are inch-
worm type whose working principle resembles the biological
motion which integrates simultaneous clamping and feed-
ing mechanism through piezoelectric actuator as the active
source. The inchworm type piezo actuators are either walker
type or pusher type [162].The frictional type and impact-
driven stepping actuators are categorized under inertial mode
piezo stepping actuator, which typically involves faster step-
ping motion through inertial principles [163]. The resonant
type stepping piezoelectric motors involve ultrasonic range
piezoelectric actuators which induce resonant wave motion
on to an elastic substrate. Depending on the type of motion-
induced, the ultrasonic piezo stepping actuator can be cat-
egorized as standing wave type and travelling type stepping
motors [33, 40]. The following section describes the working
12
Topical Review
principles of the different modes of stepping piezoelectric
motors.
5.1. Clamping and feeding mode (inchworm type) stepping
piezoelectric motor
The clamping and feeding mode stepping piezoelectric motor
are also known as inchworm motors type piezoelectric motors
since the nature of motion execution resembles the motion
principle adopted by the inchworm in nature. The piezoelec-
tric actuators either in the form of multi-layered piezo stacks or
amplified piezo actuators are used to execute the motion mim-
icking the inchworm [164]. The inchworm type-piezoelectric
motors incorporate the alternative clamping and driving mech-
anism to achieve the precision stepping motion. Further, the
inchworm type piezoelectric motors can be classified as the
pusher type with fixed actuators, walker type with the moving
actuators [165, 166]. These actuators have a similar working
principle except for the mounting of the clamping and driv-
ing actuators. Figure 14(a) represents the working principle of
the inchworm pusher type actuators. (1) In the initial position,
the clamping actuator 1 (right side represented in red), clamp-
ing actuator 2 (left side represented in green) and the driv-
ing actuator (centre represented in blue) will be un-actuated.
(2) During the operation, the clamping actuator 2 gets ener-
gized, which hold the slider firmly. (3) Application of the
electric potential across the driving actuator pushes the slider
towards the right, thus achieving a small range of motion. (4)
The clamping actuator 1 holds the slider firmly (5) the clamp-
ing actuator 2 de-energizes losing the clamping force. (6) The
driving actuator returns to its initial position. Continuous exe-
cution of the cycle of operation leads to large range linear
motion.
The walker type inchworm motor also has the same work-
ing principle as the pusher configuration. The fixed position
 Table 7. Details of amplified piezoelectric actuators reported in recent years.

Type of Mechanism Dimension of Actuation Range of Stack Amplification Range of APA Blocked Force
Author Year Ref. No. Mechanism Piezo Material Material Stack (mm) Voltage (V) (µm) Ratio (µm) of APA (N)
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002

X X Wang 2006 [131] Cymbal PZT — — — — — 0.23 —

P R Ouyang 2008 [132] Five Bar PZT — 6.5 × 6.5 × 20 16 16 16.2 259.2 —
Y B Ham 2009 [133] Lever PZT Steel 2 × 3 × 40 100 26 ≈26 683 —
M Muraoka 2010 [134] Honey Comb PZT Aluminium 5 × 5 × 40 150 41 ≈10 410 20
D Haller 2011 [135] Cymbal PZT Silicone — 150 — — 65 —
K W Chae 2011 [136] S-R PZT Polymer 2×3×9 100 6 ≈2.46 14.74 —
T Yeom 2012 [137] Elliptical PZT Spring Steel ∅ = 15, L = 46 100 9.00 ≈177 1612 —
X Sun 2013 [138] S-R PZT Aluminium 6.5 × 6.5 × 20 100 8.62 ≈15.5 134 —
Q Xu 2013 [139] Bridge PZT Aluminium 10 × 10 × 18 10 1.45 ≈193 280 —
Wenji Ai 2014 [140] S-R PZT Aluminium ∅ = 12, L = 68 100 45 ≈22.2 1000 —
S Lu 2014 [141] Rhombus PZT Steel ∅ = 10, L = 64 150 60 ≈8.33 500 —
J Chen 2015 [142] Rhombus PZT — 5 × 5 × 36 120 30 ≈3.33 100 —
Q S Pan 2015 [143] Rhombus PZT Steel 18 × 18 × 10 1400 34.6 ≈4.62 160 —

13
Y Liu 2016 [144] S-R PZT Aluminium L = 68 100 45 ≈16.13 720 —
T W Na 2016 [145] Bridge PZT Stainless Steel 5 × 5 × 18 150 20 ≈11 220 —
R D Dsouza 2016 [146] Rhombus PZT Spring Steel 5 × 5 × 10 160 10 ≈7.8 78.00 16.54
J W Sohn 2017 [147] Lever PZT Stainless Steel 5 × 5 × 40 150 42 ≈9.28 390 —
H Wei 2017 [148] Bridge PZT — 5 × 5 × 20 — 13.5 ≈12.44 168 —
S Yang 2017 [149] S-R PZT — 6.5 × 6.5 × 20 150 15.25 ≈9.81 149.73 —
L J Lai 2017 [150] Tensural PZT Aluminium — 10 10.48 ≈27.5 288.3 —
Y Fujimura 2018 [151] Moonie PZT Si 3 × 0.4 ×– — — — 239.5 —
R D Dsouza 2018 [152] Lever PZT Aluminium 5 × 5 × 20 160 30 ≈8.00 240.53 36.8
G Deng 2018 [153] Lever PZT — 7 × 7 × 36 120 32 ≈9.7 310 —
F Chen 2018 [154] Bridge PZT Aluminium — 150 122.2 ≈38.43 4688 —
W L Zhu 2018 [155] S-R PZT Aluminium ∅ = 12, L = 19 10 5.83 ≈5.4 31.4 —
J Liang 2019 [156] Lever PZT Aluminium ∅ = 12, L = 64 100 60 ≈2.72 163 —
S Mohith 2019 [157] Rhombus PZT Spring Steel 5 × 5 × 20 150 20 ≈6.35 127 —
M Ling 2019 [158] Rhombus PZT Aluminium 10 × 10 × 36 120 38 ≈31.84 1209.92 —
Y Ding 2019 [159] S-R, Bridge PZT Aluminium — 120 19.51 ≈3.51 68.55 —
Topical Review
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 14. Schematic of working principle of the Inchworm type piezoelectric stepping motor (a) Pusher type (fixed actuator) (b) Walker
type (Moving Actuator).
and continuous motion of the clamping actuator and the driv-
ing actuator differentiate the pusher type and the walker type
stepping actuator. Figure 14(b) represents the working prin-
ciple of the walker type actuator. (1) Initial position none
of the clamping and driving actuators are not energized. (2)
The actuation of clamping actuator 1 holds the base firmly.
(3) The driving actuator gets energized and extends linearly.
(4) The clamping actuator 2 clamps the actuator assembly
along with the clamping actuator 1. (5) The clamping actu-
ator 1 released. (6) The driving actuator comes to its original
position, and the process repeats. Thus the entire actuators
assembly, i.e. clamping, and driving actuator undergoes step-
ping motion which interns lead to the movement of the slider
connected to it. In general, the walking type stepping motor
employs piezoelectric stack or amplified piezoelectric actuat-
ors. The concept of walking type piezoelectric motor can also
be extended to produce rotary motion by replacing the linear
slide module with the rotary module. The clamping system can
be either through intermittent clamping mechanisms such as
piezoelectric [162], electromagnetic [167], inertial type [168],
14
Topical Review
or wedge type [169]. A continuous clamping mechanism such
as spring type [170], permanent magnet type [171], gravity
type and contact wheel type [40] has also been proposed.
Selection of suitable clamping mechanism depends on the
clamping force requirements and the design considerations.
Table 8 represents the recently reported walking type (inch-
worm actuator) in the recent year.
5.2. Inertial mode stepping piezoelectric motors
The inertial type of stepping piezoelectric motors works
on the principle of the utilization of the inertial force and
frictional force developed due to the deformation of the
piezo actuators. Conventionally, the inertial type piezoelec-
tric motors are actuated through sawtooth waveform to gen-
erate either linear or rotary range with large stroke [186].
The cyclic transition of the frictional force and the inertial
force between the driver and the stator delivers the step-
ping motion with higher resolution through stick-slip prin-
ciple. Thus inertial piezoelectric motors are also termed as
 Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002

