CHAPTER-1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS REALLIFE APPLICATIONS 1. Cooking involves many physical and chemical suchas heating, boiling, frying, baking, 1 changes, ‘and fermentation. 2. Photosynthesis is considered as a chemical change that takes place in plants where sunlight gets converted into energy through a series of chemical reactions, 3. Buming of candles involves a chemical change where the ‘wax ofthe candle reacts with oxygen inthe ar to produce carbon dioxide and water vapour, releasing energy in the form of heat and light. Heat Ss paterson 4. Digestion is an example of a chemical reaction in which enzymes break down food molecules into smaller, more easily absorbed molecules. This process involves the release of energy, a change in color and texture, and the formation of new substances, 5. In agriculture, balancing chemical equations to produce fertilizers, which are used to improve crop yield. The balanced equation helps in determining the exact amount of nutrients needed for plant growth © Coal burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water. This isan example of a combination reaction. 7. Formation ofrust on the surface of iron objects is a redox reaction between iron and oxygen in an environment having water, Ceca SAcen Oa sma nen Ven Sean This QR Code ELIT BUC Yeates 8. The Statue of Liberty has been tumed green over the years due to corrosion of the Cu metal from which itis made up of. ES MNEMONICS 1. Toremember chemical change characteristics, mnemonics PROD can be used which means: 1 _P-Production of new substance 1 R- Release of gas J O-Observed energy change J _D- Dramatic change in properties * MAD HOP can be used to remember which species to balance first in chemical reaction. MAD stands for Metal, Acid, and then Diatomic, while HOP stands for Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Polyatomic, 3. Redox reaction involves oxidation and reduction simultaneously. In order to remember the terms oxidation and reduction, given below mnemonics can be used, LEO the lion says GER, L-Loss of E-Electrons is O-Oxidation G-Gain of E-Electrons is R-Reduction 4. To remember the factors contriby ute to rancidity, FAO can be used. FAO: This mnemonic stands for: the factors that contribute ‘orancidity, including faty acids, Air, and Oxygen1s the representation of chemical reaction in eymboleand it needs to be balanced. Eg: Mts) + 0,6) + 2MgO() Evolution of gas Eg: CACO(s) -*> C2019) + COL) Change in temperature E.g.: Ca0(s) + H,0(8) + Ca(OH) (aq) + Heat Change in state Eg: NH@) + HC\(g) = NH,Cl6) Formation of precipitate Exgs 2KI(aq) + PO(NO,) (aq) + 2KNO,(ag) + POLLS) Cri 0) geek © Change in colour E.g: CuSO (aq) + Fe(s) —+ FeSO,(aq) + Cus) + Combination rencton: When? or more corbin tfem ine peda = Eg: 2M) * Cig) 2NaCh + Decompoton econ Single ean Ito 2 or more products his of trectyper 1. Thermal Decompestion by at Eg: C0046) Es cabin =cOYe) 2. Photo Decompesion by sui Eg: 2Ag8r(9) > 246) + Bef) 3-Thermal Decomposion by eleeicy Be: AL0() BES ont #20/0 * Single dsplacement reaction: More reactive clement displaces less reactive elements from is sat solions. Ege Fels) + CuS0O,(0q) + FeSO,(29) +Cu(s) * Double displacement reaction: Exchange of ion wes place. E.g. Na,SO{aq) + BaCloq) ~+2NaClag) + BSO,05) '» Redox Reactions > RoR CaiONe ) Aditon FO, (e) Removal of, © Reducing: (a) Addition of, (6) Removal of, © Oxidising agent which oxidses ote. © Reducing agent which reduces oes Eg: CuO(s) + Hig)» Cu+ HO (@) Corrosion: Degradation of metals, Eg: Rust Fe,0,x11,0 Reduction —+ CUO Reducing agent—+H, ——RepoxREAcTION | Wo, + the + ao~Fepiaio ae omanaies : ace ie G2A6-8 a 6 “O's 2. Nitrogen 628 3. Refrigeration— REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS 3, * detergents, and bleach. The basic HAPTER-2 