Gis Geographic Information Systems Lec 1 Part A Combined

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GIS - Geographic Information Systems Lec 1 - Part A
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Assiut University)
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Geographic Information Systems

GIS
LEC - 1
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
PART A - WHAT IS GIS? HISTORY

OF GIS

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1.1. GIS DEFINITIONS AND

PRINCIPLES
1.2. HISTORY OF GIS
1.3. GIS MAIN CONCEPTS
1.4. GIS FUNCTIONS
1.5. GIS COMPONENTS
1.6. GIS APPLICATIONS
1.7. DATA IN GIS
1.8. SELECTING THE RIGHT DATA

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GIS Definitions and

principals
WHAT IS GIS?
GIS = GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

SYSTEM(S)
GIS IS A COLLECTION OF COMPUTER
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND
GEOGRAPHIC DATA FOR CAPTURING,
MANAGING, ANALYZING, AND
DISPLAYING ALL FORMS OF
GEOGRAPHICALLY REFERENCED
INFORMATION.
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS RESEARCH
INSTITUTE (ESRI), 2007

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DEFINITION OF GIS (1)
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM:

“AN ORGANIZED COLLECTION OF
COMPUTER HARDWARE, SOFTWARE,
GEOGRAPHIC DATA, AND PERSONNEL
DESIGNED TO EFFICIENTLY CAPTURE,
STORE, UPDATE, MANIPULATE,
ANALYZE AND DISPLAY ALL FORMS
OF GEOGRAPHICALLY REFERENCED
INFORMATION.”
—FROM UNDERSTANDING GIS—THE
ARC/INFO METHOD, ESRI, 1993

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MAJOR QUESTIONS
FOR A GIS:
•WHAT EXISTS AT A CERTAIN

LOCATION?
•WHERE ARE CERTAIN
CONDITIONS SATISFIED?
•WHAT HAS CHANGED IN A
PLACE OVER TIME?
•WHAT SPATIAL PATTERNS
EXIST?
•WHAT IF THIS CONDITION
OCCURRED AT THIS PLACE?
(MODELLING, HYPOTHESIS
TESTING)

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TOP BENEFITS OF GIS
•COST SAVINGS AND INCREASED

EFFICIENCY
•BETTER DECISION MAKING
•IMPROVED COMMUNICATION
•BETTER RECORDKEEPING
•MANAGING GEOGRAPHICALLY

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What is GIS “Geographic

Information System”?
A geographic information system (GIS)
uses computers and software to control the
fundamental principle of geography—that
location is important in people’s lives.
GIS combines layers of information about a
place to give you a better understanding of
that place.
What layers of information you combine
depends on
your purpose — finding the best location for a
new store, analyzing environmental
damage, viewing similar crimes in a city to
detect a pattern, and so on.
Why is this layering so important?
The power of a GIS over paper maps is your
ability
to select the information you need to see
according
to what goal you are trying to achieve.
A business person trying to map customers
in
a particular city will want to see very
different
information than a water engineer who wants
to see the water pipelines
for the same city.
Both may start with a common
map—a street and neighborhood map of the
city

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but the information they add to that map will

differ.
GIS CONCEPTS ARE

NOT NEW!
•LONDON CHOLERA EPIDEMIC 1854

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GIS concepts are not new!

The concepts used in GIS are not new to Geographers. In the purest sense
Geographers have made use of such systems for many years, but these have been
manually operated - card indexes with paper map overlays, atlases and similar
systems. The following is one example:
In the London Cholera epidemic of 1854 Dr. John Snow was able to locate the source
of the the outbreak by plotting the locations of fatal cases.
SPATIAL INFORMATION HANDLING

1854

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The location of cholera cases and the position of the water pumps in
Soho, London 1854
John Snow found that there was a concentration of some 500 cases within a few
hundred yards of one particular public water pump on Broad Street, Soho.
Snow was able to prove this: when the pump handle was removed, no new cases
were diagnosed in that Street. He proved that the pump had been the source of the
those cases and that the cholera was carried in the contaminated water.

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1.2. HISTORY OF
GIS
•PRIOR TO 1960
•GIS’S ORIGINS LIE IN THEMATIC
CARTOGRAPHY.
•MANY PLANNERS USED THE
METHOD OF MAP OVERLAY USING
MANUAL TECHNIQUES.
•THE 1960S AND 1970S
•MANY NEW FORMS OF GEOGRAPHIC
DATA AND MAPPING SOFTWARE.
•FIRST GIS DEVELOPED IN CANADA
FOR LAND USE INVENTORY.
•DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST
COMPUTER CARTOGRAPHY
PACKAGES FOR MAINFRAME
COMPUTERS.
•FIRST REMOTE SENSING IMAGES.
•MATHEMATICAL MODELS.
•ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
RESEARCH INSTITUTE (ESRI)

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•FIRST COMMERCIAL GIS
PACKAGES.
•DIFFUSION OF
MICROCOMPUTERS.

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•INTEGRATION WITH OTHER

SOFTWARE (MAINLY CAD AND
DATABASES).
•US CENSUS BUREAU EFFORTS
IN THE 1980S:
•DIGITIZE SPATIAL, ECONOMIC AND
DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES OF THE
UNITED STATES.
•CREATION OF THE TIGER FORMAT
(TOPOLOGICALLY INTEGRATED
GEOGRAPHIC ENCODING AND
REFERENCE ).
•THE 2000S
•INTEGRATED INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGIES WITH
GEOGRAPHY.
•POWERFUL APPLICATIONS ON
DESKTOP COMPUTERS.
•WEB/NETWORK BASED DATA
SOURCES.

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•PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE

FIELD GISS WITH GPS
CAPABILITIES.

