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Geographic Information System V2

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (Assiut University)

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Introduction to
Geographic
1/5/2020
Information
System (GIS)
Under Supervision of Prof. Farrag Ali
Farrag Rashwan

Prepared By Eng. Amr Diaa Eldin Kamel

Civil Engineering Department – Faculty of Engineering – Assuit
University

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Table of Contents
What is GIS? ...................................................................................................................................................................3
GIS Purposes ..................................................................................................................................................................4
 Identify problems .............................................................................................................................................4
 Monitor change ................................................................................................................................................4
 Manage & respond to events ...........................................................................................................................4
 Perform forecasting ..........................................................................................................................................5
 Set priorities .....................................................................................................................................................5
 Understand trends............................................................................................................................................5
GIS Applications .............................................................................................................................................................6
1. Mapping............................................................................................................................................................6
2. Navigation.........................................................................................................................................................7
3. Assets Management and Maintenance ............................................................................................................8
4. Planning and Community Development ...........................................................................................................8
5. Urban planning .................................................................................................................................................8
GIS Components: ...........................................................................................................................................................8
Main Hardware Components: ..............................................................................................................................9
Software Components: .......................................................................................................................................10
GIS Data Types: ..................................................................................................................................................11
Vector data advantages and disadvantages .....................................................................................................12
Raster data advantages and disadvantages .....................................................................................................13
GIS Workflow ...............................................................................................................................................................14
GIS Maps ......................................................................................................................................................................15
1. Data Frame .....................................................................................................................................................15
2. Legend ............................................................................................................................................................16
3. Title .................................................................................................................................................................16
4. North Arrow....................................................................................................................................................16
5. Scale................................................................................................................................................................16
6. Citation ...........................................................................................................................................................16
Coordinate System ......................................................................................................................................................17
Map Projection and Distortion ....................................................................................................................................18
Attribute Data Models .................................................................................................................................................20
GIS Analysis Functions .................................................................................................................................................23
GIS software ................................................................................................................................................................28
References: ..................................................................................................................................................................31

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Table of Figures
Figure 1 GIS Data Layers ................................................................................................................................................3
Figure 2 Map of Opioid Prescription in USA ...................................................................................................................4
Figure 3 Ice Glacier Boundary history in the Southern Hemisphere...............................................................................4
Figure 4 satellite images from Banda Aceh Indonesia, illustrate tsunami-caused damage to a shoreline community 4
Figure 5 Future Land use in Fort Mitchell intersection ..................................................................................................5
Figure 6 Crime Patterns GIS Map ...................................................................................................................................5
Figure 7 Deferent Jobs Industries GIS Map ....................................................................................................................5
Figure 8 GIS Indoor Mapping from Indoor Reality© ......................................................................................................6
Figure 9 GIS Indoor Navigation ......................................................................................................................................7
Figure 10 GIS Components integrate with each other ...................................................................................................8
Figure 11 Multi-Propose GIS Servers ..............................................................................................................................9
Figure 12 GIS Data Components ..................................................................................................................................11
Figure 13 Non-Spatial Data Table ................................................................................................................................11
Figure 14 Vector Polygon .............................................................................................................................................12
Figure 15 Vector Lines..................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 16 Vector Points ................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 17 Raster Data ..................................................................................................................................................12
Figure 18 GIS Maps and Data Layers ...........................................................................................................................14
Figure 19 GIS Data .......................................................................................................................................................14
Figure 20 GIS Anlyzing Process ....................................................................................................................................15
Figure 21 GIS Cross-Platform Apps ..............................................................................................................................15
Figure 22 Map Legend .................................................................................................................................................16
Figure 23 North Direction Symbol ................................................................................................................................16
Figure 24 Scale Bar ......................................................................................................................................................16
Figure 25 Citation Portion Of Map ...............................................................................................................................16
Figure 26 Map Elements ..............................................................................................................................................17
Figure 27 Spatial Reference Lines ................................................................................................................................17
Figure 28 Spherical Coordinate System .......................................................................................................................17
Figure 29 Globe – Conformal, equidistant and equal area ..........................................................................................18
Figure 30 North American Lambert Conformal Conic Projection – Conformal ............................................................18
Figure 31 Sinusoidal Projection – Equal Area ..............................................................................................................19
Figure 32 Albers Equal Area Conic Projection ..............................................................................................................19
Figure 33 Equidistant Cylindrical Projection – Equidistant ..........................................................................................19
Figure 34 Mercator Cylinder Projection – Equidistant .................................................................................................19
Figure 35 Robinson Projection – Compromise .............................................................................................................20
Figure 36 Hierarchical Model .......................................................................................................................................21
Figure 37 Network Model ............................................................................................................................................21
Figure 38 Edge-Matching Function Example ...............................................................................................................24
Figure 39 Line Coordinate Thinning Function Example ................................................................................................25
Figure 40 Overlay Function Example ...........................................................................................................................26
Figure 41 Topological Overlay Function Example ........................................................................................................26
Figure 42 GRASS GIS v6.4 .............................................................................................................................................29
Figure 43 SAGA-GIS v2.0.3 ...........................................................................................................................................29

