UNIVERSITY I CALIFORNIA

BRING RESEARCH
INSTITUTE O F El
BERKEL HBRNIA
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 PRINCIPLES OF SOLUTION H~DI~NING

Bs
E a r l R. Parker and ~ h o m a sHo H a z l e t t

Twelfth Technical Report

unde P

U, S o Atomic Energy Commission

Contract AT-11-1-Gen-10, Project 1

October 1953

S e r i e s No, 28 ,
 Introduction

Since a n c i e n t times, metals have been alloyed t o improve t h e i r s t r e n g t h , It

was n o t u n t i l w e l l a f t e r t h e ' t u r n of t h e 20th century, however, t h a t reasonable

t h e o r i e s of s o l u t i o n hardening were advanced, : ~ o s e n h a i n ( l s ~i n) t h e e a r l y twenties

discussed t h e p r o p e r t i e s of s o l i d s o l u t i o n a l l o y s and'proposed t h a t t h e presence

of s o l u t e atoms "- - - roughens t h e s l i p planes", thus causing hardening.

The p r o p e r t i e s of many s o l i d s o l u t i o n s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d ' f o r both s i n g l e

and p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e m a t e r i a l s , and t h e general e f f e c t s o f a l l o y i n g a r e w e l l

known, These a r e summarized b r i e f l y below:

1, S o l i d s o l u t i o n s a r e i n v a r i a b l y s t r o n g e r than t h e pure parent metals,

2, The y i e l d s t r e n g t h always i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g amounts of an a l l o y -

i n g element,

3, A t l a r g e s t r a i n s , t h e slope of t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve i s u s u a l l y j b u t

not always, increased when s o l u t e atoms a r e added t o a metal,

4, I n d i l u t e t e r n a r y a l l o y s , each element seems t o c o n t r i b u t e t h e same

increment of s t r e n g t h t h a t it d i d i n t h e binary a l l o y ,

A few examples w i l l serve to i l l u s t r a t e t h e general changes. i n p r o p e r t i e s

brought about by the a d d i t i o n of a s o l u t e element, Fig, 1 shows t h e r e s u l t s

obtained by Sachs and Weerts

(33 f o r s i n g l e c r y s t a l s of silver-gold a l l o y s , These

two elements a r e mutually soluble over t h e e n t i r e range of composition, and so t h e

e f f e c t of composition on t h e c r i t i c a l s t r e s s f o r s l i p can be c l e a r l y seen, The

maximum e f f e c t occurs a t 50 atomic p e r cent, arid t h e curve f a l l s i n a parabolic

manner t o minima a t t h e zero p e r cent a l l o y points. For d i l u t e a l l o y s , t h e

strengthening e f f e c t of s o l u t e elements i s n e a r l y l i n e a r with compositions and

i s generally so treated.
(4) I n some a l l o y systems, t h e c r i t i c a l s t r e s s f o r s l i p

i n s i n g l e c r y s t a l s i s markedly a f f e c t e d by small amounts of t h e added element,

( 5 ), shows t h e e f f e c t of small amounts
Fig, 2, taken from t h e work of Greenland
 of s i l v e r on t h e c r i t i c a l shear s t r e s s of mercury c r y s t a l s , However, such l a r g e

e f f e c t s due t o minute a d d i t i o n s a r e r a r e ,

Data r e p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e show t h a t in general t h e e f f e c t of a l l o y i n g

i n t h e s o l i d s o l u t i o n range i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e of work hardening over

t h a t observed f o r t h e pure metal, However, c e r t a i n r e s u l t s a r e a t variance

with t h i s observation, Idhen z b e i s added to &admiurn, t h e r a t e of s t r a i n

hardening i s lowered,
(4). Sim5lar r e s u l t s were a l s o found f o r copper c r y s t a l s

containing The cause of t h e observed d i f f e r e n c e s i n behavior i s -own,

b u t i t i s obvious even from such preliminary observations t h a t s o l u t i o n hardening

i s n o t a simple phenomenon,

Systematic i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of s o l u t i o n hardening have been made by a number

(6)
of people, I n 1922, Goebels reported t h e change i n Brine11 hardness caused
(798)
by various a d d i t i o n s of B i , Sn, Hg, and Cd t o l e a d , The following year, Norbury

reported t h e e f f e c t s of Ag, Si, Mn, A l , N i , and Zn on t h e hardness of copper,

It was obvious from t h i s e a r l y work t h a t t h e elements causing t h e g r e a t e s t change

i n the p a r e n t metal l a t t i c e produce t h e l a r g e s t change in hardness, Hor~eve~,

t h e i n c r e a s e i n hardness was not uniquely determined by t h e change i n atomic

volume, The s c a t t e r of d a t a obtained when t h e change i n hardness i s p l o t t e d

a g a i n s t t h e change in l a t t i c e parameter i s shown i n Figso 3 and 4, Data taken

from t h e work of Frye and ~ u m e - ~ o t h e r ~a (r e~ )shown i n Fig. 3 where t h e u l t i m a t e

'Meyer hardness i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e square of t h e change i n 1 a t t i c e . p a r a m e t e r

produced by t h e a d d i t i o n of various elements t o s i l v e r , The data i n Fig, ko .

taken from the work of Brick9 Martin, and ~ n ~ i e r ( ' O jshow t h e s c a t t e r of r e ~ u l t ~

' o b t a i n e d when t h e change i n Vickers hardness i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e l a t t i c e

parameter change f o r one atomic p e r c e n t of v a r i o u s elements added t o copper. In

I a s i m i l a r i n v & S t i g a t i o n on copper a l l o y s , French and ~ i b b a r (I1)

' d :measured t h e

a f f e c t s of various elements on t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h ( s t r e s s a t a s t r a i n of 0.01)

and l a t t i c e parameter, Their r e s u l t s a r e reproduced i n Figs, 5 and 6,

 The e f f e c t s of a l l o y i n g elements on t h e s t r e n g t h of binary f e r r i t e a have

been reported by Bain(12) Austin("3) ,~ a ci ~d Gensamer(lL)

, a and by Gensamer
(15)
,

These data again confirm t h e conclusion t h a t t h e change in l a t t i c e pax'ameter i s

n o t t h e s o l e f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g solution hardening,

. . Dorn, Pietrokowslcy,. and Tietii(l6)have suggested t h a t t h e second f a c t o r influeno-

i n g s o l u t i o n hardening i s t h e difference in valence between t h e s o l u t e and solvent

metals. When they p l o t t e d t h e flow stress f o r various alurdnum a l l o y s a g a i n s t

an empirical parameters including chaAges i n l a t t i c e parameter and difference in

valence [ r 02 / Aa/+ / K / DV I + 700 0 / A 4 1p V I ) , they obtained a s i n g l e curve

c o r r e l a t i n g the behavior of a l l a l l o y s t e s t e d , his c o ~ r e P a t i o n , however, was b ased

upon t i e assumption t h a t each alun5num atom has only two f r e e electrons,) The data

shown i n Fig, 7 were taken from t h e i r work, Appreciation of t h e e l e c t r o n i c

contribution t o s o l u t i o n hardening i s cert?fnly a s t e p forward, b u t inclusion of

a valence term i s not s u f f i c i e n t t o explain t h e complex behavior of s o l i d solut.ion

alloys,

The contributions by Dorn, Pietrokowsky, and Tietz(16), and by Sherby, Anderson

and Dorn (I7)have been invaluable additions t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e . These i n v e s t i g a t o r s

r e p o h e d t h e r e s u l t s of extensive and p r e c i s e work on t h e influence of alloying

Fig. 8 shows the changes fo&d

elementg on t h e p l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s of aluminum,
(18)
i n t h e l a t t i ce constant of alumhum produced by various a l l o y a d d i t i o n s .