Table 8. Details of recently reported inchworm stepping piezoelectric motor.

Linear Speed Rotational Speed Stroke Length Output Force Output Torque Linear Resolu- Angular Resolu-
Author Year Ref. No. Type Type of Motion (µm s−1 ) (µrad s−1 ) (µm) (N) (N-mm) tion (µm) tion (µrad)

C H oh 2010 [172] Pusher Linear 10 000 — 5000 — — 10 —

J Li 2013 [173] Pusher Rotary — 6508.5 — — 931 — 4.95
H Zhao 2013 [174] Pusher Rotary — 77 488 50 000 — 37 — 0.25
L Ma 2013 [175] Pusher Linear 2040 — 50 000 21 — 60 —
L Ma 2014 [176] Pusher Linear 1259 — 25 000 11 — 0.06 —

15
J Li 2014 [177] Walker Rotary — 71 300 — — 19.6 — 25
S Wang 2015 [178] Pusher Linear 248 — 4000 — — 0.0315 —
X Xue 2016 [179] Pusher Linear 445 — —- 15 —- 0.04 —
S Song 2018 [180] Pusher Rotary — 26 740 — — 245–882 — 4.79
S Wang 2018 [181] Pusher Rotary — 511.7–42 930 — — — — 0.567
Y Gao 2019 [182] Pusher Linear 13.5 — — 8.7 — 0.006–0.225 —
X Tian 2019 [183] Pusher Linear 273.4 — — 189.7 — 27.6 —
S Shao 2019 [184] Pusher Rotary — 43 500 — — 112 — 320
Y Wang 2019 [185] Pusher Linear 216.3 — — — — 0.038 —
Topical Review
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
stick-slip actuators [187, 188]. The inertial type stepping
motors have two types of configurations, i.e. as impact-driven
piezoelectric motors and the friction driven piezoelectric
motors.
The friction type inertial piezoelectric motors consist of
a fixed piezoelectric multi-layered actuator which drives the
slider through a friction element [189, 190]. The stepping
motion is produced by stick-slip motion between the slider
and the friction element of the piezo actuator. The working
principle of the friction type piezoelectric motors is repres-
ented in figure 15(a). (1) In the initial position, the driving
actuator attached with the friction element remains in the un-
actuated state; thus, no deformation or motion is generated.
(2) When the piezo actuator is driven through an external sig-
nal, the driving actuator undergoes deformation. Since the fric-
tion element remains in contact with the slider, i.e. stick state,
deformation of the actuator stimulates the slider to produce
the stepping motion. (3) When the applied potential decreases,
the driving actuator returns to its initial position rapidly. At
this stage, the inertial effect prevents the slider from follow-
ing the motion of the driving actuator; thus, there exists a
slipping motion causing the slider to remain in the extended
position.
The impact-driven inertial piezoelectric motors typically
consist of a driving actuator which drives the inertial block
and sliding block through the impact generated through the
inertial force [191]. Figure 15(b) represents the working prin-
ciple of the impact-driven inertial actuator. (1) The initial
state of the actuator without any actuation signal retains the
slider block and inertial block in the initial position. (2) Dur-
ing the actuation, the excitation voltage across the driving
actuator increases gradually leading to the displacement of
the inertial block. The static frictional force acting between
the slider block and the interface retains or sticks the slider
block in the initial position. (3) The rapid drop in the excit-
ation brings the driving actuator to its initial position. The
rapid retraction of the driving actuator pulls the inertial block.
In addition to this, the driving actuator induces an inertial
force which overcomes the static friction force of the slider
block, causing it to slip from its initial position. The sudden
impact displaces the slider block to undergo stepping motion.
The inertial type stepping piezoelectric motors can generate a
continuous range of stepping with high-resolution motion by
repeating the cycle of operation over a specific time interval.
The reversal of the operating cycle of the inertial actuator can
also generate backward motion, thus providing the advantage
of two-way motion. Also, the replacement of the linear slide
mechanism with the rotational can generate rotational stepping
motion with adequate precision. Table 9 represents perform-
ance features of recently reported inertial type stepping piezo
actuators.
5.3. Resonant type (ultrasonic) piezoelectric motors
The ultrasonic piezoelectric motors are resonant type actu-
ators known for generating higher velocity and the broad
range of motion in micromanipulation applications. Multi-
layered/amplified piezo actuators and stepping actuators often
16
Topical Review
operate at lower frequency range while ultrasonic actuators use
ultrasonic resonant vibration to produce continuous motion
[209, 210]. Typically ultrasonic piezoelectric motors are char-
acterized by a piezoelectric actuator operated at resonance
which imparts a driving force on to a stator which in turn drives
a slider or a rotor. Based on the propagation of ultrasonic wave
generated by the piezoelectric material, the ultrasonic piezo-
electric motors are classified as standing wave and travelling
wave actuator [211].
Figures 16(a) and (b) represents the schematic of the work-
ing principle of the travelling wave type and standing wave
type ultrasonic piezoelectric motors, respectively. The travel-
ling wave ultrasonic piezoelectric motors work similar to the
movement of the surfing board on the sea waves [212, 213].
The high-frequency excitation of the thin piezoelectric layer
transfers the ultrasonic wave on to an elastic stator bonded
on to its surface. The particles on the stator surface generate
an elliptical trajectory due to the travelling ultrasonic waves
across its surface. As a result of the elliptical path, the point
of contact between the stator and the slider/rotor shift dynam-
ically, leading to the linear/rational motion of the slider/rotor.
Unlike the stepping piezo actuator which generates stepping
motion, the travelling wave ultrasonic actuators are known to
generate continuous movement of the slider/rotor.
The standing wave stepping piezo motor typically consists
of a piezoelectric stator which induces standing wave with
orthogonal vibration on to an elastic substrate when subjec-
ted sinusoidal voltage at the resonance frequency [214, 215,
216]. Figure 16(b) represents the schematic of a standing wave
type piezo stepping actuator. As observed in figure 16(b), the
excitation of the stator causes the generation of an elliptical
trajectory which drives the slider/rotor. The driving foot of the
standing wave motor is typically oriented between the wave
node and the wave loop. The vibration of the stator allows the
tip of the driving foot unit to be in contact with the slider/rotor
which generates the driving motion through friction. Thus the
standing wave type ultrasonic piezo actuator generates step-
ping motion with the higher speed as compared with the con-
ventional steeping piezo actuators. Table 10 describes the crit-
ical performance features of recently reported ultrasonic piezo
stepping actuators.
The driving source for achieving precision actuation in
standing wave ultrasonic motors is typically achieved through
the longitudinal-longitudinal [237, 238, 239], bending-
bending mode [240, 241] of vibration of the pies-ceramics.
In recent years, the composite ultrasonic motors with the
hybrid mode of vibration such as longitudinal-bending
mode [242, 243], longitudinal-torsional mode [244, 245]
ultrasonic motors configurations are reported extensively.
Figures 17(a)–(d) represent the schematic, working principle
of longitudinal-longitudinal, bending-bending, longitudinal-
bending mode, and longitudinal-torsional mode, respectively.
Table 11 highlights the performance features of the recently
reported hybrid mode ultrasonic motors. The piezoelectric
actuators in ultrasonic hybrid motors are excited at an appro-
priate frequency which let them resonate at a suitable mode
of vibration to generate elliptical path which in turn gen-
erate precision motion by driving the slider or rotor. In the
 Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002