•FIRST COMMERCIAL GIS
PACKAGES.
•DIFFUSION OF
MICROCOMPUTERS.
•INTEGRATION WITH OTHER
SOFTWARE (MAINLY CAD AND
DATABASES).
•US CENSUS BUREAU EFFORTS
IN THE 1980S:
•DIGITIZE SPATIAL, ECONOMIC AND
DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES OF THE
UNITED STATES.
•CREATION OF THE TIGER FORMAT
(TOPOLOGICALLY INTEGRATED
GEOGRAPHIC ENCODING AND
REFERENCE ).
•THE 2000S

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•INTEGRATED INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGIES WITH
GEOGRAPHY.
•POWERFUL APPLICATIONS ON
DESKTOP COMPUTERS.
•WEB/NETWORK BASED DATA
SOURCES.
•PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE
FIELD GISS WITH GPS
CAPABILITIES.
INFORMATION ON THE
WORLD
•HOW IT LOOKS – FORM OR PATTERN

•HOW IT WORKS – PROCESS
•KNOWLEDGE ABOUT PROCESS MORE
VALUABLE THAN FORM, BECAUSE CAN
BE USED TO PREDICT
•GIS COMBINE

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•GENERAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN

SOFTWARE
•SPECIFIC INFORMATION IN DATABASES
The Basic Of GIS

The short history of GIS (it goes back to the late 1960's) was
founded in attempts in the UK, Canada and US to automate
some of the land-management and census activities of
government.
Figuring out how to do that, and how to explain what went
wrong when they tried, was the start of the science of GIS. It
was realized that many map-related concepts that seem so
simple to us (scale, a boundary), required a lot of effort to teach
to a computer.
What is a GIS?
The name says it all, but we have to understand the implications
of the words in the name.

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GIS and Related Software

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GIS - Geographic Information Systems Lec 1 part B

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GIS
LEC - 1
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
PART B - GIS FUNDAMENTALS AND

COMPONENTS

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1.2 GIS Main Concepts

This section covers the two basic GIS concepts you
need to know to effectively use any GIS maps
GIS Concept #1: Features have attributes
associated with them.
Imagine a tree. How would you keep track of and
communicate information about this tree to other
people who need to know all about it? You might
use a database to keep track of what species it is,
how old it is, how tall it is, how healthy it is, and
any other attributes that are important. This tree is
one record in a database. We call each category
(i.e. tree height) a field.
Now imagine a grove of trees that you need to keep track of

attributes for. Because we are now dealing with more than one
tree, it becomes relevant where each tree is so we know what
information relates to which tree

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Layers representing the real world
We map the location of each tree and identify

which attributes belong to which tree. This is the
foundation of GIS. A GIS tells us where some is.
Computers are synonymous with GIS, and using a
computer we can have hundreds of fields (different
attributes) for millions of records (trees).
GIS Concept # 2: Information is
separated into layers.
We can also have other layers of information in
our GIS.
Our information on trees would constitute one
layer
of information. We could also have a layer with
rivers and a layer with soil types.
Any information can be represented as a layer
A map represents the landscape in an artificial way.
Vector layers represent features in one of several
ways:

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Points: A point is good for representing

information
in which it is necessary to show where a
feature is,
but its physical shape is not important
(i.e. trees in the old growth tree layer).
Lines: A line is suitable to represent many real
world features
(i.e. the rivers in the river layer).
Polygons: Don't be intimidated by the name. It is
really just a solid multi-sided shape. When you see
a polygon, remember that everything inside the
boundary has the attributes associated with the
record. (i.e. soil types in the soils layer)
MAPS ARE COMPOSED

OF LAYERS

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You might hear people talk about coverage,

Geodatabase, or shapefile. All these terms
are other names for layers of information.
With individual layers we can conduct
analysis between layers and
only display layers of interest
How GIS deals with layered data?
GIS takes the numbers and
words from the rows and
columns in databases and
spreadsheets and puts them
on a map. Placing your data
on a map highlights where
you have many customers if
Combining attributes and Geometry in GIS
you own a store, or lots of

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leaks in your water system if

you run a water company. It allows you to
view, understand, question, interpret, and
visualize your data in ways simply not
possible in the rows and columns of a
spreadsheet. And, with data on a map, you
can ask more questions. You can ask
“Where?,” “Why?,” and “How?,” all with the
location information on hand.

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DATA MODEL OF RASTER

AND VECTOR

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METHODS OF REPRESENTING GEOGRAPHIC

SPACE
GEOMETRIC DATA MODELS
1.4. GIS COMPONENTS
•ORGANIZED COLLECTION OF:

•HARDWARE
•NETWORK
•SOFTWARE
•DATA

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•PEOPLE
•PROCEDURES
HARDWARE
•PRINTERS
•COMPUTERS (WORKSTATIONS)
•PLOTTERS
•SCANNERS

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Digitizers

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Summary
•GIS IS A SET OF TOOLS USED TO

COLLECT AND PROCESS GEOGRAPHIC
DATA
•GIS IS A TOOL USING RASTERS AND
VECTORS DATA TO DESCRIBE A
GEOGRAPHIC SPACE
•GIS ANALYZE GEOGRAPHIC DATA TO
SOLVE SPATIAL ISSUES

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•GIS IS USED TO LOCATE AND DESCRIBE

OBJECTS IN THE SPACE
•GIS IS USED TO MESURE AND COMPARE
THE EVOLUTION OF ANY GEOGRAPHIC
PHENOMENON

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GIS - Geographic Information Systems Lec 2 part A

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GIS
LEC - 2
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
PART A - GIS FUNCTIONS & STRUCTURE

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GIS FUNCTIONS
•DATA INPUT &
MANAGEMENT
•SPATIAL
•ATTRIBUTE
•QUALITY CONTROL &
DATABASE
MANAGEMENT
•DATA MANIPULATION:
GEO-PROCESSING
•ANALYSIS &
MODELING
•INFORMATION
OUTPUT
•MAPS, CHARTS,
TABLES, REPORTS …

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GIS helps answer these questions :

1 - Location
What is there in a specific location ?
2- Condition
Where something is resident?
3 - Trend
What have changed over time ?
4 - Pattern
How phenomena s geographically distribute?
5 - Model
What if ?
BASIC STRUCTURE OF
A GIS

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A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping

and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on Earth. GIS technology
integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with
the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These
abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a
wide range of public, military and private enterprises for explaining events,
predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. Whether siting a military base camp,
finding the best soil for a tank to maneuver on, or figuring out the best low level air
route for a bombing raid. Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a
GIS performs these tasks better and faster than do the old manual methods. And,
before GIS technology, only a few people had the skills necessary to use geographic
information to help with decision making and problem solving. Today, GIS is a multi-
billion-dollar industry employing hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. GIS is
taught in schools, colleges, and universities throughout the world. Professionals in
every field are increasingly aware of the advantages of thinking and working
geographically.