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What is GIS?
A geographic information system (GIS) is a framework for gathering,
managing, and analyzing data. Rooted in the science of geography, GIS
integrates many types of data. GIS can show many different kinds of data
on one map, such as streets, buildings, and vegetation. It analyzes spatial
location and organizes layers of information into visualizations using maps
and 3D scenes. With this unique capability, GIS reveals deeper insights
into data, such as patterns, relationships, and situations—helping users
make smarter decisions.

Figure 1 GIS Data Layers

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GIS Purposes
Hundreds of thousands of organizations in virtually every field are
using GIS to make maps that communicate, perform analysis, share
information, and solve complex problems around the world. This is
changing the way the world works.

 Identify problems
Use GIS to illuminate issues that
are driven by geography, Such as
population analysis and facilities
locations. This map of opioid prescription
claims reveals the geographic patterns
that emerge when data is well-mapped. Figure 2 Map of Opioid Prescription in USA

 Monitor change
If a picture tells a thousand words, a
map tells a thousand pictures. Climate
change can be monitored by analyzing
shrinkage in ice sheets in North Pole. In the
following map we can see the old boundary of
ice glaciers retreat in the Southern
Hemisphere. Figure 3 Ice Glacier Boundary history in
the Southern Hemisphere
 Manage & respond to events

GIS delivers real-time situational

awareness, such as emergency
services, flood protection, disaster
assessment and management, and
infrastructure development. It can be
used to show storms potential impact
to people and businesses, probable
track of storms, and storm surge.
Figure 4 satellite images from Banda Aceh
Indonesia, illustrate tsunami-caused damage to a
shoreline community

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 Perform forecasting
GIS can be used to forecast traffic. This
map highlights challenges at an intersection in
Fort Mitchell, Kentucky, where forecasting
shows traffic is expected to worsen based on
land use changes.
Figure 5 Future Land use in Fort
 Set priorities Mitchell intersection
GIS helps to set priorities based on spatial analysis. By
analyzing crime patterns, public safety officials can identify target
areas and assign officers in those areas.

Figure 6 Crime Patterns GIS Map

 Understand trends
GIS helps you gain
insight into data that might
be missed in a spreadsheet.
This map measures job
growth or losses in different
industries and quantifies
local competitive advantage.

Figure 7 Deferent Jobs Industries GIS Map

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GIS Applications
The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional
(such as a city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a
GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization.
Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction,
enterprise, or purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or
compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other
application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose.

GIS provides, for every kind of location-based organization, a

platform to update geographical data without wasting time to visit the
field and update a database manually. GIS when integrated with
other powerful enterprise solutions like the Wolfram Language helps
creating powerful decision support system at enterprise level.

1. Mapping
GIS can be used to provide a visual interpretation of data.
Google Maps is an excellent example of a web-based GIS mapping
solution that people use for everyday navigation purposes. However,
smart mapping technology has significantly advanced and is used in
products like Nobel’s GeoViewer, which gives cities, municipalities
and private industry an in-depth look at electric and water district
assets in the field.

GIS for Indoor Mapping

Location-based mapping is revolutionizing how we view
and interact with the world around us. Indoor GIS mapping
technologies have stepped indoors to construct 3D virtual
reality settings. With GIS
for indoor mapping, virtual
reality gear or a simple
web map allow you to
explore a 3D version of
any previously mapped
indoor space. Figure 8 GIS Indoor Mapping from Indoor Reality©

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Indoor mapping technologies are allowing engineers,

architects, and emergency planners to navigate an indoor
environment without ever physically stepping foot in the
buildings. Professionals can acquire detailed building
measurements, and locate important building assets.
Companies like Indoor Reality are helping to drive the
technology of GIS for indoor mapping.