Table 9. Details of recently reported inertial stepping piezoelectric motor.

Linear Speed Rotational Speed Output Force Output Torque Linear Resolu- Angular Resolu-
Author Year Ref. No. Type Type of Motion (µm s−1 ) (µrad s−1 ) (N) (N-mm) tion (µm) tion (µrad)

Q S Zhang 2011 [192] Friction Linear 3–16 — 0.475 — — —

T Morita 2013 [193] Friction Linear 40 000 — 0.27 — —
J Li 2015 [194] Friction Linear 142 500 — 3.43 — 0.04 —
J Li 2015 [195] Friction Rotary — 32 000 11.76 — — 1.54
J Li 2015 [196] Friction Linear 3086 — 0.98 — 11.65 —
Y Peng 2015 [197] Impact Linear 5400 — —- — — 0.04
X Chu 2016 [198] Friction Linear 34 000 — 0.4 — 0.25 —

17
S Wang 2017 [199] Friction Rotary — 7000–8000 — 158 — 0.24
T Cheng 2017 [200] Impact Linear 410 — — — 0.130–1.522 —
S Wang 2017 [201] Friction Rotary — 1029.3–153 650 — 70.6–76.4 — 1.83–2.31
H Li 2017 [202] Impact Linear 390–410 — 0.882–1.42 — — —
Y Zhang 2018 [203] Friction Linear 46 670 — 40 0.04 —
X H Nguyen 2018 [204] Friction Linear 19 000 — 0.1 — 0.520–0.716 —
Q Shen 2018 [205] Friction Linear 720.65 15 0.05
F Qin 2019 [206] Friction Linear 2010–2340 — 3.724 — 0.89 —
B Zhong 2019 [207] Impact Linear 18 000–20 000 — 0.13 2.56–7.73
Q Gao 2019 [208] Friction Linear 15 040 — 4.312 — 30.69 —
Topical Review
 Table 10. Details of recently reported ultrasonic piezoelectric motors.

Type of Linear Rotational Speed Stroke Length Output Output Torque Linear Resolution Angular Resolution
Author Year Ref. No. Type Motion Speed (µm s−1 ) (µrad s−1 ) (mm) Force (N) (N-mm) (µm) (µrad)

D Sun 2010 [217] Travelling Linear 40 000 — 3.5 0.006 — — —

Wave
Y Liu 2010 [218] Standing Rotary — 17.28 × 106 — — 450 — —
Wave
S He 2011 [219] Standing Rotary — 41.88 × 106 — — 0.30 — —
Wave
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002

P Smithmaitrie 2012 [220] Travelling Linear 175 900 — — 0.29–3.99 — — —

Wave
S Park 2012 [221] Standing Rotary — 104.71 × 106 — — 0.370 — —
Wave
P Ci 2013 [222] Standing Linear 165 000 — — 3 — — —
Wave
X Yang 2013 [223] Travelling Linear 560 000 — — 55 — — —
Wave
S S Jeong 2013 [224] Standing Rotary — 43.71 × 106 — — 0.186 — —
Wave
X Zhou 2014 [225] Travelling Rotary 233 525.05 — — 1.47 — —
Wave

18
Y J Wang 2014 [226] Standing Linear — — 10.10 0.119 — — —
Wave
S Yuan 2015 [227] Standing Linear 106 000 — — 1.2 — — —
Wave
Y Liu 2015 [228] Standing Linear 891 300 — — 39.2 — — —
Wave
I Grybas 2016 [229] Standing Rotary — 6702.6 — — — — 8
Wave
L Wang 2017 [230] Travelling Linear 72 000 — — — — — —
Wave
L Wang 2017 [231] Travelling Linear 115 000 — — 0.25 — — —
Wave
X Zhou 2017 [232] Travelling Linear 114 600 — — 3.33 — — —
Wave
H Hariri 2018 [233] Travelling Linear 133 000 — — — — — —
Wave
J Liu 2018 [234] Resonant Linear 827 500 — — 27 — 0.21 —
Type
C M Weng 2018 [235] Travelling Linear 4500 — — 1.5 —- — —
Wave
F Qin 2019 [236] Travelling Rotary — 1036.72 × 106 — — 0.037 — —
Wave
Topical Review
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 15. Schematic of working principle of the (a) Friction (stick-slip) inertial piezoelectric motors (fixed actuator) (b) Impact driven
inertial piezoelectric motors (moving Actuator).
Figure 16. Schematic of working principle of the (a) Travelling wave type ultrasonic piezo actuator (b) Standing wave type ultrasonic
motors.
case of longitudinal-longitudinal mode ultrasonic motor, the
horizontal and the vertical piezo transducer are excited at a
frequency corresponding to the longitudinal mode of vibra-
tion along horizontal and vertical directions. The vertical
displacement of the vertical transducers pushes (phase shift
of π) the driving feet against the slider/rotor, alternatively.
At the same time, the horizontal transducer drives the slider.
Thus, the superimposition of the longitudinal mode of vibra-
tion of the horizontal and vertical transducer (phase shift of
π/2) at right angle generates elliptical motion which delivers
precision motion of the slider/rotor [237–239]. The bending-
bending mode of the ultrasonic motor (figure 17(b)) operates
under the bending resonance condition of the piezo trans-
ducer. Application of excitation voltage across the piezo trans-
ducers at a frequency corresponding to bending resonance
causes the motor driver to achieve bending motion along two
19
Topical Review
orthogonal directions. The superimposition of the orthogonal
bending mode of the piezo transducer generates elliptical
motion which in turn drives the slider/rotor through the driving
feet [240, 241].
In recent years, hybrid ultrasonic motors with the compos-
ite mode of vibration are extensively reported. The composite
mode of ultrasonic motors combines two different modes of
resonant vibration of the piezo transducer to generate the pre-
cision motion. The longitudinal-bending mode of the ultra-
sonic motor (figure 17(c)) integrates the longitudinal and
bending vibration modes to generate the elliptical path for gen-
erating precision motion. The longitudinal mode of vibration
effectively overcomes the preload exerted by the rotor/slider;
the bending mode causes the necessary pushing motion for
driving the slider/rotor through friction element attached to
the driving feet [243–255]. The longitudinal-torsional mode
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002 Topical Review