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Information Output
Maps
Charts
Reports

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TRIAD OF
GEOGRAPHY

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•WHERE: LOCATIONS
•WHEN: TIME
•WHAT: THINGS À
PROPERTIES/ATTRIBUTES
GIS APPLIED: TWO BIG

QUESTIONS
•WHERE IS WHAT?
•OBTAIN INFORMATION FROM A LOCATION
•WHAT IS WHERE?
•QUERY INFORMATION TO FIND LOCATION

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GEOMETRY,
TOPOLOGY AND
ATTRIBUTES
•GEOMETRY: COORDINATES
AND FORM OF THE OBJECTS
•TOPOLOGY: ADJACENCY
RELATIONS OF OBJECTS

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•ATTRIBUTES: PROPERTIES,
VALUES
Example: Country map of

South America
Geometry: coordinates of
the borders
Topology: the countries
border
Attributes: names of
countries, population, etc.
1.4. GIS COMPONENTS

•ORGANIZED COLLECTION OF:
•HARDWARE
•NETWORK
•SOFTWARE

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•DATA
•PEOPLE
•PROCEDURES
HARDWARE
•PRINTERS
•COMPUTERS (WORKSTATIONS)
•PLOTTERS
•SCANNERS

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THERE IS NO SUCH
THING AS THE
PERFECT GIS DATA

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TOPOLOGICAL
ERRORS OCCUR OFTEN
DURING
THE DIGITIZING.
TYPOLOGY OF HUMAN
ERRORS IN
DIGITIZING:
(A) UNDERSHOOTS
AND OVERSHOOTS; (B)
INVALID POLYGONS;
AND (C) SLIVER
POLYGONS

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ERROR INDUCED BY
DATA CLEANING

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SCALE :
FORMATTING DATA FOR PROCESSING.
CHANGES IN SCALE, REPROJECTIONS,
IMPORT/EXPORT FROM RASTER TO VECTOR,
ETC. ARE ALL EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE
SOURCES OF FORMATTING ERRORS.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ERRORS. A

COMMON MISTAKE CONSISTS ON LABEL
ERRORS. FOR INSTANCE, AN AGRICULTURAL
LAND MAY BE INCORRECTLY MARKED AS A
MARSH
MISMATCHES OF
ADJACENT SPATIAL DATA
SOURCES THAT REQUIRE
RUBBER-SHEETING

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SOME BASIC GIS

CONCEPTS…
•MAPPING IS KEY BUT IS NOT

THE WHOLE STORY.
•A GIS IS NOT SIMPLY FOR
MAKING MAPS

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•MAPS AT DIFFERENT
SCALES, PROJECTIONS,
COLORS
•… NOT SIMPLY FOR STORING
MAPS OR IMAGES.
•IN FACT, IT STORES THE
DATA FROM WHICH
THESE ARE CREATED.

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1.5. How To Use GIS (GIS

Applications)
1) Mapping Where Things Are
Mapping where things are lets you find places
that have the features you are looking for
and to see where to take action.
Find a feature—People use maps to see
where or what an individual feature is.
Finding patterns—By looking at the
distribution of features on the map instead
of just an individual feature, you can see
patterns emerge.
2) Mapping Quantities
People map quantities, such as where the
most and least are, to find places that meet
their criteria and take action, or to see the
relationships between places. This gives an
additional level of information beyond simply
mapping the locations of features.

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3) Mapping Densities
While you can see concentrations by
simply mapping the locations of features,
in areas with many features it may be
difficult to see which areas have a
higher concentration than others.
A density map lets you measure the
number of features using a uniform unit,
such as acres or square miles, so you can clearly
see the distribution. Mapping density is especially
useful when mapping areas, such as census tracts
or counties, that vary greatly in size. on maps
showing
the number of people per census tract, the larger
tracts might have more people than smaller ones.
But some smaller tracts might have more people
per square mile—a higher density.

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4) Finding What's Inside

Use GIS to monitor what is happening
and to take specific action by mapping what is
inside a specific area. For example, a district
attorney would monitor drug-related arrests to find
out if an arrest is within 1,000 feet of a school—if
so, stiffer penalties apply
5) Mapping Change
Map the change in an area to anticipate future
conditions,
decide on a course of action, or to evaluate the
results of
an action or policy.

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5.1)By mapping where and how things move over a

period
of time, you can gain insight into how they behave.
For example, a meteorologist might study the
paths of
hurricanes to predict where and when they might
occur
in the future.
5.2) Map change to anticipate future needs. For

example,
a police chief might study how crime patterns
change from
month to month to help decide where officers
should
be assigned.
5.3) Map conditions before and after an action or

event to see the impact. A retail analyst might map
the change in store sales before and after a
regional ad campaign to see where the
advertisements were most effective.

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GIS
LEC - 2
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
PART B - GIS SOFTWARE

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GIS SPECTRUM
•HIGHLY SPECIALIZED, SECTOR

SPECIFIC PACKAGES: FOR
EXAMPLE CIVIL ENGINEERING
DESIGN AND COSTING
SYSTEMS; SATELLITE IMAGE
PROCESSING SYSTEMS; AND
UTILITY INFRASTRUCTURE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS.
•TRANSPORTATION AND
LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
•CENSUS DATA MANAGEMENT

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•COMMERCIAL LOCATION
SERVICES AND DIGITAL EARTH
MODELS
•LAND REGISTRATION SYSTEMS
GIS SOFTWARE
(DESKTOP:
OPENSOURCE)

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•GRASS GIS – ORIGINALLY

DEVELOPED BY THE U.S. ARMY
CORPS OF ENGINEERS: A
COMPLETE GIS.
•GVSIG – WRITTEN IN JAVA. RUNS ON
LINUX, UNIX, MAC OS X AND
WINDOWS.
•ILWIS (INTEGRATED LAND AND
WATER INFORMATION SYSTEM) –
INTEGRATES IMAGE, VECTOR AND
THEMATIC DATA.
•CAPAWARE – A C++ 3D GIS
FRAMEWORK WITH A MULTIPLE
PLUGIN ARCHITECTURE FOR
GEOGRAPHIC GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
AND VISUALIZATION.
•QGIS - RUNS ON LINUX, UNIX, MAC
OS X AND WINDOWS.

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GIS SOFTWARE
(WEB MAP SERVERS)
•GEOSERVER – WRITTEN IN
JAVA AND RELIES
ON GEOTOOLS. ALLOWS
USERS TO SHARE AND EDIT
GEOSPATIAL DATA.
•MAPGUIDE OPEN SOURCE –
RUNS ON LINUX OR
WINDOWS, SUPPORTS
APACHE AND IIS WEB
SERVERS, AND HAS APIS
(PHP, .NET, JAVA, AND
JAVASCRIPT) FOR
APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT.