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS a Acids are used in batteries to generate electricity: For Actople, sulfuric acid is wed in lead-acid batteries, which ars and other vehicles. are commonly used ‘Anode Cathode Negative plates: _Tead grids filled with spongy AJ ead. 38% sulphuric = P2Positive plates: lead gr acid solution a with PbO, ing agents such as Soaps, properties of these dirt, oil, and Bases are widely used in clea compounds help them dissolve and remov grease from surfaces. Soaps testing in various fields example, the pH of 2d for pI xd water treatment. Fo idicators are uscd to test ums to ensure that the water Indicators are widely use such as food, medicine, an pH strips containing in ‘swimming pools and aqua is safe for aquatic life. 1t role in the human body, and 1. pH plays an importan Js can lead to health problems. imbalances in pH level Doctors use pH tests to diagnose medical conditions such urinary tract infections, and diabetes pH of soil and water to lesired range for optimal as acid reflux, Farmers use pH meters to test the censure that they are within the d plant growth, Municipalities and in control the pH of water to ensure itis safe for consump! .dustries use pH meters to monitor and oruse. rae PNY lee PreMed 7. Sodium hydrox! detergent manu! fats, which is the chet substances into soap. 8. Bleaching powders us making it easier % pH meter <- = a? a ¢ fe water in essential ingredient ised t0 sapor t in soap and nify oils and t converts these de is a facturing. It is us I reaction that edtoremove the colour from leather, to dye. Fire Extinguisher. salts ‘9, Washing soda is used in the glass manufacturing industry t rower the meting point ofsilica, which isthe main ingredient in glass. This: makes it easier to! ‘melt and form glass | products. 10. Plaster of Paris is used in dentistry to make dental impressions for creating custom dental appliances, such ‘as dentures, bridges, and crowns. MNEMONICS 1. LACTOM (To remember organic acids) oO L-Lactic acid o A-Acetic acid oO C-Citric Acid oT -Tartaric acid co O-Oxalic acid o M-Methanoic acid 2, Power of Hydrogen (to remember pH) pH is measure of th . Pl is measure ofthe concentration of hydrogen ions inPHSCALE pit tog} fe vals on For cies Persson ey Te neta ato 9 si sltons p> Olfactory indicators [Natural Indicators (based on odoursell) Example: & cy Turmeric Ret Cabbage 1 PH scale rang "Be fom Oto 14, Synthete In Litmus Acid — Red colour, Base + Blue Colour + Methyl orange (Natural colour orange) Acid — Red colour, Base — Yellow Colour ‘= Phenolphthalein (Natural colour —+ colourless) [Acid —+ Colortess, Base ~+ Pink Colour Weak Acids (Produce less H ions) + Citrie acid Strong Acids (produce more H’ ions) Eg. + HCI, HINO,, 11,50, Weak base = - (prodice ess OF 00) + Common Salt (NaC) Fy -NILOH {OI + HICI =» NaCl + 0 Physical Properties s.7 NH \ ae Seacin aes Sirong base + Caustic Soda (80H) I eee aesscieaeiits {predic 8 om 2NaC1 +210 2NAOH + C+ © Corrosive in nature s : ane Arcane oS ‘ + Washing Soda (,CO, 10140) Chemical Properties Physical NaCl + NII, +110 + CO, NaHCO,+ NHC | fe Metals + Acid —+ Metal salt + Hydrogen gas Properties SNalC0, Se NCO, C0, +140 fe Metal Carbonates + Acid —+ Metal salt + CO, gas + water ui Na,CO, + H,0 —Na,CO, 1010 | fe Metal Hydrogen Carbonates + Acids ~ Metal Salt + CO, gas * water «Conducts * Baking soda (NaHICO,) 4 Neutraisation reaction (Acid + Base —+ Salt + Water) electricity NaCl + NH, + H,0 +CO, ~+ NalICO, * NH,CT fe Metal oxides + Acid —» Salt + Water + Sear leaching ponder (C20C1) | Ca(OW), + C1, + C20C1, + 0 ———— ‘Plaster of Pars (POP) Chemical Properties Plates of Pais 8) ext, cy50,15H,0+ HAN,O |e Baase + Metal -» Salt + Hydrogen as caso, 21,0 oxide —» Salt + water Z = Base + Non-metaCHAPTER-3 METALS AND NON-METALS REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS 1, Gold, Silver and Platinum are used to make jewellery as they are malleable and ductile. & @2 Gs, 2. Graphite, anallotrope of carbon, is used in pencil lead and asa lubricant because itis very soft and slippery. in 3, NaCl, the most common ionic compound, is used as the table salt in food items. asp ec rane cecal Jeavening agent in baked goods to improve their texture cane 5, Metallurgical processes are essential for the production of many common materials used in engineering and manufacturing such as aluminum and copper. 