Table 11. Recently reported hybrid mode ultrasonic motors.

Type of Linear Speed Rotational Speed Output Force Output Torque

Author Year Ref. No. Type Motion (µm s−1 ) (µrad s−1 ) (N) (N-mm)

L Yang 2014 [246] Longitudinal- Rotary — 2000 × 106 — —

Torsional
X Yang 2015 [247] Longitudinal- Linear 487 000 — 2.3 —
Longitudinal
Z Chen 2015 [248] Longitudinal- Linear 310 000 — 2.35 —
Bending
X Zhou 2016 [249] Longitudinal- Linear 63 870 — 3.14 —
Longitudinal
L Yang 2016 [250] Longitudinal- Rotary — 107 861.35 — 48.00
Torsional
Y Ma 2016 [251] Bending- Rotary — 84 823.00 0.8
Bending
L Yang 2017 [252] Longitudinal- Rotary — 146 607.66 — 8.00
Torsional
V Dabbagh 2017 [253] Bending- Rotary — 25 551.62 — 0.32
Bending
X Chu 2017 [254] Bending- Linear 4900 — 5.0 —
Bending
Y Liu 2018 [255] Longitudinal- Linear 244 000 — 9.8 —
Bending
H Yu 2018 [256] Longitudinal- Linear 416 000 — 21 —
Longitudinal
L Wang 2018 [257] Longitudinal- Linear 127 310 — 2.8 —
Longitudinal
P Fan 2019 [258] Longitudinal- Linear 168 500 — 0.9 —
Bending
L Wang 2019 [259] Longitudinal- Linear 11 730 — 18 —
Bending
Z Yin 2020 [260] Longitudinal- Linear 200 000 — 10 —
Bending
R Niu 2020 [261] Longitudinal- Linear 135 000 — 3.6 —
Longitudinal

of ultrasonic motor consists of linear and torsional piezo
transducer for generating the precision motion. The driving
source of the slider/rotor originates from the longitudinal and
the torsional mode of vibration generated by the respective
transducers when externally excited [243–245]. Application of
a sinusoidal voltage across the piezo transducer in the stator
results in the generation of the longitudinal mode of vibra-
tion. Simultaneously torsional mode of vibration is generated
from the torsional transducer, which intakes excitation voltage
out of phase with that of the longitudinal transducer. Thus an
orthogonal propagation of the wave is generated which con-
sist of first longitudinal mode and secondary torsional mode
which in turn develops an elliptical motion which drives the
slider/rotor [245, 250, 252].
6. Multi degree freedom piezoelectric actuators
The advancement and application of precision motion with
multiple degrees of freedom in several commercial applic-
ations has led to the development of multi-degree of free-
dom actuators. The requirement of large stroke multi-degree
motion with higher resolution and speed could be achieved
with the integration of multiple stages of the piezoelec-
tric actuators [262, 263]. The classification of piezoelectric
based multi-DOF actuation systems is based on the type and
structural arrangement of the piezo driving unit. Based on the
type of piezo driving unit, the multi-DOF actuation systems
adopt either multiple stages of single piezo actuation stage pro-
ducing single-DOF motion or a single actuation unit producing
multi-DOF motion through a friction element [39].
The most commonly implemented form of multi-DOF
actuators adopts single-DOF piezo driving units which are
arranged either in series or parallel configuration to achieve
multi-DOF motion. The series configuration typically adopts
single-DOF piezo actuation unit mounted vertically over the
second unit. The vertical mounting of the different pies-
driven stages depends on the number of degrees of motion
required from multi-DOF actuator as a whole. The parallel
configuration of multi-DOF actuators consists of a number
of a single-DOF actuator mounted on the same plane, driv-
ing a single platform [264, 265]. The characteristics of the
motion generated by the multi-DOF stage majorly depend
on the type of piezoelectric actuator implemented. Based on