With t h e g r a i n s i z e maintained s u b s t a n t i a l l y constant, t h e s e ' i n v e s t i g a t o r s

obtained t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves shown i n Figso 99 10, 1%, 12, 13 & 4.. They

found t h a t t h e e f f e c t of each of t h e all-oying elements could be reduced t o an

equivalent amount of copper, a s shown i n Fig, Is0

s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves were determined a t various temperatures ranging f r o m

7 8 ' ~ t o 7 5 0 ' ~ f o r each a l l o y , The e f f e c t of temperature on the flow s t r e s s

( s t r e s s a t 0005 s t r a i n ) a r e ~hownin Figs, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, From t h e s e

data, it immediately becomes evident t h a t solution hardening produced by a given

a m o a t of a s i n g l e element i s n o t a s p e c i f i c value b u t . v a r i e s markedly with t h e

temperature, Apparently, a t two d i f f e r e n t temperatures a s i n g l e element can

a c t i n two e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t ways t o cause s o l u t i o n hardening. T h i s complication

w i l l be discussed more f u l l y i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n ,

Data f o r some s o l i d s o l u t i o n n i c k e l a l l o y s have been r e p o r t e d by Zackay and

'
H a s l e t t ( 1 9 ) f o t h e r unpublished d a t a by t h e present authors on n i c k e l a l l o y s have

al.50 been included' i n t h e following f i g u i - ~ s , F i g 21 shows t h e changes i n l a t t i c e

parameter a s s o c i a t e d with a d d i t i o n s of v a r i o u s elements t o n i c k e l , Stress-strain

curves f o r t h e s e a l l o y s a r e shown i n Figs, 22 through 31, and a c r o s s p l o t of

flow s t r e s s v s , temperature is' shown i n F i g s , 32 and 33, The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

.the mom ,L;ernperatme flow s t r e s s and t h e atomic p e r cent a l l o y - a d d i t i o n a r e

shown f o r t h e various a l l o y s i n Fig, 34; . a p l o t of t h e i n c r e a s e i n flow s t r e s s VSa

t h e l a t t i c e parameter change i s presented i n Fig. 35, Values for nickel-titanium

have a l s o been included f o r comparison,

Results on copper base s o l i d s o l u t i o n s r e p o r t e d by Allen, Schofield, and

L

Tate (20) a r e a l s o of i n t e r e s t . They found t h a t 8.784 Zh, 4.268 Ga, 2.9% Ge,

and 2,12$ A s produced the same change i n t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve a s shown i n Fig, 36,

I n each of t h e s e a l l o y s , t h e e l e c t r o n concentration was 1,087 so they concluded,

am oat high charges i n some way a r e t h e cause of t h e increased r e s i s t a n c e t o

p l a s t i c f l o w o l ~Even though they neglected t h e s i z e f a c t o r , t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n

was unusually good, a s i s i n d i c a t e d by Fig, 37, It appears t h a t s o l u t i o n harden-

i n g cannot be a s c r i b e d simply t o t h e l a t t i c e s t r a i n s o r e l e c t r o n i c changes

introduced by randomly d i s t r i b d t e d s o l u t e atoms. I n the following s e c t i o n , the

.various t h e o r i e s of s o l u t i o n hardening w i l l be presented and discussed in

r e l a t i o n t o the available data,

-
MECKANISMS OF SOLUTION HARDENING

U n t i l r a t h e r recently, s o l u t i o n hardening has been thought t o be due to t h e

-4-
 I - l a t t i c e d i s t u r b a n c e s caused by randomly d i s t r i b u t e d s o l u t e atoms. T h e o r e t i c a l
treatments .by C o t t r e l l (21) 9 ~ u z u l d ' ~ ~ish) , her(^^), and o t h e r s has shorm t h a t

s o l u t i o n hardening i's very l i k e l y due t o small groups of s o l u t e atoms concentrated

I '
i n t h e l a t t i c e , and n o t d u e ' t o randomly dispersed atoms,

C o t t r e l l has pointed o u t t h a t i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s due t o randomly dispersed

s o l u t e atoms should have almost no hardening e f f e c t , I f a dislocation l i n e i s

considered a s a r i g i d l i n e a r d i s c o n t i n u i t y , t h e n along i t s l e n g t h 'there 6511 be

equal numbers of p o s i t i v e and negative s t r e s s f i e l d s due t o s o l u t e atoms, Half

I of t h e s e a c t t o move t h e d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e forward and h a l f urge it in t h e

backward d i r e c t i o n , Thus,.these randomly a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s f i e l d s would n e a r l y

cancel, and, t h e r e f o r e , d i s l o c a t i o n s could movi through the' a l l o y c r y s t a l almost

I -'.'
a s e a s i l y a s they could move through a c r y s t a l of t h e . p u r e metal, A s flott

I .>- and Nabarro (24) (25) have shown, however, d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e s a r e n o t r i g i d , They

I may assume a smoothly curved form, but only on a s c a l e t h a t i s l a r g e compared

with atomic dimensions. When t h e regions of l a t t i c e d i s t o r t i o n a r e f a r a p a r t ,

t h e d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e may follow a path around t h e highly s t r e s s e d areas. When

t h e d i s t a n c e between s t r e s s e d regions approaches atomic dimensio.ns, t h e i i i s l o c a t i o n

l i n e can no longer curve around t h e s t r e s s e d regions because of t h e high

I energy required t o produce sharp curves i n a d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e .

The energy of a ' d i s l o c a t i o n has been estimated by Mott and Nabarro (26) as

about Gd
3 per u n i t l e n g t h of a d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e , where G i s t h e shear modulus

l and d i s t h e atomic spacing ( ~3 di s of t h e order of a few e l e c t r o n v o l t s ) . As

 -.-
C o t t r e l l'(21) has pointed out, a d i s l o c a t i o n maybe considered t o have a t e n s i o n

....

a c t i n g along i t s l e n g t h and tending t o shorten it, The shape assumed by a

d i s l o c a t i o n i n an i n t e r n a l s t r e s s f i e l d i s g i v e n - b y

I '
where p
a
i s t h e minimum r a d i u s of curvature i n t h e kegion of the i n t e r n a l

.
I stress, Combination of t h e two equations y i e l d s

II "

r*
The r a d i u s 6f 'cur&ature' i r r - a t o d t d i s t a n c e s

by t h e i n t e r n a l s t r e s s .
is e q u a l t o t h e s h e a r ,modulus..d i v i d e d

For a r a d i u s of c u r v a t r r e approaching atomic dimensions,

t h e i n t e r n a l s t f e s s would have t o be about a s l a r g e a s t h e shear modulus.

I
br
Reasonable e s t i m a t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e maxiurnurn s t r e s s around a s o l u t e atom i s
1 2

of t h e o r d e r ' o f ~ / 1 0 0 ; Thus, it appkars f a i r l y c l e a r t h a t s o l u t i o n hardening

cannot be due t o s t r e s s f i e l d s surrounding i n d i v i d u a l randomly d i s t r i b u t e d s o l u t e

atoms.

Since s o l u t i o n hardening cannot be accounted f o r on t h e b a s i s of r a n d o d y

d i s t r i b u t e d s o l u t e atoms, .it must be due t o c o l l e c t i o n s of t h e s e atoms i n

r

c l u s t e r s o r i n groups having s h o r t range order; Several mechanisms of hardening

based upon t h i s hypothesis a r e possible, and each of t h e s e w i l l now be discussed

I i n detail, I
C o t t r e l l Mechanism: C o t t r e l l has proposed a,mechanism of hardening i n

which t h e s o l u t e atoms wilS form an atmosphere around d i s l o c a t i o n s , Atoms above

-c-2
, -..

- 6 -

I'
!
I
a p o s i t i v e d i s l o c a t i o n a r e compressed and t h o s e below a r e expanded. The s t r a i n

energy due t o t h i s d i s t o r t i o n can be reduced by t h e c o l l e c t i o n of l a r g e s u b s t i t u -

t i o n a l s o l u t e atoms i n t h e expanded region o r small ones i n t h e compressed

volume, Similarly, i n t e r s t i t i a l s o l u t e atoms causing l o c a l l a t t i c e expansion

w i l l tend t o c o l l e c t i n t h e expanded region of t h e d i s l o c a t i o n i Atoms producing

unsymmetrical d i s t o r t i o n may r e l i e v e s h e a r s t r e s s e s ( 2 7 ) a s w e l l a s t h e h y d r o s t a t i c

s t r e s s e s due t o t h e volume change; S u b s t i t u t i o n a l atoms g e n e r a l l y produce

symmetrical d i s t o r t i o n and hence can only r e l i e v e l y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s e s .

Only very s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s of s o l u t e elements a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e

formation of a C a t t r e l l natmosphere11, Since t h e maximum d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y in

a highly cold worked metal i s of t h e o r d e r of lo1* p e r square centimeter, o n l y .