2. Navigation
Web-based navigation maps use GIS data to provide the public
with useful information. Web maps are regularly updated per GIS
information and are used consistently in everyday life.

About indoor positioning

Indoor positioning, also commonly referred to as IPS or
indoor GPS, provides mobile users with detailed location
information inside buildings. Adding a blue dot to the indoor
map, allows users to locate themselves and navigate to any
point of interest inside the
building in real time. By utilizing
positioning, other location based
solutions such as asset tracking
and analytics are enabled. These
allow businesses across various
industries to streamline their
internal workflows, increase
engagement and interaction with Figure 9 GIS Indoor Navigation
the building and enhance
customer satisfaction. Indoors is where we spend 90% of our
lifetime and also where the majority of mobile data is
consumed. Providing building visitors with the best possible
indoor experience and leveraging the obtained location data,
helps businesses gain a leading edge and become future proof.

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3. Assets Management and Maintenance

GIS data helps organizations become more efficient with finite
resources. With an understanding of the population at risk, planners
can allocate resources more efficiently.

4. Planning and Community Development

GIS data helps us understand and meet global challenges. As
GIS technology rapidly advances, there are various innovative
applications in the planning sector. GIS tools can be used to integrate
geographic intelligence into planning processes, and have the
potential to change how we think and behave.

5. Urban planning
GIS data analyzes urban growth and the direction of
expansion. When appropriately applied, it can discover new sites for
further development, considering various factors that are necessary
for successful building.

GIS Components:

Figure 10 GIS Components integrate with each other

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 Hardware:
Hardware is Computer on which GIS software runs. Nowadays
there are a different range of computer, it might be Desktop or server
based. ArcGIS Server is server based computer where GIS software
runs on network computer or cloud based. For computer to perform
well all hardware component must have high capacity. Some of the
hardware components are: Motherboard, Hard driver, processor,
graphics card, printer and so on. These all component function
together to run a GIS software smoothly.

Main Hardware Components:

Motherboard: It is board where major hardware parts are
installed or it is a place where all components gets hooked up.
Hard Drive: It is also called hard disk, place to store data.
Processor: Processor is the major component in
computer, it performs calculation.
RAM: Random Access Memory, where all running
programs load temporarily.
Printer: It is output device and used to print image, map
or document.
External Disk: These are portable storage space such as
USB drive, DVD, CD or external disk.
Monitor: It is a screen for displaying output information.
Nowadays there are various type of monitor: LCD (Liquid
Crystal Display), LED (Light Emitting Diodes) and more.

Figure 11 Multi-Propose GIS Servers

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 Software:
Next component is GIS software which provide tools to run and
edit spatial information. It helps to query, edit, run and display GIS
data. It uses RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) to
store the data. Few GIS software list: ArcGIS, ArcView 3.2, QGIS,
SAGA GIS.

Software Components:
GIS Tools: Key tools to support the browsing of the GIS
data.
RDBMS: Relational Database Management System to
store GIS data. GIS Software retrieve from RDBMS or insert
data into RDBMS.
Query Tools: Tools that work with database
management system for querying, insertion, deletion and other
SQL (Standard Query Language).
GUI: Graphical User Interface that helps user and
Software to interact well.
Layout: Good layout window to design map.

 Data:
The most important and expensive component of the
Geographic Information System is Data which is generally known as
fuel for GIS. GIS data is combination of graphic and tabular data.
Graphic can be vector or raster. Both type of data can be created in
house using GIS software or can be purchased. The process of
creating the GIS data from the analog data or paper format is called
digitization. Digitization process involves registering of raster image
using few GCP (ground control point) or known coordinates. This
process is widely known as rubber sheeting or geo-referencing.
Polygon, lines and points are created by digitizing raster image.
Raster image itself can be registered with coordinates which is widely
known as rectifying the image. Registered image are mostly exported

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in TIFF format. As mentioned above, GIS data can be Raster or

Vector.

Figure 12 GIS Data Components

GIS Data Types:

a. Non-Spatial data focus on
tabular data, such as
population demographics.
Demographics can range
from age, income, and
ethnicity to recent purchases
and internet browsing
preferences.
b. Spatial data observations
focus on locations. There
are two types of Spatial
Data: Figure 13 Non-Spatial Data Table

Vector: Vector data are discrete. It store information in x,

y coordinate format. Vector graphics are comprised of vertices
and paths. There are three types of Vector data: Points are XY
coordinates, Lines connect vertices and Polygon (Area) connect
vertices and closes the path.