20
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 17. Schematic of principle of actutaion in (a) Londitudenal
mode (b) Bending mode (c) Longitudenal-Bending mode (d)
Longitudenal-Torsional model.
the type of piezoelectric actuator adopted, the multi-DOF
piezo actuation stage can be classified as direct actuated
type or stepping type multi-DOF actuator. The direct actu-
ation method includes conventional piezoelectric actuators
in the form of multi-layered piezo stack actuators or amp-
lified piezo actuators together with flexural mechanisms to
achieve high precision linear or rotational motion of mul-
tiple degrees [264, 266]. The direct-acting actuators are either
arranged in series or parallel configuration. Figures 18(a) and
(b) represents the schematic of series and parallel configura-
tion of the direct-acting multi-DOF stage. The direct actuation
mode employs a simple operating principle which involves the
application of an electric potential across the piezo actuator,
thus developing mechanical strain which in turn drives the
movable platform. Implementation of a flexural amplification
mechanism, along with the piezo actuator, can enhance the
range of motion associated with direct driven multi-DOF actu-
ator. The direct driven multi-DOF actuator stage can deliver
higher resolution motion; however, the range of motion is lim-
ited due to the limited range of motion developed by the mul-
tilayer piezo actuator.
The second class of multi-DOF piezoelectric actuators
involve stepping motion through multiple stages of piezo step-
ping actuators which can effectively overcome the short range
of motion associated with direct actuation mode [265, 267].
The conventional stepping actuators such as the inchworm,
inertial and ultrasonic actuators are effectively utilized to
generate multi-DOF linear or rotational motion. Similar to
direct actuated multi-DOF actuators, the driving and struc-
tural arrangement of multi-degree stepping piezo actuators
are either arranged in series or parallel configuration [46].
Figures 18(c) and (d) represents the schematic of multi-DOF
stepping piezo actuators. The series configuration typically
consists of a stepping stage with its output coupled with
to the second stage connected in series. The number of
degrees of freedom achieved with the actuator configuration
depends on the number of stages interconnected. The parallel
21
Topical Review
configuration also adopts a similar approach with the multiple
piezo stepping drivers connected in parallel across the driven
platform (figure 18(d)) [264, 268].
The series and parallel configurations of the actuator can
be assembled together to have higher degrees of freedom of
motion as the output [269, 270]. Such multi-DOF actuators
are classified under series-parallel type actuators. Figure 19(a)
represents the schematic of a series-parallel configuration
of the multi-DOF piezoelectric actuators. Typically the
series-parallel configuration of the multi-DOF piezo actuat-
ors produces linear motion/rotational along three mutually
perpendicular directions as represented in figure 19(a). Dir-
ect actuation principle or stepping actuation principle can
be effectively adopted to produce precision motion with
series-parallel configuration. Apart from multiple actuators,
the multi-DOF motion can be also achieved through single
actuator arrangements which are operated either under quasi-
static or under resonance actuation mode.
Figure 19(b) represents the schematic of the single actu-
ator type Rotary-Linear (X-θ) multi DOF actuator. The
linear-rotary multi-DOF actuator consists of a stator integ-
rated with piezo actuator excited at distinct vibration modes
corresponding to the natural frequency. The vibration gen-
erated by the start is in turn transferred to a moving out-
put shaft which undergoes linear/rotational motion. The driv-
ing platform follows the motion of the moving shaft, thus
delivering required motion for precision applications. Typ-
ically linear-rotary multi-DOF actuator configuration of the
multi-DOF actuator employs either piezoelectric tube, piezor-
ing stack actuator as the primary source of motion. The single
bending actuator configuration for multi-DOF adopts a bend-
ing actuator configuration which drives a positioning platform
as represented in figure 19(c). The bending motion generated
by the piezoelectric actuator drives the positioning platform
through a friction element similar to that of an inertial actu-
ator. The single bending actuator configuration is able to gen-
erate linear or rotary motion along two mutually perpendicu-
lar directions [271, 272]. Table 12 highlights the performance
parameters of the multi-DOF piezoelectric actuator with dif-
ferent actuation principles. The single actuator configurations
have the advantage of less number of actuators when com-
pared with other configuration to achieve multi-degree motion.
However, accurate control of motion along different coordin-
ates is relatively complex when compared with multi actuator
configuration.
7. Discussion and comparison on different types of
piezoelectric actuators
Over the past few years, the piezoelectric actuators technology
has seen tremendous growth in terms of design and perform-
ance. The year-long research and development towards the
development of piezoelectric actuator technology have made
them critical players in precision applications due to the ability
to offer high precision motion with resolution micrometre to
nanometre range. Also, the piezoelectric actuators provide the
 Table 12. Details of recently reported multi-DOF piezoelectric actuators.

Angular Rotational Linear Angular

Stroke Length Deflection Linear Speed Speed Resolution Resolution Torque
Author Year Ref. No. Type Driver DOF (µm) (µrad) (µm s−1 ) (µrad s−1 ) (µm) (µrad) Force (N) (N-mm)

C H Yun 2012 [273] Single Piezo θX θy θz — — — 600 × 106 — — 0.76 × 10−3 1.6 × 10−6
actuation Tube
L J Lai 2012 [264] Parallel Direct X,Y 40/40 — — — 0.003 — 70 —
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002

W M Chen 2013 [274] Single Inertial X, θX 22.2 × 103 — 21 000 3.72 × 106 — — 2.3 × 10−3 —
Actuation
M Guo 2013 [275] Single Piezo Tube θX θy θz — — — 92.36/ — — — 1.8 × 10−3 /
Actuation 136.97 3.6 × 10−3
S Hua 2014 [269] Series- Inchworm X, θX 20 000 — 482 10 000 0.2 0.3 39.22 380
Parallel
Z Chen 2014 [276] Single Ultrasonic X,Y 35 000 — — — 0.25 —
Actuation
J Li 2015 [270] Series- Inchworm X, θX — — 105.31 3521.7 — — 4.9 294
Parallel
X Sun 2015 [267] Series Inchworm X, θX — — 1450 34 270 — — 11.8 73.5
C H Cheng 2015 [265] Parallel Inertial X, θX — — — — 0.1 698.1317
K Cai 2016 [268] Parallel Ultrasonic X, Y, θz 8.5/6.5 289 — — 0.005 1.25 — —