0 , l p e r cent of s o l u t e atoms i s s u f f i c i e n t t o form a concentration of one

s o l u t e atom p e r atom d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e s . I n annealed metalsg

t h e concentration of d i s l o c a t i o n s i s much lower; even i n 9ge999 p e r cent pure

metals t h e r e may be enough s o l u t e atoms t o form an atmosphere,

The e f f e c t of an atmosphere around d i s l o c a t i o n s i s t o r a i s e t h e s t r e s s

required t o make t h e d i S l o c a t i o n move. When a d i s l o c a t i o n i s mved away from i t s

atmosphere, t h e energy of t h a t region of t h e l a t t i c e containing t h e atmosphere

is. raised. Since t h i s energy must be supplied by t h e e x t e r n a l load, it'.is

evident t h a t t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h must be higher when C o t t r e l l llatmosphereslt

have formed around around d i s l o c a t i o n s responsible f o r p l a s t i c flow, Once f r e e d

from t h e atmosphere, t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s can move f r e e l y a t lower s t r e s s e s t h a n those

required t o i n i t i a t e p l a s t i c flow. The sharp y i e l d p o i n t phenomenon found

i n i r o n containing a small amount of carbon i s apparently due t o t h e formation

of an atmosphere of carbon atoms around d i s l o c a t i o n s ( 2 8 ) . The theory of s o l u t i o n

hardening due t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of s o l u t e atoms with d i s l o c a t i o n s has been

developed t o a high i t a t e by ~ o t t r e l l ( ~ ~ o) t, t r e l and

l J a s w ~ n ( ~ ~and
) , . by

~ ' . have made c a l c u l a t i o n s of interaction e n e r g i e s p

C o t t r e l l and ~ i l b ~ ' ~ They

have
... . , shown how temperature should i n f l u e n c e , y i e l d strength, how s t r a i n aging
i n i r o n i s accounted f o r , and t h e probable e f f e c t of such an atmosphere on slow

creep wherein t h e creep i s c o n t r o l l e d by d i f f u s i o n of t h e a t ~ o s p h e r ealong with

t h e .slow moving d i s l o c a t i o n s . Consequently, t h e r e i s l i t t l e t o be gained by

developing t M s s u b j e c t f u r t h e r e here. .It i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s a y t h a t t M s phenomenon..

seems t o be w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d as. a. mechanism of s o l u t i o n hardeningo

Suzuki Mechanism: A s i m i l a r mechanism of s o l u t i o n ' hardening t h a t i s n o t

;o w e l l known has been proposed by ~ u z u k i ( ~ * ) .Suzuld hardening i s a l s o based

upon t h e concentration of s o l u t e atoms around d i s l o c a t i o n s , but i n a manner t h a t

d i f f e r s from t h a t proposed by C o t t r e l l , This theory r e l i e s upon t h e d i s s o c i a t i o n

of d i s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e c l o s e packed planes of t h e f a c e centered cubic and c l o s e

packed hexagonal c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e s , Shockley (31) has shown t h a t undissociated

d i s l o c a t i o n s a r e unstable when t h e d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e l i e s i n a c l o s e packed plane

because t h e energy i s l e s s when it i s d i s s o c i a t e d i n t o two h a l f d i s l o c a t i o n s of

s h o r t e r Burgers vector, each of which f o r k t h e boundary of a s t a c k i n g f a u l t ,

Such an extended d i s l o c a t i o n i s sho& by Fig. 38 i n which t h e atoms .of one

plane a r e represented by squares and those i n t h e plane above by c i r c l e s .

The r e g u l a r hexagonal a r r a y i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e l i n e s . During t h e normal process

of s l i p , t h e atoms i n t h e plane above would t r a v e r s e t h e path i n d i c a t e d by t h e

arrows on t h e r i g h t hand s i d e of t h e f i g u r e . Moving toward t h e i e f t , , t h e

displacement along t h e s l i p path g r a d u a l l y diminishes u n t i l a region i s reached

wherein t h e displacement i s one-half of the s l i p d i s t a n c e , This i s a

m&stable location which p e r s i s t s f o r a distance estimated t o . b e of the order

of ~ o o o A ( ~ ~within
). t h i s region, a. face centered cubic c r y s t i l assumes a close

packed hexagonal .structure (or i n a hexagonal c r y s t a l it becomes face centered

cubic) having a thickness of about two atom planes. The two half dislocations

w i l l move apart because of t h e repulsion due t o t h e e l a s t i c energy. . The f a r t h e r

they move apart, t h e more extensive becomes the hexagonal region. Consequently,

t h e half dislocations w i l l cease t o move a p a r t when the gain i n energy due t o

separation i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o extend t h e stacking f a u l t . The l a t t i c e t o the

. l e f t of t h e hexagonzl region shown i n Fig*' 38 gradually assumes the normal

configuration,

Thermodpamic reasoning leads t o the conclusion t h a t t h e concentration of

solute atoms i n the ,hexagonal region w i l l d i f f e r from the average wheri

equilibrium i s established between t h i s region 2nd the surrounding face centered

cubic material, T h i s heterogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n of solute atoms w i l l then cause

hardening j u s t a s ..the C o t t r e l l atmosphere does i n body centered cubic metals

(where half diglocations do not form), I n the face centered cubic c r y s t a l s it

i s r a t h e r unlikely t h a t the formation of a hexagonal layer would cause appreciable.;

volumetric disturbance, Hence t h e concentration of solute atoms therein would

depend upon llchemicalll ( ~ u z u k i )i n t e r a c t i o n ra'ther than upon i n t e r a c t i o n

energies due t o l a t t i c e d i s t o r t i o n ( ~ o t t r e l l g smechanism), Around each of the

h a p dislocations, however, t h e l a t t i c e would be distorted, Therefore, both

types of interacti'on are t h e o r e t i c a l l y possible i n face centered cubic and

hexagonal metals. Suzuki c i t e d the work of Allen, Schofield and Tate (20) in

support of his theory (see Figs. 36 and 37). Quoting from ~ u z u k i ' ~' l~~)h e s e
.. .. .
f a c t s would be understood by the present theory i n taking account of Hume-Rotheryfs

law. Namely, t h e . r e l a t i v e f r e e energy of these alloys with close-packed hexagonal

structure against those with face centered cubic structure depends only upon

the electron concentration, and t h e f r e e energy of face-centered cubic structure

depends only upon t h e e l e c t r o n concentration, except f o r a term proportional

t o t h e concentration, The c r i t i c a l shear s t r e s s - - - - - - is, therefore, a

function of e l e c t r o n concentration and i s independent of t h e chemical species of

c o n s t i t u e n t s , ' ~ ' S u z M a.lso pointed out (1) t h a t t h e chemical type i n t e r a c t i o n

i s considerably weaker than t h e i n t e r a c t i o n due t o l a t t i c e d i s t o r t i o n , and (2)

t h a t thermal f l u c t u i t i o n s have l i t t l e e f f e c t upon t h e behavior of extended

d i ~ l o c a t i o n sbecause auoh d i s l o c a t i o n s wleuld lxi'vtt t u migrate f i f t y o r more

atom distances t o escape from t h e i r atmosphere, whereas migration of only a few

atom d i s t a n c e s would f r e e a d i s l o c a t i o n i r i i r o n from i t s atmosphere of carbon

a t oms

ish her Mechanism: F i s h e r has proposed t h a t s h o r t range ordering provides a

s u b s t a n t i a l contribution t o s o l u t i o n hardening, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t high s o l u t e

concentrations, When p l a s t i c flow oceurs, t h e l o c a l ordered regions i n t e r s e c , t i n g

the hip planes a r e disordered by t h e flow process. If i s the energy of t h e

disordered i n t e r f a c e , 7 , t h e ,resolved shear s t r e s s , and b t h e magnitude of

the Burgers vector, then t h e energy change.associated with t h e movement of a

u n i t l e n g t h of a d%slocation through a u n i t d i s t a n c e i s given by

A.E . i s zero a t t h e s t r e s s l e v e l t h a t w i l l j u s t disorder a region by p l a s t i c

flow, Hence,

r, = a/b

F i s h e r (23) estimates t h e m i s f i t energy, d , t o be - about t h e same a s t h e twin

boundary energy f o r copper, i.eo about 20 ergs/cm 2 . I

Therefore, To * lo9
2
dynes/cm o r 15,000 p s i , A t low temperatures where a f i x e d degree of order

i s frozen in, hardening due t o s h o r t range ordering should be n e a r l y independent

of temperature, It follows from Fisheras a n a l y s i s t h a t c l u s t e r i n g would proride

a s i m i l a r strengthening ef f e c t o
 Another Possible Mechanisms There i s another mechanism of solution hardening

which has not bee'n discussed previously which seems t o be important, A s mentioned

e a r l i e r , a d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e in a s o l i d s o l u t i o n a l l o y containing randomly dispersed

s o l u t e atoms would be acted upon by t h e nearby l o c a l s t r e s s f i e l d s i n such a

manner
..
' t h a t t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e forward d i r e c t i o n balanced thdse i n t h e

reverse d i r e c t i o n and, s i n c e t h e distance. between regions of s t r e s s r e v e r s a l

a r e only a few atom distances, t h e ~ s l o c a t i o nl b e would tend t o remain s t r a i g h t

and would move almost a s f r e e l y through t h e a l l o y c r y s t a l a s it would through .