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•MAPNIK – C++/PYTHON
LIBRARY FOR RENDERING -
USED BY OPENSTREETMAP.
GIS SOFTWARE
(SPATIAL DBMS)
•POSTGIS – SPATIAL EXTENSIONS FOR

THE OPEN
SOURCE POSTGRESQL DATABASE,
ALLOWING GEOSPATIAL QUERIES.
•ORACLE SPATIAL – PRODUCT ALLOWS
USERS TO PERFORM COMPLEX
GEOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS AND STORE
COMMON SPATIAL DATA TYPES IN A
NATIVE ORACLE ENVIRONMENT. MOST
COMMERCIAL GIS PACKAGES CAN READ
AND EDIT SPATIAL DATA STORED IN
THIS WAY.

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COMMERCIAL GIS
SOFTWARE
•ENVI – UTILIZED FOR IMAGE

ANALYSIS, EXPLOITATION,
AND HYPERSPECTRAL
ANALYSIS.
•ERDAS IMAGINE BY ERDAS INC
– PRODUCTS INCLUDE LEICA
PHOTOGRAMMETRY SUITE,
ERDAS ER MAPPER, ERDAS
ECW/JP2 SDK (ECW (FILE
FORMAT)) ARE USED
THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE

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MAPPING COMMUNITY (GIS,

REMOTE SENSING,
PHOTOGRAMMETRY, AND
IMAGE COMPRESSION)
AND ERDAS APOLLO.
•ESRI – PRODUCTS
INCLUDE ARCMAP, ARCGIS, ARCSDE
, ARCIMS, ARCWEB SERVICES
AND ARCGIS SERVER.
•INTERGRAPH – PRODUCTS
INCLUDE G/TECHNOLOGY, GEOMED
IA, GEOMEDIA
PROFESSIONAL, GEOMEDIA
WEBMAP, AND ADD-ON PRODUCTS
FOR INDUSTRY SECTORS, AS WELL
AS PHOTOGRAMMETRY.
•MAPINFO BY PITNEY BOWES
SOFTWARE – POWERFUL DESKTOP

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GIS MAPINFO PROFESSIONAL IS

ENHANCED WITH MANY PLUG-INS
INCLUDING MAPINFO DRIVETIME
FOR ROUTE ANALYSIS, MAPINFO
ENGAGE 3D FOR 3D AND
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS, MAPINFO
MAPMARKER FOR GEOCODING.
LOCATION:
What is at...?
•HERE WE ARE SEEKING TO FIND OUT

WHAT EXISTS AT A PARTICULAR
LOCATION.
• A LOCATION CAN BE DESCRIBED IN
MANY DIFFERENT WAYS USING, FOR
PLACE NAME, OR
EXAMPLE,
LATITUDE AND

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LONGITUDE
COORDINATES
LOCATION:
What is at...?
CONDITION:
Where is it?
INSTEAD OF IDENTIFYING
WHAT EXISTS AT A GIVEN
LOCATION, YOU WANT TO

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FIND A LOCATION WHERE

CERTAIN CONDITIONS ARE
SATISFIED.
FOR EXAMPLE, YOU WISH TO
FIND A HOUSE ASSESSED AT
LESS THAN $200,000 WITH 4
BEDROOMS AND MADE OF
WOOD
CONDITION:
Where is it?
•FIND FEATURES BASED ON

ATTRIBUTES THEY SHARE

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TRENDS:
What has changed
since...?
This seeks to discover the differences
between an area as the result of the passing
of time.
TRENDS:
What has changed
since...?

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PATTERNS:
What spatial patterns
exist?
This seeks to discover what
types of patterns may exist
in the newly created data file
that were not visible before.
For example you may wish
to know where motor vehicle
accidents occur and at what
times.

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PATTERNS:
What spatial patterns
exist?
What kinds of patterns exist for motor vehicle

accidents?
Where do they occur and at what times?
Spatial Query:

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What spatial link

exist?
•GIS LOCATES FEATURES WITH

REGARDS TO THEIR LOCATION
TO EACH OTHER:
•FEATURES ADJACENT TO…
•FEATURES WITHIN A CERTAIN
DISTANCE
•FEATURES WITHIN A CERTAIN AREA
•ETC.

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GIS
LEC - 3
PROJECTIONS AND COORDINATES
SYSTEMS
PART A - GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES

SYSTEM

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EARTH SHAPE

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To compare maps in a GIS, both

maps MUST be in the same
projection

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GEOMETRY,
TOPOLOGY AND
ATTRIBUTES

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•GEOMETRY: COORDINATES
AND FORM OF THE OBJECTS
•TOPOLOGY: ADJACENCY
RELATIONS OF OBJECTS
•ATTRIBUTES: PROPERTIES,
VALUES
Example: Country map of

South America
Geometry: coordinates of
the borders
Topology: the border
Attributes: namcountrieses
of countries, population, etc.

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TOPOLOGY
•BRANCH OF
MATHEMATICS DEALING
WITH GEOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
•GEOMETRY OF OBJECTS
REMAIN INVARIANT
UNDER
TRANSFORMATIONS

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•NEIGHBORHOOD
RELATIONSHIPS REMAIN
THE SAME
•TOPOLOGY IS THE
DISTINGUISHING BASIS
FOR MORE
COMPLICATED VECTOR
MODELS

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Why use topology ?
1 - Reduce Errors
2- Efficient data storage
3- Efficient analysis

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Topology is the relationships

between objects in the space.
Such as:
1.Overlap
2.Intersect
3.Disjoint
4.Touch
With Topology Rules (such as the
ones at ArcGIS) you can set
upfront the permitted
relationships between different
Feature Classes - Such As
Buildings and Roads must be
Disjoint.