22
Y T Liu 2016 [277] Series- Direct X,Y,Z 6.35/6.61/10.12 0.01
Parallel
J Li 2017 [278] Series Direct X,Y 15.45/17.65 — 6250–7450 — — — 9.80 —
X Zhang 2017 [266] Parallel Direct X,Y 127 — — — 0.02 — — —
C Tang 2017 [279] Series- Direct X,Y,Z 10.39/15.43/ — — — — — — —
Parallel 15.55
J Deng 2018 [280] Parallel Direct X, θX — — 19 800 266 000 0.016 0.198 — —
C Lin 2018 [281] Series- Direct X,Y,Z,θX , 111.38/260.06 4.58 × 103 / — — — — — —
Parallel θy ,θz 2.71 × 103
Y Tian 2019 [282] Series- Direct X,Y,Z 128.1/131.3/17.9 — — 10 — — —
Parallel
Y Liu 2019 [283] Parallel Inertial X,Y — 101.7/124.2 —– 0.1–0.2 — — —
S Zhang 2019 [272] Single Inertial θX θy — — 154 000 — 2.49/2.52 — —
Actuation
Y Liu 2019 [284] Parallel Ultrasonic X,Y — 543 000/572 000— 2 — 22/24 —
J Deng 2019 [285] Parallel Direct X,Y — 300 — 0.016 — 350 —
C Liang 2019 [286] Parallel Direct θX θy — 2040/2012 — — —– 5 — —
M Ling 2019 [287] Parallel Direct X,Y 138/138 — — — — — — —
Q Zhang 2019 [288] Parallel Direct X,Y 346.1/357.2 — — — — — — —
C Liao 2020 [289] Series Direct X,Y 128.775 — — —- 0.010 —- —- —-
Y J Wang 2020 [290] Parallel Inertial X,Y 6000 — 18 000/16 000 — 0.1 — — —
Topical Review
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 18. Schematic of (a) Direct actuation mode series multi-DOF piezo actuator (b) Direct actuation mode parallel multi-DOF piezo
actuator (c) Series type multi-DOF stepping piezo actuator stage (d) Parallel type multi-DOF stepping piezo actuator stage.
Figure 19. (a) Series-parallel configuration of the multi-DOF
actuator (b) Single actuator type Rotary-Linear (X-θ) multi DOF
actuator (C) Single Bending actuator type multi-DOF actuator.
advantage of compact device development, low voltage actu-
ation, quick response time, vacuum compatibility, and non-
magnetic actuation, less wear, and high life cycle. However,
23
Topical Review
the dynamic operation of the piezoelectric actuators over a
long period leads to internal heat generation, which affects the
electromechanical coupling which in turn affects the actuator
performance. Also, the performances of piezoelectric actuat-
ors are affected due to the environmental humidity and rise in
temperature [291–293].
The different designs of the piezoelectric actuators provide
a broad range of performance feature, and the selection of a
particular actuator is application-specific. The free deflection
and the blocked force developed by the piezo actuator can
be considered as one of the critical features for a selection
of the piezo actuator for a specific application. Other factors
include stiffness, actuation voltage, resonant frequency, and
capacitance. Figure 20 represents the comparison of different
types of the piezoelectric actuator based on the free deflection
and the blocked force developed. The following comparison
plot includes data from the different actuators reported in the
literature by various researchers and commercially available
actuators whose details are provided in the appendix.
As observed in figure 20, the unimorph/bimorph cantilever
types actuators and plate benders typically offer a higher range
of motion but develop a lower range of blocked force. Also,
these actuators are less stiffer, which makes it flexible enough
to be easily bonded on to the structural members. The stacked
piezo actuators offer higher blocked for, but lack in terms of
free deflection. The range of motion can be enhanced by stack-
ing multiple stack actuators on over the other, but this creates
hurdle in the application, which involves miniaturization and
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 20. Comparison of the performance of monolayer piezoelectric actuator, bilayer piezoelectric actuator, multilayer piezoelectric
actuator and amplified piezoelectric actuator.
space constraints. The integration of flexural amplifier with
the piezo stack actuator can enhance the performance in terms
of free deflection but reduces the blocked force, stiffness, and
response time of the actuator as a whole. Besides, the flexural
amplifier and the interfacing structural members can add to the
cost of the actuator in terms of manufacturing and materials
involved. Table 13 highlights the comparison of key features
of the different piezo actuators.
The need for a broad range of motion coupled with better
resolution and speed led to the development of stepping piezo
actuators. Typically stepping piezoelectric motors use either
bimorph/multilayer or amplified piezo actuators as the source
to drive either the slider or the rotor with higher resolution.
The inchworm motors, inertial motors, and ultrasonic motors
extended the application of piezo generated motion to large
range precision motion. The major advantage of such step-
ping motors involves broad range bidirectional motion with
better travel speed and output force. The parameter such as
the linear/rotary speed and output force/torque are critical in
performance evaluation of the stepping actuators.
Figures 20(a) and (b) compares the performance of both
linear and rotary type inchworm, inertial and ultrasonic actu-
ators in terms of the linear/rotary speed and the force/torque
developed. The inchworm and inertial type stepping actuat-
ors are typically quasi-static which operate at a lower range of
frequency. The loading capacity of inchworm motors majorly
depends on the static friction between the slider/rotor and the
clamping mechanism. Thus inchworm motors are capable of
generating higher force/torque as observed from figures 21(a)
and (b). Also, these motors offer higher resolution motion
with a compact design. The complex motion configuration of
the clamping and driving actuator leads to the lower speed of
motion. The slider/rotor is prone to vibration if there exists an
unsynchronized operation of clamping and driving actuator.
The constant motion of the moving actuator configuration of
the inchworm actuator may create an inconvenient situation in
handling the power cables of the moving actuator.
24
Topical Review
The inertial type stepping motors relatively have less struc-
tural complexity when compared with the inchworm actu-
ators due to the absence of clamping systems. The inertial
motors can develop moderate force/torque and reasonably bet-
ter driving velocity than the inchworm actuator as evident
from figures 21(a) and (b). During the operation of the iner-
tial motors, a certain amount of rollback motion of the slider-
/rotor is inevitable which majorly depends on the preload
between the slider/rotor and friction element. This rollback
can cause some degree of loss of motion, which intern affect
the performance as a whole. Further, the constant movement
of the actuator in impact-driven inertial actuator can lead to
uneasiness in handling power cables which move along with
the actuator. The ultrasonic piezoelectric motors belongs to
a non-quasistatic group of actuators which generate precision
motion at very high frequency. The ultrasonic motors offer
the advantage of high-speed linear/rotary motion relatively a
lower force/torque. Also, ultrasonic actuators have the benefit
of lightweight, simple construction, noiseless operation, and
self-braking. The ultrasonic motors operate at a specific fre-
quency, phase, and amplitude of the actuation signal and the
complexity involved in controlling these signals adds to the
demerits of such actuators. Table 14 summarizes the perform-
ance of the different motors based on the accumulated data
from tables 8–11.
The multi-degree of actuators can operate in a different
mode with different types of actuation principles to gener-
ate either linear or rotational precision motion in different
directions. The performance of the multi-DOF actuators in
terms of degrees of motion, range of motion and the resolution
of motion majorly depend on the type of actuator configura-
tion, the arrangement of actuators in different directions and
the structural configurations. Implementation of direct actu-
ation mode in multi-DOF actuators leads to a limited range
of motion. The traditional actuators such as the multi-layered
piezo stack actuators, amplified piezo actuators, tube actu-
ators can generate a limited range of motion which limits
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Table 13. Comparison of unimorph/bimorph, multilayer and amplified piezo actuator.
Parameter Unimorph/Bimorph Actuator Piezo Tube Actuator Piezo Multilayer Actuator Amplified Piezo Actuator
Deflection (µm) Large (≤11 000) Small (≤35)
Blocked Force (N) Low (≤0.4) N/A
Table 14. Comparison of stepping piezoelectric actuators.
Parameter Inchworm Motor
Stroke (µm) Large
Linear Speed (µm s−1 ) Low (≤10 000)
Linear Resolution (µm) Good (≥0.038)
Rotational Speed (µrad s−1 ) Low (≤77 488)
Rotational Resolution (µrad) Good (≥0.25)
Force (N) High (≤189.7)
Torque (N-mm) High (≤882)
Control System Complex