a pure metal c r y s t a l , However, when t h e solute atoms c l u s t e r , the diatance betwedn

regions of d i s t o r t i o n increases and t h e d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e may curve and follow a

path around t h e highly s t r e s s e d ' areaa. The f a r t h e r these Pegions a r e apart,

t h e e a s i e r it i s f o r t h e d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e t o c m e around them, This condition

i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig0 39. The y i e l d s t r e n g t h may thus be expected t o vary with

t h e degree of c l u s t e r i n g ( o r s h o r t range ordering), ranging from a minimum with

random d i s t r i b u t i o n through a maxLmum a t an optimum dispersion and then down again

a s t h e c l u s t e r s become separated too f a r , his i s similar t o the precipitation

hardening phenomenon except t h a t t h e flosekaginglPs t a g e may never a c t u a l l y be

reached w i t h s o l i d s o l u t i o n a l l o y s ,

L i t t l e d a t a could be found i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o check the "degree of

disperkion" theory outlined above, I f t h i s mechanism of solution hardening

i s operative, t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h of t h e 50 atomic per cent copper-gold a l l o y

s o l u t i o n quenched from above t h e ordering temperature should vary with t h e

quenching temperature, The s i z e of t h e s h o r t range ordered regions should

decrease with increasing temperature,::and hence t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h should be

l e s s t h e higher t h e quenching temperature, The contribution t o strengthening

due t o F i s h e r g s disordering mechanism should remain s u b s t a n t i a l l y constant

f o r a l l quenching temperatures because t h e a r e a of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e ordered .

 regions and t h e a c t i v e s l i p plane would be about the. same f o r ' a .unZt number .gP l a r g e

~ groups or, f o r 6xAmplei for-?tw5ce as..>&ihy:.groups6h:.balf.;.tKe.'size.:..:In this approfima-

tion;. of goursej..%he.:variation i n ' ordering energy with group.: s i z e . .i s .neg$ected,

The auth0r.s have s t a r t e d a program of research t o evaluate the e f f e c t of

quenching temperature on the p l a s t i c properties of'copper-gold and other alloys,

However, no data a r e available a t pre3ent0

There i s une experimental r e s u l t t h a t i s of i n t e r e s t i n e v a l m t i n g t h e

"dispersions1e f f e c t and t h e l f d i ~ o r d e r i n gf' ~

actor, Fig, 40 shoys data on s i n g l e

c & s t d s of C ~ ~ A Utaken
, from t h e work of Sachs and Weerts(32'~ The y i e l d

strength of the completely ordered c r y s t a l was low (indicating t h a t the dislocation

l i n e s were s t r a i g h t ) , However, the r a t e of work hardening was abnormally high,

a s Fisher" theory predicts t h a t it should be, The solution quenched c r y s t a l

which was disordered had a higher y i e l d strength, Thia could not have been so

had t h e atoms been randomly distributed,and h e n c e ' i t may be concluded t h a t t h i s

specimen contained separated regions wherein s h o r t range order eldsted, a s indicated

by sketch (b) i n Fig. 39,,

Additional pertinent data are hardness cul-9;es made by Carter on 70 p e r cent

(33)
gold, 30 per cent platinum a s reported by Vines and Wise 0 The platfim-gold
sys'tem has a m i s s i b i l i t y gap,: ari&:.the 70 per cent gold a l l o y i s within t h i s

regiona specimens were quenched from 1000'~ and 1 1 ~both

0 ~ ~ ~
temperatures being

i n t h e solid solution range,. The room temperature hardness .of the specimen
0
que'nched from 1000 C was s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than f o r the a l l o y .quenched from

USO~C, It may reasonably .be assumed t h a t pronounced clustering of l i k e atoms

would occur i n this alloy, a s w i l l be discussed in the n e ~ t . s e c t i o n , a n d ' ~ a t '

the s i z e of the c l u s t e r s would be l a r g e r f o r the specimen quenched from 1000°C

than from the one quenched frolil 1150~C, These r e s u l t s , therefore, c o n s t i t u t e

quite strong evidence i n support of t h e "degree of d-ispersion mechani'mI1 of

hardening,

- 12 -
 Evidence f o r clustering and Short Range Ordering

It has been recognized f o r some time t h a t solute atoms ark frequently not
randomly distributed, I n fact,, deviation from randomness i s thought t o be .the

r u l e rather than the exception.

(31iZ, I n alloys l i k e ' s 0 atomic per cent copper-

gold, short range ordering i s to be expected in t h e tenpera3ure range above

the ordering temperature, Thermodynamic measurements, such a s the vapor

. ",
pressure of gold i n gold-copper alloys determined by'means of radioactive gold(3S)
.s--.

have s h o ~ mthat short range order does e x i s t even a t temperatures approaching the

melting point, Furthermore, Birchenall has shown t h a t s h o r t range order

I

e x i s t s in. alpha brass, where no long. range order occurs,

More recently a group of research workers a t 14IT have made a number of

excellent contributions t o the l i t e r a t u r e on clustering and short range ordering I

(37,38?39) They have shown t h a t short range ordering may even occur in some

systems which t m u l d he expected t o e x h i b i t clustering of l i k e atomsp e.go the

b. gold-nickel alloys,

There i s no doubt a t a l l t h a t the d i s t r i b u t i o n of solute atoms i s generally

other than random and t h a t the mechanical properties of s o l i d solutions a r e .

dependent upon the degree of, clustering p r short range ordering, It i s evident
t h a t future. investigations of solution hardening must be integrated with

I thermodynamic and x-ray investigations i f progress i s t o be made i n the under-

standing of the influence of alloying on mechanical properties,

Other Factors Influencing Solution Hardenin< I

It i s well knbwn t h a t grain s i z e has a s i g i i f i c a n t e f f e c t upon p l a s t i c

I properties of metals, Fig, 41, taken from the work of Dorn, Pietrokowse and
I
!
~ i e t z ( ~ shows
~ ) , the e f f e c t of grain s i z e on the s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve f o r
I

I- aluminum, It i s also well known t h a t sub-grain s t r u c t u r e s e i t h e r e x i s t in metal I

c r y s t a l s or develop a s a r e s u l t of mechanical working and heating

(&a,4a, h2,43.1
The e f f e c t of sub-structures on p l a s t i c properties is, however, not so well known,

Since sub-structure boundaries generated by p l a s t i c flow a r e formed by the

(42
collection of l i k e dislocations , and since C o t t r e l l and Suzuki have shown

t h a t llatmospheresil of solute atoms should form around dislocations, it i s important

t o know m a t e f f e c t a sub-structure would have on t h e solution hardening

contributed by a given element,

Uf k t e r e s t i n this connection a r e some observations which indicate r a t h e r

c l e a r l y t h a t ~ o t t r e l 'and
l Suzuki atmospheres do f o r n in dislocation type sub-

boundaries, Some recent observations on t h e stress-induced motion of low angle

boundaries
(431.in:. zinc have. shotan t h a t c e r t a b temperature ranges t h e motion

of these boundaries i s discontinuous, When the s t r e s s i s c o n t i n u o ~ s l y ~ i n c r e a s e d ~

'the bounda~ydoes not move cont5nuousl.y forward a s it does a t both higher and

lower temperatures but-jumps from one position to another a t a velocity too rapid

to fcUow by eye, It then remains i n t h e new location u n t i l the s t r e s s becomes

so high t h a t it again jumps, This i s exactly t h e performance predicted by

C o t t r e l l qs t h e o r y f o r zdnc c b t a i n i n g nitrogen,
I

Other observations made on aluminum and nickel alloys seem t o confirm the

Suzuki theory, Fig, 42 shows a f a i r l y well defined Ityield pointn phenomenon

observed by the present authors i n an anneale'd h c k e l a l l a y containing 40 atomic

per cent copper, ' As would be expected from t h e Suzuki theory, the yielding

was not a s sharp a s t h a t due t o C a t t r e l l hardening, Also, t h i s behavior was not

observed i n the more d i l u t e 'nickel-copper alloys, Thus, it seems probable t h a t

Suzuki hardening was operative i n t h i s case,

. .
I n Fig, b3 a s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve i s shown f o r an aluminum a l l o y containing

362 atomic per cent' magnesium, T h i s alloy did not exhibit a Ityield point" in the

annealed s t a t e . However, a' y i e l d point did appear a f t e r s t r a i n i n g about 44 per

cent a t 19.b0~ahd aging f o r 420 minutes a t t h e same temperature, This behavior
i s a n t i c i p a t e d by t h e Suzuki theory*
S u b S t r u c t u r e Hardening ~kchanism: Since t h e r e seems t o be L i t t l e doubt t h a t

dislocation-type sub-structure boundaries have an e f f e c t upon t h e flow s t r e s s ,

it i s important t o evaluate r a t h e r thoroughly t h e r o l e of t h e sub-structure. This

has been done' by t h e present authors f o r n i c k e l and a n i c k e l titanium a l l o y o

PolycrystaYine t e n s i l e 'specimens of 'both pure. n i c k e l and n i c k e l containing

one a t o n k c p e r cent of titanium were annealed a t l15'0°c f o r one-half hour t o

remove a l l possible e f f e c t s due t o p r i o r cold working, I n d i v i d u a l specimens

of each' m a t e r i a l were then s t r a i n e d one, two, four, and six p e r cent in t e n s i o n

and reannealed a t 8 0 0 ' ~ f o r one hour, X-ray and microscopic examination revealed

..that t h e microstructure was s u b s t a n t i a l l y unaltered but t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s

contained s t r a i n f r e e blocks separated by low angle boundariesa This amount

of substructure varied with t h e degree of p r e s t r a i n , increasing with higher

values of stz-aLn. When t h e s e specimens were t e s t e d i n tension, t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h

was found t o i n c r e a s e r a p i d l y with increasing amounts of p r e s t r a i n , a s shown i n

Figs, 44, 45, and 46, This increase i n s t r e n g t h i s a t t r i b u t e d t o the presence

of t h e substructure boundaries, Since t h e s e boundaries were generated by p l a s t i c

flow (and heating), it i s reasonable t o presume t h a t they a r e d i s l o c a t i o n boundaries,

Cot t r e l l ( has ~hownt h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y such a d i s l o c a t i o n w a l l i s a b a r r i e r

t o moving d i s l o c a t i o n s . This ha rs a 1so been demonstrated experiment a l l y with

'

zinc s i n g l e c r y s t a l s . Idhen a low angle boundary was placed i n t h e path of

moving dislocations, t h e boundary angle was found t o increase from about one

degree t o f i f t e e n . Furthermore, no d i s l o c a t i o n s penetrated t h e b a r r i e r provided

by t h e dislocaLion w a l l i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r experiment.