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GIS
LEC - 3
PROJECTIONS AND COORDINATES
SYSTEMS
PART B - VECTOR MODELS VS RASTER

MODELS

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A LOOK BEHIND THE

SCENES: VECTOR GIS
DATA MODELS
•SPAGHETTI MODEL
(EX: : ESRI SHAPE
FILE)
•TOPOLOGICAL
MODEL (EX: ESRI
COVERAGE)

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THE SPAGHETTI
MODEL
•THE SPAGHETTI MODEL IS THE MOST

SIMPLE VECTOR DATA MODEL
•THE MODEL IS A DIRECT
REPRESENTATION OF A GRAPHICAL
IMAGE
•NO EXPLICIT TOPOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
•LINES DO NOT INTERSECT, BUT
“OVERLAP” EACH OTHER LIKE
SPAGHETTI NOODLES ON A PLATE

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•DESCRIPTION: DIRECT LINE FOR LINE

TRANSLATION OF THE PAPER MAP
(OFTEN VIEWED AS RAW DIGITAL DATA)
•PROS: EASY TO IMPLEMENT, GOOD FOR
FAST DRAWING
•CONS: STORAGE AND SEARCHES ARE
SEQUENTIAL, STORAGE OF ATTRIBUTE
DATA

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TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR
MODEL

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•TOPOLOGICAL DATA MODELS ARE

PROVIDED WITH INFORMATION
THAT CAN HELP US IN OBTAINING
SOLUTIONS TO COMMON
OPERATIONS IN ADVANCED GIS
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES.
•THIS IS DONE BY EXPLICITLY
RECORDING ADJACENCY
INFORMATION INTO THE DATA
STRUCTURE, ELIMINATING THE
NEED TO DETERMINE IT FOR
MULTIPLE OPERATIONS.
•EACH LINE SEGMENT, THE BASIC
LOGICAL ENTITY IN TOPOLOGICAL
DATA STRUCTURES, BEGINS AND
ENDS WHEN IT EITHER CONTACTS
OR INTERSECTS ANOTHER LINE, OR
WHEN THERE IS A CHANGE IN
DIRECTION OF THE LINE.
TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR
MODEL

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•EACH LINE HAS TWO SETS OF

NUMBERS, A PAIR OF COORDINATES
AND AN ASSOCIATED NODE NUMBER.
•EACH LINE SEGMENT HAS ITS
IDENTIFICATION NUMBER THAT IS
USED AS A POINTER TO INDICATE
WHICH SET OF NODES REPRESENT ITS
BEGINNING AND ENDING.
TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR
MODEL
•POLYGONS ALSO HAVE

IDENTIFICATION CODES THAT
RELATE BACK TO THE LINK
NUMBERS.
EACH LINK IN THE POLYGON
NOW IS CAPABLE OF LOOKING
LEFT AND RIGHT AT THE

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POLYGON NUMBERS TO SEE

WHICH TWO POLYGONS ARE
ALSO STORED EXPLICITLY, SO
THAT EVEN THIS TEDIOUS STEP
IS ELIMINATED.
•THE TOPOLOGICAL DATA MODEL
MORE CLOSELY APPROXIMATES
HOW WE AS MAP READERS
IDENTIFY THE SPATIAL
RELATIONSHIPS CONTAINED IN
AN ANALOG MAP DOCUMENT.

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IDENTIFY THE
POLYGONS

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CREATE THE POLYGON

ATTRIBUTE TABLE
(PAT)
Poly-ID Name Population
1 California 33090214
2 Nevada 1818259
3 Utah 2135252
4 Arizona 4790311

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IDENTIFY THE NODES
NODE TABLE
Node ID X-coord Y-coord
1
2
3
4
5

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6
7
8
IDENTIFY THE LINKS

(ARCS, LINES)

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SIMPLIFY THIS
CREATE THE
TOPOLOGY!
LINKS TABLE
Link FNode TNode LPoly RPoly

#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 Downloaded by Shayma Tarek (shayma190852@hu.edu.eg)
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NODES FIRST
POLYGONS

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IDENTIFY THE POINTS

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LINK LIST
Link# List of points

1 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10… etc
2
3
4
5

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6
7
8
9
10
11
POINT COORDINATES
ID X-coord Y-coord
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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8
9 (etc)
PUTTING IT ALL
TOGETHER

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THE DEFINITION OF
TOPOLOGY
•THE SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS

CAN BE INTERPRETED
•IDENTIFICATION OF CONNECTING
LINES ALONG A PATH
•DEFINITION OF THE AREAS
ENCLOSED WITHIN THESE LINES

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•IDENTIFICATION OF CONTIGUOUS
AREAS
•IN DIGITAL MAPS, THESE
RELATIONSHIPS ARE
DEPICTED USING
‘TOPOLOGY’
•TOPOLOGY = A
MATHEMATICAL
PROCEDURE FOR
EXPLICITLY DEFINING
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP
•TOPOLOGY IS THE
DESCRIPTION OF HOW THE
SPATIAL OBJECTS ARE
RELATED WITH SPATIAL
MEANING

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TOPOLOGICAL DATA
MODELS
•THREE TYPES OF
TOPOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
•ARC, NODE AND POLYGON
TOPOLOGIES
•ARC
•ARCS HAVE DIRECTIONS AND
LEFT AND RIGHT POLYGONS
(=CONTIGUITY)
•NODE
•NODES LINK ARCS WITH START
AND END NODES
(=CONNECTIVITY)
•POLYGON
•ARCS THAT CONNECT TO
SURROUND AN AREA DEFINE A
POLYGON (=AREA DEFINITION)

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TERMS AND
CONCEPTS
Connectivity - from and to

nodes
Contiguity - Polygon
Enclosure
Adjacency - from Direction

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TOPOLOGY
ERRORS
•THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
TOPOLOGICAL ERRORS AND
THEY CAN BE GROUPED
ACCORDING TO WHETHER THE
VECTOR FEATURE TYPES ARE
POLYGONS OR POLYLINES.
•TOPOLOGICAL ERRORS WITH
POLYGON FEATURES CAN
INCLUDE
•UNCLOSED POLYGONS,
•GAPS BETWEEN POLYGON BORDERS OR
OVERLAPPING POLYGON BORDERS.
•A COMMON TOPOLOGICAL
ERROR WITH POLYLINE
FEATURES IS THAT THEY DO

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NOT MEET PERFECTLY AT A

POINT (NODE).
•THIS TYPE OF ERROR IS CALLED
AN UNDERSHOOT IF A GAP
EXISTS BETWEEN THE LINES,
AND AN OVERSHOOT IF A
LINE ENDS
•BEYOND THE LINE IT SHOULD
CONNECT TO
Raster representation:
Bathymetry

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•East Pacific Rise near 9°-10°N is currently our best-studied section of fast-
spreading mid-ocean ridge
Decades of investigation by ridge geologists and geophysicists, as
wellchemists and biologists.
wealth of observational data, results and data-driven theoretical (often
numerical) studies that are very much under-utilized research scientists and
educators. (state several reasons different formats, standards, availablility,
tools incompatible or incomplete, some in their infancy, etc.)
Situation is improving but much data, results, and related theoretical models
still exist either in an inert, non-interactive form (e.g. journal publications) or
as unlinked and currently incompatible computer data or algorithms.
Infrastructure needed not just for ready access to data but linkage of
disparate data sets (data with data) AND data with models quantitatively
evaluate hypotheses, refine numerical simulations, and explore new
relations between observables
SPATIAL ENCODING -
RASTER