the actuation range achieved with direct actuation mode of
multi-DOF actuators. However, the improved resolution of
motion can be ensured with the direct actuation mode of multi-
DOF actuators.
The limitations of a short range of motion associated with
the direct actuation principle can be overcome with the step-
ping mode of actuation. The stepping mode of actuation such
as the clamping and feeding mode, inertial mode or resonant
mode of actuation can effectively enhance the range of multi-
DOF actuator stage. The selection of appropriate stepping
mode of actuation depends on different factors such as the res-
olution of motion, speed of actuation, force/torque. Among
the different stepping mode, the ultrasonic mode of actu-
ation develops a higher speed of motion with lower resolu-
tion and moderate force/torque. The inertial mode of actuation
for multi-DOF actuator stage imparts precision motion with
higher force/torque with inferior resolution and speed. The
direct mode of actuation has a simple structural arrangement
with easily integrated and controllable piezoelectric actuation
stage, which adds to the advantage of the direct mode of actu-
ation. Unlike the stepping mode of actuation which involves
complicated structural arrangements in addition to the limita-
tion in terms of wear and tear, nonlinearity and complex con-
trol strategies.
The parallel configuration of the piezoelectric multi-DOF
stage incorporates a compact design which occupies less
space. The different axes motions possess the same dynamic
characteristics since the piezoelectric actuators for achieving
motion along different direction are directly acting on a single
platform. This, in turn, benefits in the reduction of overall
moving mass, considering the entire piezoelectric multi-DOF
system as a whole, thus reducing the mass inertia effect. Since
the parallel configuration significantly employs direct actu-
ation principle, the direct parallel metrology can be conveni-
ently adopted for the measurement of degrees of freedom of
a moving platform in different directions with respect to a
fixed reference point. With the implementation of close loop
sensor-based position control, a highly reliable accurate pre-
cision motion is achievable with the parallel configuration in
25
Topical Review
Small (≤100) Moderate (≤4688)
High (≤20 000) Moderate (≤36.5)
Inertial Motor Ultrasonic Motor
Large Large
Moderate (≤40 000) High (≤827 500)
Good (≥0.04) Moderate (≥0.21)
Moderate (≤153 650) High (≤1036.72 × 106 )
Moderate (≥0.04) Moderate (≥8)
Moderate (≤40) Moderate (≤39.2)
Moderate (≤158) Moderate (≤450)
Simple Complex
real-time, thus enhancing the dynamic characteristics. Also,
the parallel configuration has the advantage of higher stiff-
ness and higher load-carrying capability. The series configur-
ation of the piezoelectric multi-DOF actuation does not pos-
sess dynamic characteristics as good as that of the parallel
configuration of the piezoelectric multi-DOF stage. The series
configuration of the piezoelectric multi-DOF actuator stage
finds commercial application in low cost, highly reliable, easy
control systems with small coupling errors where the superior
dynamic characteristics are not the major concerns. The series
configuration occupies larger space since multiple stages of
single-DOF systems are stacked one over the other results in
increased bulkiness. The cumulative effect of errors of differ-
ent stages in series can affect the accuracy of the system. In
addition, the series configuration possesses other shortcom-
ings such as parasitic movements of different stacked stages,
reduction in natural frequencies due to increased mass, differ-
ent dynamic characteristics in different DOF motion directions
and large cross-couplings.
8. Applications and commercial aspects of
piezoelectric actuators
Over the past few years, the piezoelectric actuator techno-
logy has gained significant consideration as a source of the
precision actuation system. The need of maximum position
accuracy with improved resolution and repeatability in the
micro/nanometre range has grabbed the attention of many
researchers in the development of different varieties of piezo-
electric actuators and the implementation of the same for vari-
ous commercial applications. The advantage of high-speed
motion coupled with high resolution/precision motion, simple
design, less moving parts with minimum wear and tear, silent
drive and less power consumption makes them suitable for
various commercial applications even in extreme cryogenic
or vacuum environment. The piezoelectric actuators proved
to have widespread applications in precision manufacturing,
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 21. Comparison of the performance of (a) Linear Inertial,
Inchworm and ultrasonic Piezoelectric Motors (b) Rotary Inertial,
Inchworm and Ultrasonic piezoelectric motors.
fluidic applications, medical technology, microelectronic-
s/semiconductor device, aviation and defence sector, automa-
tion, micro-optics, robotics and consumer electronics. Figure
22 highlights some of the application domains of piezoelectric
actuation technology.
Microfluidic devices such as micropumps [47], micro-
mixers, micro-reactors, micro-separators, microvalves make
extensive use of unimorph/bimorph piezoelectric actuators
as an active source for actuation [2]. The precision bend-
ing motion generated by the flexible piezoelectric actuat-
ors controls the flow of the fluid through micro-devices
[35, 41–44]. Such microfluidic devices find extensive applic-
ation in drug delivery, electronic cooling, fuel cells, lab on a
chip, micro jet dispensers etc [2]. These microfluidic devices
also adopt multilayer piezo stack actuators/amplified piezo
actuators as an active source for precision delivery of fluids
26
Topical Review
[100, 129, 157]. The multilayer piezoelectric stack actuat-
ors coupled with amplification mechanisms find an applica-
tion which requires a broader range of motion with higher
force. Some of the fluidic devices such as spool valves [101],
jet dispensers [105, 107, 147, 153], micro dispensers [141]
employ piezoelectric stack actuators for precision motion. The
cantilever type monolayer/bilayer piezoelectric actuators find
application in micro-gripper [61, 63], micro-tweezers [66]
which are intended to grip and hold micro-sized objects. Such
micro grippers are effectively used in applications such as fibre
optics, end effector in minimal invasive surgery, micro devices
and chip fabrication, etc. The micro grippers and micro tweez-
ers can also be realized through compliant flexural mechan-
isms with multilayer piezo stack actuators as a source of actu-
ation which can generate higher force [103].
Advancement in the medical diagnosis and pharmaceut-
ical therapy requires precision motion systems with compact
design, minimum energy consumption, high speed and reliab-
ility. Piezoelectric actuators are self-capable of fulfilling preci-
sion motion requirement of medical technology. Piezoelectric
tube actuators are applicable in endoscopic applications due
to their flexibility of multi-degree of motion, particularly
for delivery image information, minimally invasive surgical
procedures and treatments. The high precision positioning
systems for laser beam control and focussing in ophthal-
mology adopts piezoelectric actuators to a greater extent.
Other than these, the fluid delivery system for drug deliv-
ery, sample handling, drug discovery and similar other field
employs piezo actuators as an active source in the form of
micropumps, micro-dosing systems and pipetting systems.
Other medical-related applications of piezoelectric actuat-
ors involve image stabilization, precision motion in mag-
netic resonance imaging, 3D bio cellular assembly systems,
artificial fertilization systems, implants and prosthetics, etc
[176, 183, 275, 278].
Image processing applications are very much evident in
applications such as medical and pharmaceutical research,
manufacturing and material research for a verity of visualiza-
tion tasks. Such image processing technology requires fast and
accurate drive mechanisms with the compact structure cap-
able of operating under a magnetic field, radiation environ-
ment and vacuum conditions. The precision motion coupled
with good repeatability and better resolution motion increased
the scope of piezoelectric actuators in micro optic applications.
Micro scanning mirrors, precision positing and focussing of
lens and mirrors are some of the functionalities associated with
scanning electron microscope, atomic force microscope, while
field interferometry, etc [73, 268, 289]. Piezoelectric tube
actuators, multi-DOF piezoelectric stages are commendably
employed in such microoptic applications. The precision pos-
itioning stages with multiple degrees of freedom find extens-