An examination of Fig.. 46 reveals t h a t t h e substructure produced by only two

p e r . c e n t p r e - s t r a i n was more e f f e c t i v e i n ' r a i s i n g t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h than was t h e

a d d i t i o n of one p e r cent of titanium, which i s a notably potent alloying

element,

- 15 -
 A d u p l i c a t e ' s e r i e s of specimens were' s t r a i n e d , recovered, and t h e n examined

by x-ray microscopic techniques, The number of s u b s t r u c t u r e boundaries pro-

duced by t h e various amounts of p r e - s t r a i n were counted f o r a l a r g e number of

g r a i n s i n each specimen, Since t h e number of sub-boundaries f o r any given

specimen was of course .not single-valued'but v a r i e d from g r a i n t o grain, i t was

.necessary t o analyze t h e s e d a t a by s t a t i s t i c a l methods, The d i s t r i b u t i o n was

determined t o be self-collsistent amvng specimens and among groups of data taken

from d i f f e r e n t a r e & of t h e same specimen a s judged by a modification of t h e

Wilcoxan t e s t , These d a t a were t h e n p l o t t e d a s cuinulative frequency curves, For

c o r r e l a t i o n purposes t h e a r e a under t h e s e curves t o t h e seventy-fifth p e r c e n t i l e

i s used a s t h e "index of d e n s i t y of sub-boundaries" and i s designated by t h e

~ y m b o lI =.h he s e v e n t y - f i f t h p e r c e n t i l e was used a s a cut-off p o i n t i n calcu-

l a t i n g t h e are.as under t h e curves because t h i s f i e l d e d a maximum s e n s i t i v i t y , )

Results of t h i s study a r e shown i n Ff g o 47 i n which the d e n s i t y index i s shown

t o vary i n a r e g u l a r manner with t h e amount of p r e - s t r a i n given t h e specimens,

It i s of s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t t h e a l l o y has more subbtructure i n t h e f u l l y

annealed s t a t e t h a n does t h e ' p u r e n i c k e l , This has been f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e d

by s t u d i e s of s e v e r a l o t h e r n i c k e l a l l o y s , It i s a l s o worthy of note t h a t t h e

d i f f e r e n c e i n ' t h e amount of s u b s t r u c t u r e present fn t h e pure metal, a n d ' t h e a l l o y

seems t o disappear a s t h e amount of p r e - s t r a i n i s increased. It was n o t p o s s i b l e

t o determine t h e sub-boundary i n d i c e s f o r specimens having s i x p e r cent pre-.strain,:

because t h e i e n s i t y of t h e sub-boundaries became too high f o r accurate counting.

When d a t a from t h e two previous f i g u r e s a r e cross-plotted, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between flow s t r e s s and d e n s i t y of sub-boundaries i s obtained a s shown 5n Fig, 48,

It may be seen t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n flow s t r e s s between pure n i c k e l and t h e

a l l o y f o r a given d e n s i t y of sub-boundaries i s e s s e n t i a l l y a constant, This i s

more c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig, 49 i n which it may be seen t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e

i n flow s t r e s s aeeompar@ng an i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e n s i t y of sub-boundaries i s t h e

.-
same f o r both pure nickel and t h e a l l o y , Thus t h e strengthening due t o substructure

i s a d d i t i v e t o t h a t produced by t h e presence of t h e a l l o y i n g addition, It i s

-
q u i t e probable t h a t t h i s potent influence o f . s u b s t r u c t u r e has been an important

uncontrolled f a c t o r in previous s t u d t e s undertaken t o determine t h e laws govern-

i n g s o l i d ..solution hardening .
 Conclusions

Po S o l i d s o l u t i o n s a r e i n v a r i a b l y s t r o n g e r than t h e pure parent metals,

2; The y i e l d s t r e n g t h always i n c r e a s e s with increasing amounts of an a l l o y i n g

element,
..

.3e The slope of t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve 5s usually, but not always, increased

by t h e a d d i t i o n of a s o l u t e element, t,o a pilre metal,

4, I n d i l u t e t e r n a r y a l l o y s , each s o l u t e element seems t o c o n t r i b u t e t h e

same increment of s t r e n g t h t h a t it d i d i n t h e binary a l l o y ,

5, The d i f f e r e n c e i n s i z e between t h e s o l u t e a n d - s o l v e n t atoms i s an important

f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g s o l u t i o n hardening,

6, The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e number of f r e e e l e c t r o n s of s o l u t e and solvent atoms

i.s. another important f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g s o l u t i o n hardening.

7, S o l u t i o n hardening cannot'be explained by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of d i s l o c a t i o n s

and t h e s t r e s s f i e l d s surrounding r a n d o e dispersed s o l u t e atoms,

8, S o l u t i o n hardening i s a l n o e t c e r t a i n l y due t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between d i s -

1.ocations and groups of s o l u t e atoms,

9.. The ~ o t t r e l mechanism

l of hardening, i n which a n "atmosphereN of s o l u t e

atoms forms around d i s l o c a t i o n s , seems t o be e s t a b 1 i s h e d . b ~experimental r e s u l t s

beyond a r y reasonable doubt,

..10, The S u z u E mechanism of hardening, which i s s i m i l a r t o C o t t r e l l D3 but depends

upon llchemicalll r a t h e r t h a n tlmechanicallt i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e s , a l s o seems t o be a

hardening mechanism,

11, The F i s h e r mechanism of s o l u t i o n harden, involving t h e energy supplied

mechanically t o d i s o r d e r t h e s h o r t range ordered regions, undoubtedly con-

t r i b u t e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o s o l u t i o n hardening in c e r t a i n a l l o y systems, p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n t h e more concentrated solutions.

- 18 -
12, Clustering can contribute t o s o l u t i o n hardening, j u s t a s does short range

ordering, but probably t o a l e s s e r degree.

13, The grouping of atoms, e i t h e r a s c l u s t e r s o r i n small regions of s h o r t range

,
order, can contribute t o s o l u t i o n hardening s t i l l f u r t h e r by separating t h e

regions of high l o c a l s t r a i n i n t h e l a t t i c e t o d i s t a n c e s l a r g e enough so t h a t

d i s l o c a t i o n s no longer a c t a s r i g i d l i n e s but curve around and avoid the h i g h l y

s t r a i n e d regions,

Dislocation-type of substructure boundaries have a marked influence on t h e

s t r e n g t h of a metal o r alloy, o f t e n f a r g r e a t e r than t h e strengthening due t o

soluti.on hardening,

15, The increment of strength added by a given number of s o l u t e atoms i s not a

f i x e d value but v a r i e s with temperature, sometimes in a complicated manner,

16, Substructure. hardening a rd s olutior, hardening a r e apparently addative,

17. Since substructures a r e almost i n v a r i a b l y present in any wrought a l l o y

no matter how processed, and s i n c e t h e amount of substructure i n an a l l o y d i f f e r s

from t h a t i n a pure metal processed i n t h e same manner, i t i s necessary t o

evaluate t h e increment of strengthening due t o substructure be.fore t h e contribution

from solution hardening can be determined,

 The authors wish t o express t h e i r sincere appreciation t o Mrs. Rosa Hansen

and Mr, George Kilbourne f o r performing the t e s t s and correlating data on t h e

o r i g i n a l mechanical t e s t r e s u l t s reported herein and t o Dr. Betsy Anker f o r

"The Hardness of S o l i d SolutionsIs, by W, Rosenhain, Proc; Roy, Soc., V 99A,
1921, pp, 196-202, I

ltHardness and Hardening", W. Rosenhain, Chem, & Met, Eng,, V 28, 1923,
ppo ,899-901,

llZugversuche und Gold-Silberkristallen", Go Sachs and J, Weerta, Z. f . Phys,,

V 62, 1930, PPO 473-4930

f I D i ~ t a l l p l a s t i z i t a e t ~E.~ ,~ c h n i d ta n d W. Boas, J u l i u s Springer, Berlin,

, 19350

"The C r i t i c a l Shear Stx-ess of Mercury Sfngle Crystals1', K O M. Greenland, Proc.

