CHAPTER 2 -Oxygen (O)- most common; 65% of the

body’s mass
-Carbon (C)
BASIC CHEMISTRY -Hydrogen (H)
-Nitrogen (N)
 Periodic table contains a complete listing of
elements
MATTER AND ENERGY
 Atoms
o Building blocks of elements
o Atoms of elements differ from one
Matter- anything that occupies space ang has mass
another
Matter may exist as one of the three states o Atomic symbol is chemical shorthand
for each element
 Solid: definite shape and volume
 Liquid: definite volume; shape of container The Basic Atomic Sub particles
 Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor volume
 Protons (n+)
Matter may be change  Neutrons (n0)
 Electrons (e-) are negatively charged
 Physically
o Changes do not alter the basic nature of
a substance
 All atoms are electrically neutral
o Example include changes in the state of
o Number of protons equals number of
matter (solid, liquid, gas)
electrons in an atom
 Chemically
o Positive and negative charges cancel
o Changes alter the chemical composition
each other out
of a substance
 Ions are atoms that have lost or gained
Energy- the ability to do work electrons

o Has no mass and does not take up space Planetary and Orbital Models of an Atoms
o Kinetic energy: energy is doing work
 Planetary
o Potential energy: energy is inactive or
o Portrays the atom as a miniature solar
stored
system
 Forms of energy
o Protons and neutrons are in the atomic
o Chemical energy is stored in chemical
nucleus
bonds of substances
o Electrons are in orbitals around the
o Electrical energy results from
nucleus
movement of charged particles
o Mechanical energy is energy directly
involved in moving matter
o Radiant energy travels in waves; energy
of the electromagnetic spectrum
 Energy form conversions
o ATP (adenosine triphosphate) traps the
chemical energy of food in its bonds

Composition of Matter

 Elements- fundamental units of matter

o 96 % of the body is made from four
elements
  Orbital model
o Electrons are depicted by an electron
cloud, a haze of negative charge,
outside the nucleus
 Electrons determine an atom’s chemical
behavior and bonding properties
 Although outdated, the planetary model is
simple and easy to understand and use
Identifying Elements
 To identify an element, we need to know the:
o Atomic number
o Atomic mass number
o Atomic weight
 Atomic number – equal to the number of
protons that the atom contains
o Unique to atoms of a particular element
o Indirectly tells the number of electrons
in an atom
 Atomic mass number – sum of the protons and
neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus
 Atomic weight – approximately equal to the
mass number of the element’s most abundant
isotope
Atomic weight and Isotopes
 Isotopes
o Atoms that have the same number of
protons and electrons but vary in the
number of neutrons
o Isotopes have the same atomic number
but different atomic masses
 Radioisotope
o Heavy isotope of certain atoms
o Tends to be unstable
o Decomposes to more stable isotope
 Radioactivity – process of spontaneous atomic
decay
o Used to tag and trace biological
molecules through the body
Molecule and Compound
 Molecule- two or more atoms of the same
elements combined chemically
 Example of a chemical reaction, shown as a
chemical equation, resulting in a molecule:
o The reactants are the atoms on the left
o The product is the molecule on the
right, represented by a molecular
formula
 Compound – two or more atoms of different
elements combine chemically to form a
molecule of a compound
 Example of a chemical reaction resulting in a
compound:
Chemical Bonds and Chemical Reactions  Reactive elements
o Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons
 Chemical reactions occur when the atoms
to complete their outermost orbitals
combine with or dissociate from other atoms
when fewer than 8 electrons are in the
 Chemical bonds are energy relationships
valence shell
involving interactions among the electrons of
o Chemical bonding helps atoms achieve
reacting atoms
a stable valence shell
Role of Electrons