ive applications in manufacturing and assembly of precision
devices.
Manufacturing technology and automation sector require
miniaturized, energy-saving precision drive systems cap-
able of fulfilling the need of micro/nano device fabrication
with dimensional accuracy and precision. Such an advanced
manufacturing system also calls for linear/rational multi-axis
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
Figure 22. Application domains of piezoelectric actuation technology.
motion drives. The stepping actuators/motors such as the iner-
tial motors, inchworm motors and ultrasonic motor incor-
porate bilayer or multilayer piezoelectric actuator to deliver
significant range stepping motion with better resolution and
accuracy. The multi-axis precision motion through stepping
position stages are best suitable for precision tool and work-
piece feeding [175, 183], microchip fabrication and pack-
aging, semiconductor device fabrication, positioning stages
for micro-welding, milling, turning, laser, electric discharge
machining [272, 277], 3D additive manufacturing [203].
Piezoelectric actuators are also employed as an active source
in the vibration isolation system, which considerably reduces
undesirable vibration nonlinearities, reduces the settling, and
enhances the measurement/machining accuracy. Besides, the
defence, aviation and aerospace sector also employs piezo-
electric actuators in different applications. Some of the
applications include precision actuation of flaps, winglets
in helicopters, trajectory control of missiles/unmanned aer-
ial vehicles, active control of flow on air-foils, active vibra-
tion damping, precision motion control of defence cameras,
landing gears, optic equipment micro-thrusters for satellites,
solar image diameter and surface mappers, precision actuation
mechanisms for micro/nano satellites, space interferometers,
shape and position control of antennas and mirrors.
The increasing demand for compact, high-performance
and long cycle precision devices and consumer electronic
products has led to the high growth rate of the piezo-
electric actuator, and the motor industry. The market for
piezoelectric actuators majorly depends on the application
and the geographical region. According to technavio mar-
ket research, the piezoelectric market is estimated to be
about from 11.78 Billion in 2016 to USD 25 Billion
by 2021 with the compound annual growth rate of 16%
27
Topical Review
with a significant contribution from American countries,
European and Asian Pacific countries [294]. Such growth rate
and demand call for continuous research and development
towards high-performance piezoelectric actuators. Some of
the key market participants in the manufacturing and tech-
nology development of piezoelectric actuator include Noliac,
CTS Corporation (Kvistgard, Denmark), Mide Technology
(Massachusetts, USA), APC international Ltd (Pennsylvania,
USA), Cedrat Technologies (Meylan Cedex, France), Thor-
labs (Newjercy, USA), Physique Instrumente (Karlsruhe, Ger-
many), Piezodrive (New South Wales, Australia), Smart Act
(Oldenburg, Germany), Attocube (Haar, Germany), Shinsei
Corporation (Tokyo, Japan).
9. Concluding remarks and future prospective
The present review aims at presenting a comprehensive sur-
vey of technological advancement in piezoelectric actuat-
ors, particularly for precision manipulation and positioning
applications. An attempt is made to bring out the detailed
overview of the development of piezoelectric actuator tech-
nology, the concept of piezoelectricity as a source of pre-
cision actuation, different piezoelectric materials and modes
of actuation. The paper highlights the brief classification of
the piezoelectric actuators based on the design, construc-
tion and functionality together with the technical specification
and the performance features. Among different categories
of piezoelectric actuators, the unimorph/bimorph, piezoelec-
tric actuators exhibited a higher range of motion, but lack
in terms of the blocked force developed. The multi-layered
stacked configuration of the piezoelectric actuator executed
Smart Mater. Struct. 30 (2021) 013002
higher stiffness and blocked force coupled with a reason-
able range of motion. Integration of flexural based amplifier
with piezoelectric stack actuators enhanced the displacement
range with moderate blocked force. The stepping piezoelectric
actuators/motors can further improve the displacement range
by executing bidirectional continuous stepping motion (lin-
ear/rotary). The ultrasonic piezoelectric motor outperformed
inertial piezoelectric motor and inchworm piezoelectric motor
in terms speed of motion but delivered lower force/torque. The
inchworm motors delivered high force/torque but are inferior
in terms of speed of motion. The performance of inertial
piezoelectric motors falls in between that of ultrasonic motor
and inchworm motors. The traditional and stepping piezo-
electric actuators are effectively implemented in multi-DOF
actuation stages to achieve multiple degrees of freedom lin-
ear/rotational motion along different axes. The direct actu-
ation mode of the multi-DOF piezoelectric stage executed
superior resolution with the limited stroke. Implementation
of stepping piezoelectric actuators enhanced the range of
motion along the different direction in multi-DOF actuation
stages with inferior resolution when compared with direct
actuation mode. The series configuration of multi-DOF actu-
ation stage adopts simple and flexible construction feature
which can execute a large range of motion. The applica-
tion of series configuration is limited due to the bulkiness,
increased inertia effect, cumulative nonlinearity and the cross-
coupling errors. The parallel configuration instead employs a
compact structural arrangement with reduced inertial effect
and enhanced dynamic characteristics along different axes
of motion.
Based on the detailed survey of the piezoelectric actuators,
the authors observed the following research suggestions.
• Development and application of pre-stressed multilayer
piezo stack actuator for high force applications
• Development and optimization of novel flexural based
amplification mechanisms for multilayer piezoelectric
stack actuators with a higher range of amplification and
delivery of higher blocked force. In addition, miniaturiz-
ation of such amplified piezoelectric actuators for MEMS
and NEMS applications.
• Miniaturization of existing concepts of stepping piezoelec-
tric motors with superior structural design to have bet-
ter performance in terms of speed, force/torque, enhance-
ment of reliability and repeatability and overall life of the
actuator.
• Optimization of the frictional behaviour occurring due to
the relative motion between the slider and the driving unit
in stepping piezoelectric actuator to minimize wear and tear
to enhance the life span of the actuator. Development and
application of friction-resistant materials can be the scope
of future implementation.
• Development of advanced locking/clamping mechanisms
which ensures accurate/precision motion by developing
appropriate clamping force and instantaneous release to
achieve the next step of motion without delay or lag.
• Exploration of advanced and novel driving mechanisms
through a hybrid approach with the piezoelectric actuator
28
Topical Review
to achieve better resolution and precision, speed of actu-
ation, force/torque with the emphasis on miniaturization
and elimination of system nonlinearity due to structural
assembly.
• Integration of piezoelectric actuator technology with state
of the art modelling and control approaches to eliminate
system nonlinearity and achieve higher accuracy and
precision motion.
Appendix
The following companies currently fabricate and commer-
cially market different varieties of piezoelectric actuator.
Figures 19 and 20 considered some of the data from following
websites. (Accessed between 12 January 2020 and 14 January
2020)
Noliac, Kvistgård, Denmark, https://www.noliac.com
Piezo, Woburn, https://www.piezo.com
Micromechatronics, Inc. (MMech), Pennsylvania, United
States, https://www.mmech.com
Mide Engineering Solutions, Woburn, Massachusetts,
United States, https://www.mide.com
Thorlabs, Newton, New Jersey, United States,
https://www.thorlabs.com
Physik Instrumente, Karlsruhe, Germany, https://www.
physikinstrumente.com
Cedrat Technologies, Meylan, Cedex, France,
https://www.cedrat-technologies.com
PiezoDrive, Shortland, Newcastle, Australia,
https://www.piezodrive.com
Smart Act, Oldenburg, Germany, https://www.smaract.com
Attocube, Haar, Germany, https://www.attocube.com
Shinsei Corporation, Georgia, United States,
https://www.shinsei-motor.com
ORCID iD
S Mohith  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5232-235X
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