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SPATIAL ENCODING -
VECTOR

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RASTER MODELS

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•QUANTIZES OR DIVIDES
SPACE INTO DISCRETE
PACKETS (CELLS), EACH
REPRESENTING A PART OF
THE WHOLE
•CELLS ARE OF EQUAL SIZE
SQUARE, RECTANGULAR,
TRIANGLES
•LOOSE THE ABILITY TO
REPRESENT EXACT
LOCATIONS (E.G., POINT
REPRESENTED AS SINGLE
CELL)
•LINES REPRESENTED AS A
SERIES OF CONNECTED
CELLS

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•MULTIPLE CELLS JOINED AT

EDGES OR CORNERS,
USUALLY WITH ONLY 1 OR 2
NEIGHBORS, 1D OBJECTS
REPRESENTED IN 2D
•AREAS REPRESENTED AS A
SERIES OF CONNECTED
CELLS
•2D OBJECTS REPRESENTED IN
2D, CELLS DISTORT AREA
AND SHAPE - STAIRS-
STEPPED APPEARANCE

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GENERIC STRUCTURE
FOR A GRID

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•BECAUSE THE RASTER DATA MODEL IS A

REGULAR GRID, SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE
IMPLICIT. THEREFORE, EXPLICITLY STORING
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS IS NOT REQUIRED AS
IT IS FOR THE VECTOR DATA MODEL.
Vector to Raster

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Raster Representation
VECTOR VS. RASTER

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PRO AND CONS OF

RASTER MODEL
•PRO
•RASTER DATA IS MORE
AFFORDABLE
•SIMPLE DATA STRUCTURE
•VERY EFFICIENT OVERLAY
OPERATION
•CONS

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•TOPOLOGY RELATIONSHIP
DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT
•RASTER DATA REQUIRES LARGE
STORAGE
•NOT ALL WORLD PHENOMENA
RELATED DIRECTLY WITH
RASTER REPRESENTATION
•RASTER DATA MAINLY IS
OBTAINED FROM SATELLITE
IMAGES AND SCANNING

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GIS
LEC - 4
DATA FORMATS AND GEO-
PROCESSING
PART A - DATA FORMATS

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A SPATIAL DATABASE
•A spatial database is a database that is
optimized to store and query data that
is related to objects in space, including
points, lines and polygons.

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•While typical databases can

understand various numeric
and character types of data,
additional functionality needs
to be added for databases to
process spatial data types.
• These are typically called geometry
or feature. The Open Geospatial
Consortium created the Simple
Features specification and sets
standards for adding spatial
functionality to database systems

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Vector Data File

Formats
Geodatabases
•Definition: The geodatabase

is a collection of geographic
datasets of various types.
•An ArcGIS geodatabase is a
collection of geographic
datasets of various types held
in a common file system

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folder, a Microsoft Access

database, or a multiuser
relational database (such as
Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server,
PostgreSQL, Informix, or IBM
DB2).
Fundamental Datasets
in the Geodatabase
•A key geodatabase concept is

the dataset. It is the primary
mechanism used to organize
and use geographic
information in ArcGIS. The
geodatabase contains three
primary dataset types:

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–Feature classes
–Raster datasets
–Tables
Datasets Types in
GeoDatabases
•File Geodatabase - Stored as

folders in a file system. Each

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dataset is held as a file that

can scale up to 1 TB in size.
The file geodatabase is
recommended over personal
geodatabases.
•Personal geodatabases -
All datasets are stored
within a Microsoft
Access data file, which is
limited in size to 2 GB
•Enterprise geodatabases –
unlimited number of users,
Stored in a relational
database using Oracle,
Microsoft SQL Server, IBM
DB2, IBM Informix, or
PostgreSQL.

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Spatial relationships
•logical connections between

spatial objects represented
by points, lines and
polygons
•e.g.,
-point-in-polygon
-line-line
-polygon-polygon

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•“adjacent to”
•“connected to”
•“near to”
•“intersects with”
•“within”
•“overlaps”
•etc.

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•Some relationships are

stored in a topological
data model
-“adjacent to”
right poly and left poly in
the line attribute table
-“connected to”
list of lines that share
the same node in the
node attribute table
•others need to be computed
“is nearest to”

•point/point

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-which family
planning clinic is
closest to the
village?
•point/line
-which road is
nearest to the
village
•same with other
combinations of spatial
features

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“is nearest to”: Thiessen

polygons

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GIS
LEC - 4
DATA FORMATS AND GEO-
PROCESSING
PART B - OVERLAY TYPES & CONCEPTS

OF ER DATA MODEL

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GENERAL OVERLAY
TYPES
•Identity
–spatial join or point-in-
polygon
•Clip
–similar to set extent when
using raster data
•Intersection
•Buffer
(forall of the above, operations are on
layers, not single polygons

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•Spatial Overlay Analysis: A

type of analysis in which
data is extracted from one
layer (such as block groups)
to an overlay layer (such as a
trade area).
•Overlay is one of the most
common and powerful GIS
functions. It
investigates the spatial
association of features by
“vertically stacking” feature
layers to investigate
geographic patterns and
determine locations that
meet specific criteria.

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SPATIAL JOIN
Point in polygon operation – which

points are in the Polygon?
Polygon ID (id_1) is added to the point

layer‟s attribute table.

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“Is Near To”: Buffer

Operations
•point buffer

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-affected area around a

polluting facility
-catchment area of a water
source
Buffer operations
•line buffer
-how many people live near
the polluted river?
-what is the area impacted
by highway noise?

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Buffer Operations
•polygon buffer
- area around a tank where
development should not be
permitted

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Clip
Two polygons, A and B, Overlap. Clip
A using B as a cookie cutter.

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Clip operation creates a new

polygon, C, which
is the intersect, or overlap, of A and B.
Attributes of A do not appear in C.

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CREATING SUBSETS
•create a subset of a data set

using another incompatible
set
•“cookie-cutting”

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“Is Within”: Point In Polygon

•which of the cholera cases are
within the contaminated
water catchment area?

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POINT IN A POLYGON

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“crosses”: line intersection

•when traveling to the
dispensary, do farmers have
to cross this river?