 Electrons occupy energy levels called electron

shells (or energy levels)
 Electrons closest to the nucleus are most
strongly attracted to its positive charge
 Distant electrons further from the nucleus are
likely to interact with other atoms
 Each electron shell has distinct properties
 How to fill the atom’s electron shells
o Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2
electrons
o Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8
electrons
o Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18
electrons Types of Chemical Bonds
o Subsequent shells can hold more  Ionic bonds
electrons o Form when electrons are completely
 Bonding involves interactions only between transferred from one atom to another
electrons in the outermost (valance) shell o Allow atoms to achieve stability through
 Atoms with full valence shells do not form the transfer of electrons
bonds  Ions
o Result from the loss or gain of electrons
- Anion have negative charge due to
gain of electron(s)
- Cations have positive charge due to
loss of electron(s)
o Tend to stay close together because
opposite charges attract

 Rule of eights
o The key to chemical reactivity
o Atoms are considered stable when their
outermost (valance) shell has 8  Covalent bonds
electrons o Atoms become stable through shared
o The exception to this rule of eights is electrons
shell 1, which can hold only 2 electrons o Electrons are shared in pairs
 o Single covalent bonds share one pair of
electrons
o Double covalent bonds share two pairs
of electrons
Patterns of chemical Reactions
 Covalent bonds can be described as either
nonpolar or polar
o Nonpolar covalent bonds
- Electrons are shared equally between
the atoms of the molecule
- Electrically neutral as a molecule
- Example: carbon dioxide
o Polar covalent bonds
-Electrons are not shared equally
between the atoms of the molecule
-molecule has a positive and negative
side, or pole
-Example: water
 Hydrogen bonds
o Extremely weak chemical bonds
o Formed when a hydrogen atom is
attracted to the negative portion, such
as an oxygen or nitrogen atom, of a
polar molecule
o Responsible for the surface tension of
water
o Important for forming intramolecular
bonds, as in protein structure
 Synthesis reaction
o Atoms or molecules combine to form a
larger, more complex molecule
o Energy is absorbed for bond formation
o Underlies all anabolic (building)
activities in the body
 Decomposition reaction
o Molecule is broken down into smaller
molecules
o Chemical energy is released
o Underlies all catabolic (destructive)
activities in the body
 Exchange reaction
o Involves simultaneous synthesis and
decomposition reactions as bonds are
both made and broken
o Switch is made between molecules
parts, and different molecules are made
Patterns of the Chemical Reactions
 Most chemical reactions are reversible
 Reversibility is indicated by a double arrow
o When arrows differ in length, the longer
arrow indicates the more rapid reaction
or major direction of progress
 Factors influencing the rate of chemical
reactions
BIOCHEMISTRY: The Chemical Composition of Living
Matter
 Inorganic compounds
o Lack carbon
o Tend to be small, simple molecules
o Include water, salts, and many (not all)
acids and bases
 Organic compound
o Contain carbon
o All are large, covalent molecules
o Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids
 Inorganic Compounds
 Water
o Most abundant inorganic compound in
the body
o Accounts for two-thirds of the body’s
weight
o Vital properties include:
-High heat capacity
-Polarity/solvent properties
-Chemical reactivity
-Cushioning
 High heat capacity
o Water absorbs and releases a large
amount of heat before it changes
temperature
o Prevents sudden changes in the body
temperature
 Polarity/solvent properties
o Water is often called the “universal
solvent”
o Solvents are liquids or gases that
dissolve smaller amounts of solutes
o Solutes are solids, liquids, or gases that
are dissolved or suspended by solvents
o Solutions forms when solutes are very
tiny
o Colloid forms when solutes of
intermediate size form a translucent
mixture
 Chemical reactivity
o Water is an important reactant in some
chemical reactions
o Reactions that require water are known
as hydrolysis reactions
o Example: water helps digest food or
break down biological molecules
 Cushioning
o Water serves a protective function
o Example: cerebrospinal fluid protects
the brain from physical trauma, and
amniotic fluid protects a developing
fetus
 Salts
o Ionic compound
o Contain cations other that H+ and
anions other than OH-
o Easily dissociate (break apart) into ions
in the presence of water
o Vital to many body functions
- Example; sodium and potassium ions
are essential for nerve impulses
o All salts are electrolytes
o Electrolytes are ions that conduct
electrical currents
 Acids
o Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in
water and release hydrogen ions (H+)
o Proton (H+) donors
o Strong acids ionize completely and
liberate all their protons
o Weak acids ionize incompletely
  Bases
 Organic Compounds
o Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in
 Dehydration synthesis- monomers are joined to
water and release hydroxyl ions (OH-)
form through the removal, of water molecules
o Protons (H+) acceptors
o A hydrogen ion removed from one
o Example:
monomer while a hydroxyl group is
 Neutralization reaction
removed from the monomer it is to be
o Type of exchange reaction in which
joined with
acids and bases react to form water and
o Water is removed at the site where
a salt
monomers join (dehydration)
o Example:
 pH
o pH measure relative concentration of
hydrogen (and hydroxide) ions in body
fluids
o pH scale is based on the number of
protons in a solution
o pH scale runs from 0-14  Hydrolysis- polymers are broken down into
o Each successive change in 1 pH unit monomers through the addition of water
represents a tenfold change in H+ molecules
concentration o As a water molecule is added to each
o Neutral bond, the bond id broken, and the
- 7 is neutral monomers are released
- Neutral means that the number of
hydrogen ions exactly equals the
number of hydroxyl ions
o Acidic solutions have a pH below 7
- More H+ that OH-
o Basic solutions have a pH above 7
- Fewer H+ that OH-  Carbohydrates
o Buffers- chemicals that can regulate pH o Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
change o Includes sugars and starches
o Classified according to size and
solubility in water
- Monosaccharides – simple sugars and
the structural units of the carbohydrate
group
- Disaccharides – two simple sugars
joined by dehydration synthesis
- Polysaccharides – long- branching
chains of linked simple sugars