Roy, Soc, ondo don) V 1 6 3 1937, ~ ~ p p ~28-34,

"Binaere Bleilegierungenn3 J o Goebel, Z. f , Metallkunde, V 4, 1922,

FPO 357-3665 388-9Ls 423-b259 L49-4560
"The Volumes Occupied by t h e S o l u t e Atoms i n Certain Metallic S o l i d Solutions
and Their Consequent Hardening Effectsl1, A, Lo Norbury, ~ r a ' n s ,Faraday
, , ,
So@, V 1 9 1923 pp, 586-6006

"The Hardness of Certain Alpha-Solid Solutionsts, A, L, Norbury, Jour, I n s t .

Metals, V 29, 1923, PPO b23-bh,

Ia'The Hardness of Primary S o l i d Solutions with Special Reference t o Alloys of

S i l v e r t s , J, H, Frye, Jr, and W, Hume-Rothery, Proc, Roy. Soc,, V 181A,
1942, PPO % 4 b o

:!Effects of Various SoPute Elements on t h e Hardness and Rolling ~ e x t u r e sof

Copperu, R, M. rick, D o Lo Martin and Po Po Angier, Trans. ASM, V 31,
1.943, PPO 675-698,

' T e n s i l e Deformation of Copper'!, R e S o .French and W0 Ro Hj-bbard Jrog Transo

AIME, V %88$ Jan, 1950, ppo 5 3 ~ 5 8 ~

"Functions of Alloying Elements i n S t e e l H , Eo C, Bain, ASM, Cleveland, 1939,

"Effect of Elements i n S o l i d Solution on Hardness and Response t o Heat Treat-

ment of I r o n Binary Alloysf1, C,' Ro Austin, Trans, ASM, V 31, 1943 ,
PPO 321-3490 ..

"The Tensile P r o p e r t i e s of Alloyed F e r r i t e s " , C, E. Lacy and M, Gensamer,

Trans, ASM, V 32, 1944, ppo 88-110,

"Campbell Lecture on Strength and D u ~ t i l i t y ~Mo~ ,Gensamer, ASM,

V 36, 1946, ppo 30-60,
'!The Effect of Alloying Elements on t h e P l a s t i c 'Properties of Aluminum Alloys",
J, E, Dorn, Po pietrowsky and T o E. Tietz, Jour. Metals, V 188,
1950, PPO 9 3 3 - 9 ~ 3 ~ '
17, "Effect of Alloying Elements on the Elevated Temperature P l a s t i c P r o p e r t i e s
of Alpha S o l i d Solutions of Aluminumt1, 0,.D.. Sherby, R i A, Anderson, and
J o Eo Dorn, our. Metals, V 191, 1951, pp. 643-652,

18, "The L a t t i c e Spacing, of S o l i d S o l u t i o n s o f D i f f e r e n t Elements i n All1,

H, J, Axon and W. Hume-Rothery, Proc, Royo Soc, ondo don) B 193, 1948, ,
pp, 1-25,

"Contribution of d-Level Electrons t o t h e P l a s t i c P r o p e r t i e s of Nickel Allaystr,

V, Zackay and T, H. Hazlett, To be published i n Acta Metallurgica,

ttllechanicaP P r o p e r t i e s of d S o l i d Soluti6ns of Copper with Zinc, G a l l i u m ,

Germanium and Arsenicr!, N o P, Allen, T o H, Schofield and A, Eo Lo Tate,
Nature V 168, 1951, pp, 378-379,
"Theory of dislocation^^^; A. H. ~ d t t r e ~ Progress
. i n Metal Phgsics, V I,
1949, ppo 77-1-26; V I V 9 1953, PPn 205226Le

"Chemical I n t e r a c t i o n of Solute Atoms with dislocation^'^^ . Ho Suzuki, Science

Reports of t h e Research I n s t , , ~ a h a k uUniv,, Japan, A-Bolo 4, No. 5,
1952, pp. 455-4630
!!Ont h e Strength of s o l i d Solution Allays", J o C o Fisher, P r i v a t e Communicationo

"An Attempt t o Estimate t h e Degree of P r e c i p i t q t i o n Hardening with a Simple

Modeln, N o F, Mott and F, R, N, Nabarro, Proc, Phyo Soc,, London, B.52,
1940, pp. 86-89,

"The Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s of M e t a l l i c S o l i d Solutions", Fo R. N o Nabarro,

Proc, Phy, Soc, London, V 58, 1946, pp, 669-676, -

" K s l o c a t i o n Theory and Transient Creep9r, No F o Mott and Fo R. N, Nabarro,

Rept. Conf. Strength of Solids, Phy, Soc. London, 1948, pp, 1-19,

"Effect of Solute toms

on t h e B e h a d o r of Dislocations", A, H, C o t t r e l l ,
Rept, on a Conference on Strength of Solids, Phy, Soc, London, 1948,
ppo 30-38,
"Mechantcal E f f e c t s of Carbon i n Iront1, Fo R o N o Nabarro, Rept, on a
Conference on Strength of S o l i d s , Phy, Sot. London, 19489 Ppe 38-450

I1Distribution of Solute Atoms Round a Slow Dislocationt1, A o H, C o t t r e l l and

Mo A, Saswon, Proc, Phy. Soc,, London, V 1999 1949, pp, 1 0 4 - ~ o

"Dislocation Theory of Yielding and S t r a i n Aging of Iron", A, K, C o t t r e l l

and B, A. Bilby, Proc,. Phy, S O C ~Londono
, V 6 2 1949,
~ ~ ppo 49-62e

"Study of S l i p i n Al Crystals by Electron Microscope and Electron D i f f r a c t i o n

method^'^, R e D o Heidenreich, W, Shockley, Rept, Conference Strength of
Solids, Phys, Soc, London, 1948~ ppo 57-74,
 .. 32,- Wntersuchungen an d e r Legierung AuCu3It, Go Sachs and J. Weel-ts, Z. f.
. . RXysik, :V.,679 .19310 Po. 507e-
-
$3 ,'Age ~ a r d e n i i g~ r e c i o u bMetal Alloysll, R o FowTines and Eo 1-l. Wise9 Age
I Hardening of Metals, AMS, Cleveland, 1940, .pp, 190-228,

3LiJ "Clustering i n Solid Solutionsll,, R, Smoluchowsld, I n t o Conference on Phyo .

: of Metals (Amsterdam 12-17 July 1948), The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff,

1949, PPO 179-1830
$5.. . "A Thermodynamic S t u Q of Gold and' Gof d-Copper Alloys1', Lo Do Hall, PhoDe
Thesis i n Metallurgy, Univ, Calif,, Berkeley, 1950,
...a

3% afnteraction and Structure i n Copper-Zinc Alloysn, C, Eo Birchenall, Trans

AIMEP V 17.19 1947, ppo 167-175,
3 aAtoslic Arrangements i n old-~ickel Solid ~ o l ~ i t i o n s Po
~ l ,A. Flinn, ScoDo
Thesis, Metallurgy Dept, ., PIIT, Cambridge, Masa, 1952,

8 '!The Diffuse Scattering of X-rayst1, Bo Eo Warren and Bo L. Averbach, Mode?

Research Techniques i n ~ h ~ s i c Metallurgy,
al AS& Cleveland, Ohio,
1953, ppo 95-1300

$9; lt~easurementsi n Clustering i n s o l i d A l - Z n Alloys1I, Po S o Rudman, P. Ao Flinn

and B,, Lo Averbach, Jour, Apple Pkry, V 24, 1953, p, 365,

6 .&D,. ?Internal S t r a i n s and Recrystallizztionw, Re W. Cahn, Progress i n Metal Physics 11,

Interscience Publ, New York, 1950, pp, 151-174,

1,- ltSubstructures i n ~ r y s t a l t " ,A. Guinier, Imperfections i n Nearly Perfect

Crystals9, Fliley, New Pork, 1952, ppd 402-bkOO
'

:
1!Stres5-Induced Movement of Crystal ~ o u n d a r i e s ~C.~ ,H, Li, E o Ho Edwards,
J, Washburn and E, R, Parker, Acta Metallurgica, V 1, Idarch ,1953,
'ppo 223-2290
. & "Recent Observations on the Motion of Small Angle Dislocation Boundaries1Io
Do Wo Bainbridge, Choh Hsien L i , E, Ho Edwards, Jo Wzshburn, E. R o Parker,
ONR'Project N 7-onr-29516, NR-039-009, 9th Tech, Rept,, Series 27,
'

Augo 19530

.No"The Yield Point i n Single Crystal and Polycrystalline A o H o Cottrello

. .. Symposium on P l a s t i c Deformation of Crystalline Solids a t Mellon

I n s t i t u t e , Pittsburgh, May 1950, pp, 60-76,
 ATOMIC P E R C E N T Au Au

FIG. I VARIATION O F C R I T I C A L S H E A R S T R E S S W I T H
CO.MPOSITION O F Ag - AU SlNGL,E CRYSTALS
( SACHS 8 WEERTS )
 IMPURITY.
. . CONTENT ' ..'