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AN ER EXAMPLE
WORLD DATABASE
•Conceptual Model

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–3 Entities: Country, City, River

–2 Relationships: capital-of,
originates-in
•Attributes
–Country(Name, Cont, Pop, GDP,
Life-Exp, Shape)
–City(Name, Country, Pop,Capital,
Shape)
–River(Name, Origin, Length,
Shape)
•Keys
•Primary keys are Country.Name,
City.Name, River.Name
•Foreign keys are River.Origin,
City.Country
•Data for 3 tables
WORLD DATABASE DATA

TABLES

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POPULATING TABLES IN
SQL
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•Adding a row to an existing table

•“INSERT INTO” statement
•Specifies table name, attribute names
and values
•Example:
INSERT INTO River(Name,
Origin, Length) VALUES("Nile
River", "Habasha", 6,6500)
•Related statements
•SELECT statement
with INTO clause
can insert multiple
rows in a table
•DELETE statement removes rows
•UPDATE statement can change
values within selected rows
WORLD DATABASE DATA

TABLES

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SELECT EXAMPLE 1.
•Simplest Query has SELECT and FROM clauses
•Query: List all the cities and the country
they belong to.

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SELECT EXAMPLE 2.
•Query: List the names of the capital cities in
the CITY table.
SELECT * FROM CITY
WHERE CAPITAL="Y ‟
SQL EXAMPLE 3

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Query: List the attributes of countries

in the Country relation where the life-
expectancy is less than seventy
years.
SELECT Co.Name,Co.Life-Exp
FROM Country Co
WHERE Co.Life-Exp <70
Note: use of alias"Co‟ for Table

"Country‟
Result ->
SQL EXAMPLE 4:
MULTI-TABLE QUERY
Query: List the capital cities and

populations of

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countries whose GDP exceeds one

trillion dollars.
SELECT Ci.Name,Co.Pop FROM City

Ci,Country Co WHERE Ci.Country =Co.Name
AND Co.GDP >1000.0 AND Ci.Capital=„Y ‟
Note:Tables City and Country are joined by matching
“City.Country = Country.Name”.

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SQL EXAMPLE 5:
AGGREGATE STAISTICS
Query: What is the average

population of the noncapital
cities listed in the City table?
SELECT AVG(Ci.Pop)
FROM City Ci
WHERE Ci.Capital=“N ‟
Query: For each continent, find the

average GDP.
SELECT Co.Cont,Avg(Co.GDP) AS Continent-

GDP
FROM Country Co
GROUP BY Co.Cont

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SQL EXAMPLE 6
Query: For each country in which at
least two rivers
originate, find the length of the
smallest river.
SELECT R.Origin, MIN (R.length) AS Min-length

FROM River R
GROUP BY R.Origin
HAVING COUNT (*) > 1

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SPATIAL OPERATIONS
WITH SQL
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•Topological and Set

comparison Operations
•Equal: True if the interior and boundary
of two geometries are equal.
•Disjoint: True if the boundaries and
interiors do not intersect
•Intersection: true if geometries are not
disjoint
•Touch: true if the boundaries of two
surfaces intersect but their interiors do
not
•Cross: true if the interior of a surface
intersects with a curve.
•Within: returns true if the interior of a
given geometry does not intersect with
the exterior of another geometry
•Contains: tests whether the given
geometry contains another given
geometry.
•Overlap: returns true if the interiors of
two geometries have non-empty
intersecrtions.

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•Spatial Analysis
•Distance: return the shortest distance
between two geometries
•Buffer: returns zone around some
geometries
•Intersection: Returns the intersection of
two geometries
•Union: Returns the union of two
geometries
•Difference: returns the portion of a
geometry that does not intersect with
another given geometry.
•SymmDif: returns the portions of two
geometry that do not intersect with
each other.

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WORLD DATABASE DATA

TABLES
USING SPATIAL OPERATION IN

WHERE CLAUSE
•QUERY: FIND THE NAMES OF ALL

COUNTRIES WHICH ARE NEIGHBORS OF
THE UNITED STATES (USA) IN THE
COUNTRY TABLE.
SELECT C1.Name AS "Neighbors of USA"

FROM Country C1,Country C2
WHERE Touch(C1.Shape,C2.Shape)=1
AND C2.Name =“USA ‟

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NOTE: SPATIAL OPERATOR TOUCH()

IS USED IN WHERE CLAUSE TO JOIN
COUNTRY TABLE WITH ITSELF. THIS
QUERY IS AN EXAMPLE OF SPATIAL
SELF JOIN OPERATION
USING SPATIAL OPERATOR DISTANCE
Query: List the GDP and the distance

of a country’s capital city to the
equator for all countries.
SELECT Co.GDP,
Distance(Point(0,Ci.Shape.y),Ci.Shape) AS
"Distance"
FROM Country Co,City Ci WHERE Co.Name
= Ci.Country AND Ci.Capital =„Y ‟

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SPATIAL QUERY WITH

MULTIPLE TABLES
Query: For all the rivers listed in the

River table, find the
countries through which they pass.
SELECT R.Name, C.Name

FROM River R, Country C
WHERE Cross(R.Shape,C.Shape)=1
Note: Spatial operation “Cross” is

used to join River and Country
tables. This query represents a
spatial join operation.

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USING SPATIAL OPERATION IN AN

AGGREGATE QUERY
Query: List all countries, ordered by

number of neighboring
countries.
SELECT
Co.Name,
Count(Co1.Nam
e) FROM
Country Co,

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Country Co1
WHERE
Touch(Co.Shap
e,Co1 .Shape)
GROUP BY
Co.Name
ORDER BY Count(Co1.Name)
Notes: This query can be used to differentiate

querying capabilities of
simple GIS software (e.g. Arc/View) and a spatial
database. It is quite
tedious to carry out this query in GIS.
NESTED SPATIAL
QUERY
Query: List the countries with only one

neighboring country. A country is a
neighbor of another country if their
land masses share a boundary.

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According to this definition, island

countries, like Iceland, have no
neighbors.
SELECT Co.Name
FROM Country Co
WHERE Co.Name IN (SELECT Co.Name
FROM
Country
Co,Coun
try Co1
WHERE
Touch(
Co.Shap
e,Co1.S
hape)
GROUP
BY
Co.Nam
e
HAVING Count(*)=1)

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Note: It shows a complex nested query with

aggregate operations. Such queries can be written
into two expression, namely a view definition, and a
query on the view. The inner query becomes a view
and outer query is run on the view. This is illustrated
in the next
BASIC FUNCTIONS

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References
•http://delab.csd.auth.gr/~tiakas/query
_languages.pdf
•https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC
M116w7f8gSXCCCb3k1aNZQ
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=65TnKwCqpy0&list=PLRNNjIk9Ar
AoSycesz6wc5sJshpwncKmU&inde
x=1
•Lecture notes from Dr. Taysir
Hassan Abdel Hamid Faculty of
Computers and Information
Assiut University

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GIS
LEC - 5
RASTERS MODEL
PART B - RASTER MODEL , ADVANTAGES

AND DISADVANTAGES

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Outline
Raster Models
Thematic data
Continuous surface
Picture Raster
Elements of Raster data
Advantages of using Raster Data
Raster Data Structure

Cell-by-Cell Encoding
Run Length Encoding
R tree and Quad Tree

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Raster Models
qIn its simplest form, a raster

consists of a matrix of cells (or
pixels) organized into rows and
columns (or a grid) where each
cell contains a value representing
information, such as temperature.
qCells are of equal size square,

rectangular.
qLines represented by sequences

of neighboring cells.
qareas represented by collections
of contiguous cells.