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Figure 16 Vector Points Figure 15 Vector Lines Figure 14 Vector Polygon

Raster: Raster image store information in a cell based

manner. It can be aerial photo, satellite image, Digital Elevation
Model (DEM). Raster images normally store continuous data.it
is made up of pixels (also
referred to as grid cells).
They are usually regularly-
spaced and square but they
don’t have to be. Raster’s
often look pixelated because
each pixel has its own value
or class.
Figure 17 Raster Data

Vector data advantages and disadvantages

Main advantages:
 The graphical output is generally more aesthetically-
pleasing. Furthermore, it gives higher geographic
accuracy because data isn’t dependent on grid size.
 Topology rules can help data integrity with vector
data models. And network analysis and proximity
operations use vector data structures.
Disadvantages:
 Continuous data is poorly stored and displayed as
vectors. In order to display continuous data as a
vector, it would require substantial generalization.
 Topology is useful for vector data, it is often
processing intensive. Any feature edits requires

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updates on topology. With a lot of features, vector

manipulation algorithms are complex.
Raster data advantages and disadvantages
Main advantage:
 Raster data is usually quick and easy to perform.
Overall, quantitative analysis is intuitive with
discrete or continuous raster’s.
Disadvantages:
 Because cell size contributes to graphic quality, it
can have a pixelated look and feel. To illustrate,
linear features and paths are difficult to display.
 You cannot create network datasets or
perform topology rules on raster’s. Also, you don’t
have the flexibility with raster data attribute tables.
 Raster datasets can become potentially very large
because they record values for each cell in an
image. As resolution increases, the size of the cell
decreases. But this comes at a cost for speed of
processing and data storage.

 People:
People are user of Geographic Information System. They run
the GIS software. Hardware and software have seen tremendous
development which made people easy to run the GIS software. Also
computer are affordable so people are using for GIS task. These task
may be creating simple map or performing advance GIS analysis.
The people are main component for the successful GIS.

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 Methods:
For successful GIS operation a well-designed plan and
business operation rules are important. Methods can vary with
different organizations. Any organization has documented their
process plan for GIS operation. These document address number
question about the GIS methods: number of GIS expert required, GIS
software and hardware, Process to store the data, what type of
DBMS (database management system) and more. Well-designed
plan will address all these question.

GIS Workflow
GIS technology applies geographic science with
tools for understanding and collaboration. It helps
people reach a common goal: to gain actionable
intelligence from all types of data.

 Maps
Maps are the geographic container for the
Figure 18 GIS Maps and Data
data layers and analytics you want to work with. Layers
GIS maps are easily shared and embedded in
apps, and accessible by virtually everyone, everywhere.

 Data
GIS integrates many different kinds of data
layers using spatial location. Most data has a
geographic component. GIS data includes
imagery, features, and base maps linked to
spreadsheets and tables. Figure 19 GIS Data

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 Analysis
Spatial analysis lets you evaluate suitability and
capability, estimate and predict, interpret and
understand, and much more, lending new
perspectives to your insight and decision-making.

Figure 20 GIS Anlyzing

Process

 Apps
Apps provide focused user experiences for
getting work done and bringing GIS to life for
everyone. GIS apps work virtually everywhere: on
your mobile phones, tablets, in web browsers, and on
desktops.

Figure 21 GIS Cross-

Platform Apps

GIS Maps
Maps are the primary tools by which spatial relationships and
geographic data are visualized. Maps therefore become important
documents. There are several key elements that should be included each
time a map is created in order to aid the viewer in understanding the
communications of that map and to document the source of the geographic
information used. The most important main elements are:

1. Data Frame
The data frame is the portion of the map that displays the data
layers. This section is the most important and central focus of the
map document.

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2. Legend
The legend serves as the decoder for the
symbology in the data frame. Therefore, it is also
commonly known as the key. Descriptions
detailing any color schemata, symbology or
categorization.

3. Title
Figure 22 Map Legend
The title is important because it instantly
gives the viewer a succinct description of the subject matter of the
map.

4. North Arrow
The purpose of the north arrow is for orientation.
This allows the viewer to determine the direction of the
map as it relates to due north. Most maps tend to be
oriented so that due north faces the top of the page.
There are exceptions to this and having the north arrow
allows the viewer to know which direction the data is
Figure 23 North
oriented. Direction Symbol

5. Scale
The scale explains the relationship of the data frame extent to
the real world. The description is a ratio. This can be shown either as
a unit to unit or as one measurement to another measurement.
Therefore a scale showing a 1:10,000 scale means that everyone
paper map unit represents 10,000 real world units. Maps that are not
to scale tend have a “N.T.S” notation
which stands for “Not to scale.”