6. The extraction of metals from ores is a key component of the mining industry. 7. Corrosion weaken the structure of bridges and buildings overtime, leading to safety hazards. | MNEMONICS 1, The properties of metals can be memorized in the following way: M o£ T A Los Velert =lo kel Malleable Electrical Thermal Alloy Lustrous Sonorous/ Conductor Conductor Forming solid Real Life Applications PA (Lukcuseain 2, The reacivty series ean be Feared easilY in the following way: — oe = = 2 roma mt fencer RS toot Gas Wo an 3. ‘The process of roasting and calcination along with their conditions can be leamed as follows: bola Give: 4. The different alloys and their composition can be leamed as: Brass (Cu + Zn) CUZ, = a (Because) Soper Zine Bronze (Cu+Sn) CuSn (Cousin) CuSn 3 Solder (Pb + Sn) post his shoulder Lead(Pb) Tin(Sny J Stainless steel (Ni+ Fe + Cu) New Ferrari Car VE Ve ay No oFe = Cu| Physical properties * Solid (Exception. eC] * Malleable and ductite (Exception: Zn, Hg) | + Sonorous (Exception: Na, © Lustrous- shiny: * High MP. & BP, ‘ High density (Exception- Li, Na and K) * Good conductor of heat and electricity Hard (Exception. Na, K) Corrosion + Rusting of Iron: Fe + H,O +0, — Fe,0,x#,0 Tamishing of Copper: Cu+H,0 + C0, +0, — CuOH,-Cuo, Basic copper cahnate * Tamishing of Silver: 2Ag+H,S —+ Ags + H, Prevention © Applying oil or grease * Applying paint. * By Galvanisation. Physical properties © Soft and brittle e Non sonorous « Solid and gas (Exception-Br) ¢ Low MP. And BP. Non malleable and non ductile « Dull ((Exception- iodine and graphite) + Poor conductor of heat and electricity _ cception- graphite) ‘Chemical properties jeactivity Series # Meta + Oxy Reactvity K > Na> Ca> Mg>Al> Zn > Fe > Sa> + Oxyen—» Metal Oxide Re H0,-1N0 p> H>Cu>Hig> Ag > Au> Pt © Metal + Water — nt tal Hy * ~ letal Hydroxide + = 2K + 21,0— 2k oi +1 * Hen Gas — © Metal + Acid — Sait Hye Salt + Hydrogen Gas T 2Na+ HCI ancl th : : | sNealtbuae wet pee =i 2Na+H, — 2NaHt = * Metal + Base — Metal Salt +H Meatetngh—Meancfomen—Metow salt + Hydrogen Gas reac remeviry ae AI+NSOH—NaAIO,+H, SR Eo on La | - telat chem Any te Rast ‘Sulphide NON-METALS Chemical properties + Non meal + Osygen—+ NonstieOide ae C4000, ¢ High MP and BP. «Non metal + Water + No Reaction “toeetmartenannis ‘quot oition and mol sate Physical properties of Tonic compounds ‘© Non metal + Acid/Base —+ No Reaction Formation of lonie compounds Bond is formed by the complete transfer of electrons. from a metal to a non-metal to form ionie compound.TER-4 oa AND ITS COMPOUNDS Real Life Applica (ois Qi 7) Pitted REAL LIFE. APPLIGATIONS reused inhigh-end jewellery duc to their shiny |. Di a gost and thei durability 1 reactions are widely used to generate EncTEy ros! fuels such as coal, oil, and natural bastion to produce heat, which is then am, in tur, drives turbines 9, Combustion in power plants. ‘gas undergo com used to generate steam. The ste to produce electr icity. 10. Substitution reactions are process called chlorination. to water, where it undergoes @ substit used to disinfect water in Chlorine gas (Cl,) is added tution reaction with 2, Diamond is used to drill, grind or cut materials due tots property hardness. the water molecules: ; / 44, Alkanes are used in gasoline due to their ability to bum. 11, Ethanol is commonly used in the production of alcoholic teal witha blue non-sooty flame to release lot of beverages such as beer, wine and spirits, It is also used as heat and light energy. solvent in perfumes and medicines. 