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Spatial Encoding - RASTER

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1.Thematic data (discontinuous)
qDiscrete data, which is sometimes

called thematic, categorical, or
discontinuous data, most often
represents objects in both the
feature (vector) and raster data
storage systems.
q A discrete object has known and
definable boundaries: it is easy to
define precisely where the object
begins and where it ends
qA lake is a discrete object within
the surrounding landscape.
Where the water’s edge meets the
land can be definitively
established. Other examples of
discrete objects include
buildings, roads, and parcels.
Discrete objects are usually
nouns.

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2.Continuous surface
qA continuous surface represents

phenomena in which each location on
the surface is a measure of the
concentration level or its relationship
from a fixed point in space or from an
emitting source.
qContinuous data is also referred to as
field, nondiscrete, or surface data.
q One type of continuous surface is
derived from those characteristics that
define a surface, in which each location
is measured from a fixed registration

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point. These include elevation (the fixed

point being sea level) and aspect (the
fixed point being direction: north, east,
south, and west).
qAnother type of continuous surface
includes phenomena that progressively
vary as they move across a surface from
a source. Illustrations of progressively
varying continuous data are fluid and air
movement, spread of a disease
areas:
–unbounded: landuse, market areas, soils, rock type
–bounded: city/county/state boundaries, zoning
–moving: air masses, animal herds, schools of fish

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3. Picture Rasters
Picture rasters are often used as

attributes in tables—they can be
displayed with your geographic

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data and are used to convey

additional information about map
features.
A basemap provides a
background, or visual context,
for the data in a map. For
example, a basemap showing
streets can provide context
for address data.

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AN ORTHOPHOTO (ALSO KNOWN AS

A ORTHOPHOTOGRAPH) IS AN
AERIAL IMAGE THAT HAS BEEN
GEOMETRICALLY CORRECTED
(ORTHO RECTIFIED) SO THAT THE
IMAGE IS UNIFORM FROM EDGE TO
EDGE.

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Below is a digital picture of a

large, old tree that could be
used as an attribute to a
landscape layer that a city
may maintain.

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https://desktop.arcgis.co
m/en/arcmap/10.3/manag
e-data/raster-and-
images/raster-bands.htm

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GIS
LEC - 5
RASTERS MODEL
PART B - STRUCTURE OF RASTER MODEL

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Cell size of raster data
Because the raster data model is a regular grid,

spatial relationships are implicit. Therefore,
explicitly storing spatial relationships is not required
as it is for the vector data model.

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Raster Data Structure
1. Cell-by-Cell Encoding
2. Run Length Encoding
3. R tree and Quad Tree

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CELL-BY-CELL ENCODING

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PROBLEM:
Big amount of data!
RUN LENGTH ENCODING
§The run length coding is a widely used

compression technique for raster data.
§The primary data elements are pairs of
values or tuples, consisting of a pixel value
and a repetition count which specifies the
number of pixels in the run. Data are built
by reading successively row by row through
the raster, creating a new tuple every time
the pixel value changes or the end of the
row is reached.

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Properties of R-tree:
§Consists of root, internals nodes and
leaf nodes.
§Root contains the pointer to the
largest region in the spatial domain.
§Parent nodes contains pointers to
their child nodes where region of

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child nodes completely overlaps the

regions of parent nodes.
§Leaf nodes contains data about the
MBR to the current objects.
§MBR-Minimum bounding region
refers to the minimal bounding box
parameter surrounding the
region/object under consideration.
A common real-world usage for an

R-tree might be to store spatial objects
such as:
restaurant locations or the polygons
that typical maps are made of: streets,
buildings, outlines of lakes, coastlines,
etc. and then find answers quickly to
queries such as:
§ "Find all museums within 2 km of my
current location“
§ "retrieve all road segments within 2
km of my location" (to display them
in a navigation system)
§ "find the nearest gas station"
(although not taking roads into
account)

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References
•http://delab.csd.auth.gr/~tiakas/query_languages.pdf
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=65TnKwCqpy0&list=PLRNNjIk9ArAoSycesz6wc5sJshpwnc
KmU&index=1
•Lecture notes from Dr. Taysir Hassan Abdel Hamid Faculty of
Computers and Information Assiut University
•https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/manage-data/raster-
and-images/what-is-raster-data.htm
•https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/830/Researches/56647_26929.pdf
•https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3jv1g09f
•https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/quad-tree/

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Gis Geographic Information Systems Lec 1 Part A Combined

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GIS - Geographic Information Systems Lec 1 - Part A

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Assiut University)

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Geographic Information Systems

PART A - WHAT IS GIS? HISTORY

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1.1. GIS DEFINITIONS AND

1.2. HISTORY OF GIS

1.3. GIS MAIN CONCEPTS

1.4. GIS FUNCTIONS

1.5. GIS COMPONENTS

1.6. GIS APPLICATIONS

1.7. DATA IN GIS

1.8. SELECTING THE RIGHT DATA

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GIS Definitions and

GIS = GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

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DEFINITION OF GIS (1)

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM:

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•WHAT EXISTS AT A CERTAIN

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TOP BENEFITS OF GIS

•COST SAVINGS AND INCREASED

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What is GIS “Geographic

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but the information they add to that map will

GIS CONCEPTS ARE

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GIS concepts are not new!

SPATIAL INFORMATION HANDLING

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•THE 1980S AND 1990S

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•INTEGRATION WITH OTHER

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•PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE

•THE 1980S AND 1990S

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•HOW IT LOOKS – FORM OR PATTERN

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•GENERAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN

The Basic Of GIS

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GIS and Related Software

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GIS - Geographic Information Systems Lec 1 part B

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Assiut University)

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Geographic Information Systems