Figure 24 Scale Bar

6. Citation
The citation portion of a map
constitutes the metadata of the map. This is
the area where explanatory data about the Figure 25 Citation Portion Of Map

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data sources and currency, projection information and

any caveats are placed,

Figure 26 Map Elements

Coordinate System
A coordinate system is a method for
identifying the location of a point on the earth.
Most coordinate systems use two numbers, a
coordinate, to identify the location of a point. Each
of these numbers indicates the distance between
the point and some fixed reference point, called
the origin. The first number, known as the X value,
indicates how far left or right the point is from the
origin. The second number, known as the Y value, Figure 27 Spatial Reference Lines
indicates how far above or below the point is from
the origin. The origin has a coordinate of 0, 0.

Longitude and latitude are a special kind of

coordinate system, called a spherical coordinate
system, since they identify points on a sphere or
globe. However, there are hundreds of other
coordinate systems used in different places around
the world to identify locations on the earth. All of
these coordinate systems place a grid of vertical
and horizontal lines over a flat map of a portion of
the earth.
Spatial reference lines: Figure 28 Spherical Coordinate System
 Equator Natural east-west line around middle
of earth
 Prime meridian North-south line through Greenwich
 Parallels East-west lines parallel to the equator
 Meridians North-south lines that meet at the poles

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Map Projection and Distortion

Map projection is the process of converting a three-dimensional
spherical coordinate system into two-dimension projected coordinates.
There really is no one best map projection. Each map projection
distorts shape, distance, direction, scale or area and cannot preserve all
map properties at the same time.
Map distortion is best understood looking at Tissot’s indicatrix. A
Tissot indicatrix contains circles at grid intersections and shows how they
vary due to distortion from a map projection. Types of map projection are
Conformal, Equal-Distant, Equal-Area, and Compromise Projection.
Tissot’s indicatrix can help by showing the magnitude of angular, linear
and area distortion.

 The One True King

The one true king of representing our Earth is a
three-dimensional globe.
This is because our globe is the only true surface
where directions, distances, shapes and areas are
true.
Figure 29 Globe – Conformal,
On a reference globe, the Tissot indicatrices equidistant and equal area
are conformal, equidistant and equal area.
While conformal and equal area map projections are ‘major properties’,
equidistant and azimuthal map projections are ‘minor properties’. Minor
properties are local in specific regions and may be true for only selected
lines.

 The Conformal Projection

Conformal map projections preserve
local angles and shapes. Often, meridians and
parallels intersect at right angles. A map projection
cannot preserve angles and shapes at the same time.
The Lambert Conformal Conic projection Figure 30 North American
maintains local angular and shape relationships Lambert Conformal Conic
Projection – Conformal
throughout the map. But conic projection aren’t well-

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suited for mapping extremely large areas. However, the size of circles vary
throughout the map projection, meaning it’s not equal-area and relative size
is not preserved.

 The Equal Area Projection

At two given areas in a map, an equal
area projection retains the relative size of
areas. In an equal area projection, Tissot
circles are all the same relative size across the
map. Despite how indicatrices change from a
circle to an ellipse, an equal area projection Figure 31 Sinusoidal Projection – Equal Area
retains relative size.
An equal area projection cannot also be
conformal, as their shapes changes as shown in
the sinusoidal projection.
In other words, if the projection preserves
area, then it distorts shape (and vice versa).
Figure 32 Albers Equal Area Conic
Projection
 The Equidistant Projection
The equidistant projection (or plate carree
if the standard parallel is the equator) has a
minor map property that maintains distance (or
scale) along a set of lines in the map projection.
Simply, it produces grids of equal rectangles.
In the case of the equidistant cylindrical
Figure 33 Equidistant Cylindrical Projection
projection, distances along the equator and – Equidistant
meridians are true distances and only along
these sets of lines.
Scale and distance have the same
proportional length as that of a globe along
specific lines with the equidistant property.
However, a line that follows a parallel in the
polar region is not the same distance as the
equator.
Figure 34 Mercator Cylinder Projection – Equidistant

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 The Compromise Projection

A compromise projection minimizes
distortion in shape, area and orientation.
However, a compromise projection is
neither a conformal projection nor an equal
area projection.
The Robinson projection uses a
pseudo-cylinder to flatten a three- Figure 35 Robinson Projection – Compromise

dimensional globe. Even though both

shape and area distortion are low, its map properties remain distorted.