 Inorganic Compounds  Monosaccharides – simple sugars

 Polymer: chainlike molecules made of many o Single-chain or single-ring structures
similar or repeating units (monomers) o Contain 3 to 7 carbo atoms
 Many biological molecules are polymers, such o Example: glucose (blood sugar),
as carbohydrates and proteins fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
 - Chains are straight
- Exist as solids at room temperature
 Disaccharide – two simple sugars joined by
since molecules pack closely together
dehydration synthesis
o Unsaturated fats
o Examples include sucrose, lactose, and
- Contain one or more double covalent
maltose
bonds, causing chains to kink
o Too large to pass through cell
- Exist as liquid oils at room temperature
membranes
- “Heart healthy”

 Polysaccharides: long, branching chains of

linked simple sugars
o Large, insoluble molecules
o Function as storage products
o Example include starch ang glycogen

 Lipids
o Most abundant are the triglycerides,
phospholipids, and steroids
 Trans fats
o Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
o Oils that have been solidified by the
- Carbon and hydrogen outnumber
addition of hydrogen atoms at double
oxygen
bond sites
o Insoluble in water, but soluble in other
o Increase risk of heart disease
lipids
 Omega-3 fatty acids
 Triglycerides, or neutral fats
o Found in cold-water fish and plant
o Found in fat deposits
sources, including flax, pumpkin, and
o Source of stored energy
chia seeds: walnuts and soy foods
o Composed of two types of building
o Appear to decrease risk of heart disease
blocks-fatty acids and one glycerol
 Phospholipids
molecule
o Contain two fatty acids chains rather
- Saturated fatty acids
than three; they are hydrophilic (“water
-Unsaturated fatty acids
fearing”)
o Phosphorus-containing polar “head”
caries an electrical charge is hydrophilic
 Fatty acid chains of triglycerides
(water loving)
o Saturated fats
- Contain only single covalent bonds
 o Charges “head” regions interacts with
water and ions while the fatty acid
chains (tails) do not
o Form cell membranes

 Steroids
o Formed of 4 interlocking rings
o Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D,
and some hormones
o Some cholesterol is ingested from
animal products; the liver also makes
cholesterol
o Cholesterol is the basis for all steroids
made in the body

 Proteins
o Account for over half