12, Ethanoic acid is a component of vinegar which is ‘commonly used in cooking and food preservation. 4, Alkene is used in rubber. Soaps and Detergents are used for sterilisation and 5. Alkyne is used in Plastics. a 6 Coal, petroleum, and natural gas all are mixtures of ” “disinfection i of equipment and surfaces. di . 7 ; ferent hydrocarbons. These are usedas fueltogenerate | 14, Soaps and Detergents are used to clean dishes and utensils effectively. MNEMONICS 1. To remember the general formula of alkanes (C,H...) tse Count the carbons, Add two Hydrogens’. Torememberthe general formula fakenes (CH, wse Ds ie ‘Count the eatbons, Halve the Hydrogens’. a en seater ates coptng | ; 2 Tsnenbln ed oneménberibe ft our cee of the homologous series of alcohols. : stoves, 8. The homologous series of alkanes is used as ii \s series of al s fuel in | (M4) ®r ® cphant Jacked ig Peanut + + + L ‘vehicles heating and cooking. Similarly, the homologous series of alcohols is used as solvents in many industrial ae Methanol Ethanol Propanol —_Butanolof Hydrogen, Hydrogen: HHH Oxygen: Valeney 4: Carbon has a valency of four, capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent clement. ALLOTROPES OF CARBON ¢ Diamond: Tetrahedral ‘arrangement, hardest natural substance. ‘© Graphite: Hexagonal layers, conducts electric « Fallerene: atoms arranged in the shape of a football fee ase eae SeSe8, goo trons between atoms, frse compounds, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Nitrogen: Nen, g t / ranks es BOND ‘SATURATED AND UNSATURATED. ‘CARBON COMPOUNDS © Saturated (Alkanes) wa il Single erboratton bonds, F—¢—H HH General formula: CH, Example: Ethane (C1), # Unsaturated (Alkenes) Double carbon-carbon bonds. General formula: C\H,, Example: Ethene (C,H). (Atiynes) ‘Triple carbon-carbon bonds. General formula: CH,» Example: Ethyne (C,H). ‘Triple carborrearbon bond in Ete: hdd oy f at whe i a tite ees a a on tiecs 7 a “Sy — "(CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS, ‘© Combustion: Carbon compound + Oxygen + Carbon dioxide + Water. 1. C+0, + CO, + heat and light 2. CH, +20, -+ CO, + 2H,0 + heat and light 3. CH{CH,OH + 0, -+ CO, + 1,0 + heat and light HOMOLOGOUS SERIES Series of compounds with similar functional groups. ‘Characteristics . + Oxidation: Addition of oxygen. Differ by -CH, and 14 Cemetary oe or a ‘Identical chemical properties. (CH;-CH,OH “or acidified K,Cr,0,7 Heat n' # Substitution: Atoms/groups replace others (CH, + Cl, -+ CH,C1+ HCI (inthe presence of sunlight) «Addition: Unsaturated compound + Reagent ~+ Saturated compound. WH Sd sacs, yh bg ee ro [SOAPS AND DETERGENTS + Soaps: sodium o potassium salts of higher fat acids Structure: Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic al ‘Mechanism: Emulsifcation, micelle formation, SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUN Ethanol (C,!1,01) Structure: HHL Properties: Solvent, disinfectant I H-C—C-0-H Production: Fermentation, indus ri synthesis. net S Renton: CH)-CH,on— Mc c,10 ‘Ethane Acid(CH,COOM) Strut: Hg Properties Sour tt, pungent sme Pee es: Vineay, (0d preservation \ bea tos leet 4 ‘on Reaction: CH,~COOH + CH,-CH,OH 24 CH,-C-0-CH,-CH, + 1,0 \(Ehanoie acid) (Ethanol) 6 : to circoocH, 44011 -cr,cooss NsOH + CH,COOH ~+ CH,COONs + 11,0 2CH,COOH + Na,CO, ~+ 2CH,COONs +11,0+ CO, CH,COOH + NalICO, — CH,COONa+#,0+ C0, ‘Limitations: does not work well in hard water «Detergents: sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic acids ‘of hydrocarbon of alkene Structure: Synthetic surfactants, Advantages: Effective in hard water, Limitations: Non-biodegradable, Causes water pollution