 Map Distortions Are Everywhere

No matter how hard you try, every single map projection distorts
reality. Every one. Whichever map property you want to preserve, you can
apply a conformal, equidistant or equal-area projections. Alternatively, if
you want the best of all worlds (with still a bit of distortion), use a
compromise projection.

Attribute Data Models

A separate data model is used to store and maintain attribute data for
GIS software. These data models may exist internally within the GIS
software, or may be reflected in external commercial Database
Management Software (DBMS). A variety of different data models exist for
the storage and management of attribute data. The most common are:
 Tabular
 Hierarchical
 Network
 Relational
 Object Oriented

 Tabular Model
The simple tabular model stores attribute data as sequential data
files with fixed formats (or comma delimited for ASCII data), for the
location of attribute values in a predefined record structure. This type of

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data model is outdated in the GIS arena. It lacks any method of

checking data integrity, as well as being inefficient with respect to data
storage, e.g. limited indexing capability for attributes or records, etc.

 Hierarchical Model
The hierarchical database organizes data in a tree structure. Data
is structured downward in a hierarchy of tables. Any level in the
hierarchy can have
unlimited children, but
any child can have only
one parent. Hierarchical
DBMS have not gained any
noticeable acceptance for
use within GIS. They are
oriented for data sets that Figure 36 Hierarchical Model
are very stable, where
primary relationships among the data change infrequently or never at all.
Also, the limitation on the number of parents that an element may have
is not always conducive to actual geographic phenomenon.

 Network Model
The network database organizes data in a network
or plex structure. Any column in
a plex structure can be linked to
any other. Like a tree structure,
a plex structure can be
described in terms
of parents and children. This
model allows for children to
have more than one parent.
Network DBMS have not Figure 37 Network Model
found much more acceptance
in GIS than the hierarchical DBMS. They have the same flexibility
limitations as hierarchical databases; however, the more powerful
structure for representing data relationships allows a more realistic

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modelling of geographic phenomenon. However, network databases

tend to become overly complex too easily. In this regard it is easy to lose
control and understanding of the relationships between elements.

 Relational Model
The relational database organizes data in tables. Each table, is
identified by a unique table name, and is organized
by rows and columns. Each column within a table also has a unique
name. Columns store the values for a specific attribute, e.g. cover
group, tree height. Rows represent one record in the table. In a GIS
each row is usually linked to a separate spatial feature, e.g. a forestry
stand. Accordingly, each row would be comprised of several columns,
each column containing a specific value for that geographic feature. The
following figure presents a sample table for forest inventory features.
This table has 4 rows and 5 columns. The forest stand number would be
the label for the spatial feature as well as the primary key for the
database table. This serves as the linkage between the spatial definition
of the feature and the attribute data for the feature.

 Object-Oriented Model
The object-oriented database model manages data
through objects. An object is a collection of data elements and
operations that together are considered a single entity. The object-
oriented database is a relatively new model. This approach has the
attraction that querying is very natural, as features can be bundled
together with attributes at the database administrator's discretion. To
date, only a few GIS packages are promoting the use of this attribute
data model. However, initial impressions indicate that this approach may
hold many operational benefits with respect to geographic data
processing. Fulfilment of this promise with a commercial GIS product
remains to be seen.

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GIS Analysis Functions

GIS analysis functions use the spatial and non-spatial attribute data to
answer questions about real-world. It is the spatial analysis functions that
distinguishes GIS from other information systems.

 Spatial Data Functions

Spatial data refers to information about the location and shape of,
and relationships among, geographic features, usually stored as
coordinates and topology. Spatial data functions are used to transform
spatial data files, such as digitized map, edit them, and assess their
accuracy. They are mainly concerned with the spatial data.

o Format Transformations
Format is the pattern into which data are systematically
arranged for use on a computer. Format transformations are used
to get data into acceptable GIS format. Digital Files must be
transformed into the data format used by the GIS, such as
transforming from raster to vector data structure. Transformation
can be very costly and time-consuming with poor coordinate data.

o Geometric Transformations
Geometric transformations are used to assign ground
coordinates to a map or data layer within the GIS or to adjust one
data layer so it can be correctly overlayed on another of the same
area. The procedure used to accomplish this correction is
termed registration.
Two approaches are used in registration: the adjustment of
absolute positions and the adjustment of relative position. Relative
Position refers to the location of features in relation to a
geographic coordinate system. Registration by Relative Position is
the procedure using mathematical transformations to adjust
coverage features in a non-uniform manner. Absolute Position is
the location in relation to the ground. This registration is done by
individual layers.