, 2
FIG. E F F E C T OF TRACES OF SI LV.ER
. ON THE CRITICAL SHEAR STRESS

. , OF SINGLE CRYSTALS OF MERCURY ,,

( GREENLAND
FIG.3 EFFECT O F L A T T I C E STRAIN ON T H E HARD- .

N E S S OF S O M E S'ILVER ALLOYS
 ( K'x :U N ITS )

. .

F I G . 4 E F F E C T O F V A R I O U S E L E M E N T S I N COPPER
ON INCREASING T H E VICK,ER"S. HARD,NESS,
NUMBER . ( B R I C K , E T AL:)
FIG. 5 EFFECT OF SOLUTE CONCENTRATION ON THE
YlE L O STRENGTH ( C r o . o , ) OF COPPER ALLOYS.
(FRENCH a H l B B A R D )'.
 LATTlC E PARAMETER CHANGE PER ONE ATOM % x 10: K x UNI'TS
. .

FIG. 6 EFFECT OF GH.ANGE IN LATTICE. PARAMETER ON

THE CHANGE ..IN YI.ELD STR'ENGTH . (Do,O,) , '

A S PRODUCED BY THE A D D I T I . 0 N ' O F THE INDICATED

S O L U ' T E E L E M E N T S TO COPPER.
 F.IG. 7 VARIATION OF FLOW STRESS W I T H {I02 I &a1 + ' 1 5 1 ~ ~ 1 + 1 0 0 0 ~ ~ xo . l ~ ~ l )
. . ,. , _
, ATOMIC PERCENT F O R STRAIN O F E = 0.05, AT 2 9 5 O K . . . . . ..!. ~
. ,. . : .
,
.
:>.
,
. :
$
. . .
'
.. . .
. .
. .
FIG. 8 E F F E C T OF ALLOYING E L E M E N T S ON T H E L A T T I C E
CONSTANT OF ALUMINUM (AXON 8 HUME-ROTHERY 1
 A T O M I C '10

0' 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

TRUE , S T R A I N
. . ..

FIG. 9 TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN C U R V E S .

FOR ALUMINUM -MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
. A T 2 9 3 O K ( 2 0 ° C.')

( OORN, PIETROKOWSKY 8 T l E T Z ) .'

 TRUE 'STRAIN. . ' '

2 <

FIG 10 T E N S I L E STRESS-STRAIN 'CURVES

FOR ALUMINUM-COPPER ALLOYS
AT 2 9 6 O K (23O C )
.TRUE S T R A I N

( D O R N . PIETROKOWSKY 8 TIETZ)
 TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 12 TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN CURV.ES

AT 296.O K ('23OC )
( OORN', P I E T R O W K O W S K Y 8. TlETZ)
 0 0.'1 0.2 0.3 0.4
TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 13 TENSILE STRESS- STRAIN CURVES

FOR ALUMINUM - CADMIUM ALLOYS ,
AT 248O K ( 2 5 O C )
 ,0.1 0.2 0.3
TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 14 T E N S I L E STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

. .
, FOR ALUMINUM -SILVER ALLOYS
AT 295O K ( 2 2 O C )

( 0 0 R N , PIETROKOWSKY 8 TIETZ)
 COPPER EQUIVALENT -E

F I G .I5 T H E S T R A I N HARDENING EQUIVALENCY OF T H E

VARIOUS SOLUTE ELEMENTS AS BASED'.ON T H E
STRAIN HARDENING OF THE COPPER ALLOYS .. ,

(DORN, PI ETROKOWSKY 8 T I E T Z )
 ATOMIC
E = 0.05. S.YMBOL Mg
20,000 Q 3.288
.v 1.617
A I. 0 9 7

15,000

I 0 ;ooo

5000

..

0
.O I00 200 300 400 , 5 0 0 600 700 800
TEMPERATURE -OK

FIG.16 .EFFECT OF TEST TEMPERATURE ON THE

FLOW STRESS OF .MAGN.ESIUM -ALUMINUM
ALLOYS FOR A TRUE S T R A I N OF 0 . 0 5
(SHERBY, ANDERSON 8 DORN)
 "0 100 2 0 0 3 0 0 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE - OK

FIG. 1.7 EFFE.CT. OF TEST TEMPERATURE ON THE

FLOW STRESS OF COPPER - A L U M I N U M
: A L L O Y S FOR A T R U E STRAIN OF 0 . 0 5
( SHERBY, ANDERSON B DORN )
 TEMPERATURE - OK

FIG. 1.8 E F F E C T OF TEST TEMPERATURE ON THE

.FLOW STRESS OF Z I N C - ALUMINUM' -ALLOYS
: FOR A T R U E STRA1.N OF 0 . 0 5
 € = 0.05 : ATOMIC Ole
S Y M B O L ' Ge
20,000. 0 . 0.145
v 0.082
A 0.035
B 0.015 ,
0 . 0.000
15,000

I0,OOO

5'000

0
0' 100 2 0 0 3 0 0 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE - O K

FIG. 19 EFFECT OF TEST TEMPERATURE ON THE

FLOW STRESS OF GERMANIUM-ALUMINUM
ALLOYS FOR A , TRUE STRAIN OF 0 . 0 5
(SHERBY, . A N D E R S O N ' 8 DORN )
FIG. 2 0 EFFECT O F . TEST TEMPERATURE ON THE
F L O W . STRESS OF . S I L V E R - A'LUMINUM
ALLOYS FOR A TRUE STRAIN OF' 0 . 0 5
(SHERBY , ANDERSON a DORN )
 € - TRUE STRAIN .

FIG. 22 TENSILE STRESS - S T R A I N CURVES FOR NICKEL-

TITANIUM ALLOYS AT 2 5 " C
 € - TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 23 T E N S I L E STRESS- STRAIN CURVES FOR

NICKEL- IRON ALLOYS AT 2 5 ."C
 . E - TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 2 4 T.ENSILE STRESS - STRAIN CURVES FOR

N I C K E L - COBALT A L L O Y S AT 2 5 " C
 1 I
i . II i
i . i

N I C.K E L- COPPER
TEMERATURE, 2 5 0 c

PURE Ni

.A 5.0
3 0 10.0

0.01 . 0.02 0.03 0.04

€ - TRUE ST.RAIN

FIG. 25 TENSILE STRESS - STRAIN CURVES FOR NICKEL-

COPPER ALLOYS AT, 2 5 O C
F I G . 26 T E N S I L E STRESS-STRAIN CURVES FOR
N I C K E L - C O B A L T A L L O Y S AT 700 "C
14,000
I
. , *.

NICKEL-IRON
T.-E:M*PrE.RA T-UR.E . 70.0-"C
ATOMIC O/o
. .

J 0 PURE Ni
0 2.6
0 . 4.9
A 9.8
0 - . . 1. I
0 0.01 0.42 . 0.03 0.04 0.0 5 0.06
,E -- TR'UE S'TRAIN

FIG. 27 T E N S I L E STRESS - S T R A I N CURVES FOR

NICKEL-IRON A.L.LOYS AT 7 0 0 "C
I
: FIG.28 T E N S I L E S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S F O R , N I C K E L -
COPPER A L L O Y S A T 700° C
 € - TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 2 9 T E N S I L E S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S FOR
N I C K E L - C O B A L T A L L O Y S AT -195 "C
 E - TRUE STRAIN

F1.G. 3 0 T E N S I L E S T R E S S - S T R A I N C U R V E S FOR
NlCKFI - IRON Al I nYS AT - 95 o r
 0.01 0.0 2 0.0 3 0.04
E -TRUE STRAIN

FIG. 31 T E N S I L E STRESS - S T R A I N C U R V E S
FOR N I C K E L AND 1 0 % N i - C u ALLOY
AT - 195 OC
 'I
1 I
i I

. . . .. ... . -.---- - .- - --- .-- - .---

NICKEL - COBALT
-
ATOMIC Q/o
COBALT
-
o PURE N i

0
-200 0 200 400 600 800
T E M P E R A T U R E ( O C1 '

. . FIG. 3 2 ' V A R I A T I O N OF. F L O W S T R E S S W I T H T E M P E R A,

TURE
FOR N I C K E L - ' C O B A L T A L L O Y S
FIG.33 VARIATION O F FLOW S T R E S S W I T H TEMPERATURE
FOR N I C K E L - I R C N ALLOYS
FIG. 3 4 E F F E C T OF A L L O Y ADDITIONS ON FLOW
S T R E S S OF N I C K E L ALLO.YS
F I G . 35 R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N I N C R E A S E I N F L O W
S T R E S S AND C H A N G E OF L A T T I C E PARAMETERS
OF S E V E R A L NICK'EL ALLOYS
 5

. .