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o Projection Transformations
Map projection is a mathematical transformation that is used
to represent a spherical surface on a flat map. The transformation
assigns to each location on a spherical surface a unique location
on a 2-dimensional map.
Map projections always causes some distortion: area,
shape, distance, or direction distortion. GIS commonly supports
several projections and has software to transform data from one
projection to another.

o Conflation
Conflation is the procedure of reconciling the positions of
corresponding features in different data layers. Conflation
functions are used to reconcile these differences so that the
corresponding features overlay precisely.

o Edge-matching
Edge matching is a
procedure to adjust the
position of features
extending across map
sheet boundaries. This
function ensures that all
features that cross
adjacent map sheets have
Figure 38 Edge-Matching Function Example
the same edge locations.

o Editing Functions
Editing functions are used to add, delete, and change the
geographic position of features. Sliver or splinter polygons are thin
polygons that are occurring along the borders of polygons
following digitizing and the topological overlay of two or more
coverages.

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o Line Coordinate Thinning

The Thinning function
reviews all the coordinate data
in a file, identifies and then
removes unnecessary
coordinates. Depending on
scale. This function is used to
reduce the quantity of
Figure 39 Line Coordinate Thinning Function Example
coordinate data that must be
stored by the GIS.

 Attribute Data Functions

Attribute Data is relate to the description of the map items. It is
typically stored in tabular format and linked to the feature by a user-
assigned identifier.

o Retrieval (selective search)

Retrieval operations on the spatial and attribute data involve
the selective search manipulation, and output of data without the
need to modify the geographic location of features or to create
new spatial entities. These operations work with the spatial
elements as they were entered in the data base.

o Classification
Classification is the procedure of identifying a set of features
as belonging to a group and defining patterns. Some form of
classification function is provided in every GIS. Classification is
important because it defines patterns. One of the important
functions of a GIS is to assist in recognizing new patterns.
Classification is done using single data layers, as well as with
multiple data layers as part of an overlay operation.
Generalization, or map dissolve, is the process of making a
classification less detailed by combining classes.

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o Verification
Verification is a procedure for checking the values of
attributes for all records in a database against their correct values.

 Integrated Analysis of Spatial and Attribute Data

o Overlay
Overlay is a GIS operation in
which layers with a common,
registered map base are joined on the
basis of their occupation of space.
Region Wide Overlay: is an
approach to overlay analysis allows
natural features, such as forest stand
boundaries or soil polygons, to
become the spatial area(s) which will Figure 40 Overlay Function Example
be analyzed on another map.
For example: given two data sets, forest patches and slope,
what is the area-weighted average slope within each separate
patch of forest? To answer this question, the GIS overlays each
patch of forest from the forest patch data set onto the slope map
and then calculates the area-weighted average slope for each
individual forest patch.

o Topological Overlay:
Co-Occurrence mapping in a vector
GIS is accomplished by topological
overlaying. Any number of maps may be
overlayed to show features occurring at the
same location. The GIS first stacks maps on
top of one another and finds all new
intersecting lines. Second, new nodes (point
features where three or more arcs, or lines,
come together) are set at these new
Figure 41 Topological Overlay
intersections. Lastly, the topologic structure Function Example

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of the data is rebuilt and the multifactor attributes are attached to

the new area features.

o Neighborhood Function
Neighborhood Function analyzes the relationship between
an object and similar surrounding objects. This type of analysis is
often used in image processing. A new map is created by
computing the value assigned to a location as a function of the
independent values surrounding that location.

o Point-in-Polygon and Line-In-Polygon

Point-in-Polygon is a topological overlay procedure which
determines the spatial coincidence of points and polygons. Points
are assigned the attributes of the polygons within which they fall.
Line-in-Polygon is a spatial operation in which lines in one
coverage are overlaid with polygons of another coverage to
determine which lines, or portions of lines, are contained within the
polygons.
In a vector-based GIS, the identification of points and lines
contained within a polygon area is a specialized search function.
In a raster-based GIS, it is essentially an overlay operation, with
the polygons in one data layer and the points and/or lines in a
second data layer.

o Topographic Functions
Topography refers to the surface characteristics with
continuously changing value over an area such as elevations,
noise levels, income levels, and pollution levels. The topography
of a land surface can be represented in a GIS by digital elevation
data. An alternative form of representation is the Triangulated
Irregular Network or TIN used in vector-based systems.
Topographic functions are used to calculate values that
describe the topography at a specific geographic location. The two
most commonly used terrain parameters are the slope and aspect,

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which are calculated using the elevation data of the neighboring

points.
Slope is the measure of change in surface value over
distance, expressed in degrees or as a percentage.
Mathematically, slope is referred to as the first derivative of the
surface. The maximum slope is termed the gradient. Aspect is the
direction that a surface faces. Aspect is defined by the horizontal
and vertical angles that the surface faces.
Sun intensity is the combination of slope and
aspect. Illumination portrays the effect of shining a light onto a 3-
dimensional surface.

o Thiessen Polygons
Thiessen polygons define individual areas of influence
around each of a set of points. Thiessen polygons are polygons
whose boundaries define the area that is closest to each point
relative to all other points. Thiessen polygons are generated from
a set of points. A TIN structure is used to create Thiessen
polygons.

o Interpolation
Interpolation is the procedure of predicting unknown values
using the known values at neighboring locations. The quality of the
interpolation results depends on the accuracy, number, and
distribution of the known points used in the calculation and on how
well the mathematical function correctly models the phenomenon.

GIS software
The development of open source GIS software has in terms of software
history a long tradition with the appearance of a first system in 1978.
Numerous systems are available which cover all sectors of geospatial data
handling.

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These are some of open-source

desktop GIS projects:
 GRASS GIS – Geospatial data
management, vector and raster
manipulation - developed by
the U.S. Army Corps of Figure 42 GRASS GIS v6.4
Engineers.
 gvSIG – Mapping and geo-processing with a 3D rendering plugin.
 ILWIS (Integrated Land and
Water Information System) –
Integrates image, vector and
thematic data.
 SAGA GIS (System for
Automated Geo-scientific
Analysis) - Tools for
environmental modeling,
terrain analysis, and 3D
mapping.
 Desktop GIS Figure 43 SAGA-GIS v2.0.3

Almost all of the companies

below offer Desktop GIS and Web Map Server products. Some such as
Manifold Systems and ESRI offer Spatial DBMS products as well.
Here are some famous companies that provide Desktop GIS
applications:
 Autodesk – Products that interface with its
flagship AutoCAD software package include Map 3D,
Topobase, and MapGuide.
 Bentley Systems – Products that interface with its
flagship Micro-Station software package include Bentley
Map and Bentley Map View.
 ENVI – Utilized for image analysis, exploitation, and
hyperspectral analysis.
 ERDAS IMAGINE by ERDAS Inc – Products include Leica
Photogrammetry Suite, ERDAS ER Mapper, ERDAS

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ECW/JP2 SDK (ECW (file format)) are used throughout the

entire mapping community (GIS, Remote Sensing,
Photogrammetry, and image compression) and ERDAS
APOLLO.
 Esri – Products include ArcMap, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS,
ArcWeb services and ArcGIS Server.

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References:
 Environmental Systems Research Institute -ESRI- what is GIS?
(https://www.esri.com/en-us/what-is-gis/overview)
 GIS (Geographic Information System) - National Geographic
(https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/geographic-
information-system-gis/)
 Paul Bolstad - GIS Fundamentals - 5th Edition.
 GIS – Wikipedia
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system)
 GIS Data is Used in Business and Everyday Life – Nobels GIS
(https://nobelsystemsblog.com/gis-data-business)
 GIS For Indoor Mapping - GeoMarvel
(http://www.geomarvel.com/2018/11/20/gis-for-indoor-mapping)
 Components of GIS – GrindGIS (https://grindgis.com/blog/components-of-
gis)
 Vector vs Raster: What’s the difference Between GIS Spatial Data Types? -
GISGeography (https://gisgeography.com/spatial-data-types-vector-raster/)
 What Is A Coordinate System? – Caliper
(https://www.caliper.com/glossary/what-is-a-coordinate-system.htm)
 Map Distortion with Tissot’s Indicatrix – GIS Geography
(https://gisgeography.com/map-distortion-tissots-indicatrix/)
 GIS Introduction by David J. Buckey –
(http://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/GIS/GIS_primer/page_20.htm)
 GIS Analysis Functions –
(http://maps.unomaha.edu/Peterson/gis/notes/GISAnal1.html)
 GIS Software – Wikipedia
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographic_information_systems_so
ftware)

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