'>a 0
a
0
0-.
oa
a

%
cPO
.5- .
a
0%
0
00
t3

s
ooa
0- 0 a0

a O

a&
8 a '

'=@ 0 8 . 7 8 ot. PERCENT Z n

5 -cb*
o 4 . 2 6 a t . PERCENT Go
Cfb
A 0 2 . 9 5 0.t. PERCENT Ge
A 2 . 1 2 at. PERCENT AS

ELECTRON CONC E N T R A T ~ O N = I .APPROX.

O~~

0 I I I 1 I I 1 , '

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0

STRAIN ( INCH

FIG. 36 TRUE S T R E S S - S T R A I N CURVES FOR . C O P P E R -

ZINC, ' C O P P E R - G A L L I U M , C O P P E R - G E R M A N I U M
AND COPPER - A R S E N I C ALLOY WIRES OF APPROX-
I M A T E L Y THE S A M E ELECTRON ATOM RATIO
(ALLEN, SCHOFIELD 8 TAT€ )
-i- 8-
0 COPPER - ,ZINC
ci . .
rn 7 - 0 COPPER- GALLIUM
LO 0 C O P P E R - GERMANIUM
z
0 A COPPER - ARSENIC
L 6-
m.
v,
=
W .

I-
5-.
<n.
LL

.O 4-
(r
a.
I- k8
z 3- 0
W
0
a A
BA
W
A 0
a. 2.
In
%? @
. .

0
I I I I I
1.00 .I.04 1.08 1.12 1.16. . '2.00
ELECTRON CONCENTRATION

. . FIG. 37 EFFECT OF ELECTRON CONCENTRATION ON

THE YIELD STRENGTH OF COPPER ALLOYS
( A L L E N , SCHOF I E L D 8 TATE ) .
'
 EXTENDED DISLOCATION
I
, H.ALF DISLOCATION '
.HALF DISLOCATION

3HEARED
PORTION
3F CRYSTAL

FIG. 38 EXTENDED DISLOCATION I N FACE CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL

BOUNDED BY TWO E X T E N D E D HALF D I S L O C A T I O N S ..

FIG.39 EQUILIBRIUM SHAPE OF A DISLOCATION LINE I N
A SOLID SOLUTION ALLOY DEPENDS, UPON T H E
DEGREE OF DISPERSION OF SOLUTE ATOMS. FOR
RANDOM DISTRIBUTION, LINE, IS STRAIGHT AS
I N ( a ) ; F O R CLUSTERING (OR SHORT RANGE
ORDERING ) , L. I .N E ASSUMES CURVED SHAPE
AS. I N (b)
 AMOUNT OF S H E A R - PERCENT

F I G . 4 0 S T R A I N H A R D E N I N G C U R V E S FOR S I N G L E C R Y S T A L S
O F C u 3 A u I N T H E ORDERED AND DISORDERED
\
STATES ( OATA B Y SACHS a WEERTS)
 TRUE STRAIN

.FIG.41 THE EFFECT OF GRAIN S I Z E ON T H E

'TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR
PURE ALUMINUM A T 2 9 2 OK (19°C)
 20,000

. . .

l6,OOO
a
z
-.
n

b 12,000
Y .

V ) . . .
V) .
W
a 8000 <!
I-
V)
N I C K E L - 4.0 ATO.MIC % . . .
3
I ' . COPPER ALLOY

TEST
T E M PE.R-ATUR E , 2 5 " ' ~
-
' 0.002 0.004 . 0.006 , :: 0.008 0.0 1
€ . - TRUE.. S T R A I N

FIG.^^ YIELD POINT PHENOMENA I N A N N E A L E D

NICKEL- COPPER ALLOY '
FIG.43 EFFECT OF A STRAIN-AGING TREATMENT
ON THE TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
OF ALUMINUM CONTAINING 3 . 2 ATOMIC
PERCENT MAGNESIUM AT 194' K (-79'C)
( SHERBY, ANDERSON 8 D O R N )
 E - T R , U E STRAIN

FIG. 4 4 ,EFFECT OF 'AMOUNT O F S U B - STRUCTURE

ON .STRENGTH OF P U R E N4CKE.L
 N O T E : S P E C . A N N E A L E D ~HR AT ilsoOc.
P R E - S T R A I N E D AS NOTED

0 0.01 2
0.0 '0.03 . 0.04,' 0.O
€ -TRUE STRAIN

FIG.45 E F F E C T OF A M O U N T O F S U B - S T R U C T U R . E
OFJ STREFJGTI-;I OF N I C I ( C L - , T I T A N I U M A L L O Y
F'IG. 46 . CHANGE OF. FLOW S T R E S S PRODUCED BY
I N D I C A T E D A M O U Y T OF PRE- STRAIN FOL-
LOWED B Y AN 800 "C A N N E A L
 0 I 2 3 4 5
AMOUNT OF PRE- S T R A I N IN P E R C E N T

FI.G.47 C H A N G E I N D E N S I T Y OF4 SUB-BOUNDARIES

PRODUCED BY INDICAT'ED AMOUNT OF PRE-
S T R A I N FOLLOWED BY AN 8 0 0 "C A N N E A L
 INDEX OF DENSITY .OF SUB-BOUNDARIES - IS.

FIG. 48 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY OF SUB-BOUND-

ARIES AND FLOW STRESS FOR PURE N I C K E L
'AND A N I C K E L - TITA.NIUM ALLOY
 I N C R E A S E I N D E N S I T Y OF SUB-BOUNDARIES - AIs
. .

FIG. 49 1NCRE.ASE IN FLOW S T R E S S ACCOMPANING

I N C R E A S E IN DENSITY OF SUB-BOUNDARIES
FOR PURE N I C K E L AND N i - T i A L L O Y
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~ m d k h a v e nNational Laboratory,. , ............................. . .

North American Aviation, Inc,, D r . Chauncey S~~PP,,.,,..,~...~~.~..~~~

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General E l e c t r i c Company, ~chland,.o...o..o.oo.oeo...ooo.ooooeo..o.o.o
Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e o f ' Technology, D r . A, Re Kaufmannoa .....,... ...o

Sylv3,nia E l e c t r i c Products, Inc,,.oo ,,,,.

National Bureau of s t a n d a r b , D r . Taylor,,,.o.~.oOoOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOoOOO
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Sandia Corporation,..ooo..oeoooooooo.oo.oooo.oo~.oo~ooooooeoeoooo.oooeo
u n i v e r s i t y of Calf fornia, Berkeley, Hadiation, Laboratory,,
Dow Chemical Company, Denver,,.,,.oo0000000.QOoQQOeOOOeaObOOOaeeee.oeoo~
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Naval Research Laboratorg,,..oo.oOoOOQeODOOO,OOo.OOOoOOo~.oeo~e..oeeeo
D r . Cydl So Smith, University of Chicago.,,,,o..,...OOOOoQQooOO.OOOOO
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Propulsion Proj,, Oak Ridge,.oo...ooOOOOoOeboobODOOoO
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D r , J, B. Johnson, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.,.......oo.oo.oo.o.o
Dr. Maxwell Gensamer, Columbia University,..o,..,.OoOOOeOooeOOo~OOOOOO
U, S o A t o d c Energy Commission, Hanford Operations O f f i ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~
U, S., A t o d c Energy Co~mnission, Idaho Operations Office,,....~o..o.o...e
.Uo S o Atomic Energy Commission, New York Operations Office,.o..,....o.
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U. S o Atomic Energy C o ~ s s i o. . n ,Washington, Librarian.o......ooo..oooo
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U,S,A.,E,C, Schenectady Operations Office,d.......eOeOODOOObOobQoOoodee
Ud S, Atomic Energy Commission, Library Branch, Oak Ridge,.o,o..o...p.
U, S o Atomic Energy C o d s s i o n , Patent Branch, TnTashington,......O.OoeO
U, S o Atonic Energy Cormnission, San Francis'co Operations Office,, ,
Dr. J, K O Hollomon, G, E, Research L a b o r a t o ~ y ~ ~ ~ . ~
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D r , R. Smoluchowski, Carnegie I n s t i t u t e of T e ~ h n o l o g y , ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ~

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DP, ~redlerickSeitz, university of Illinois,.,', , ,,,,,
Dr. E, E, Stansbq, University of T ~ M ~ S S ,
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Dr, B, Lo Averbach,.~ssa&usetts Institute of Technologyo,o..oo.oOOOOOO
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Dr. H, B, Huntington, Rensselaer Polytechnic Instituteoo.oo..o.~..O~oOOoO

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Dr. R, M. Brick, University of Pennsylvania,,
Dr, W, $1, Baldwin, Jr., Case Institute of Technology,, ,
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Dr. To A, Read, Columbia U n i v k r s i . t y , o o o , , o O , O o o O D O O o ~ O O O o O O O O O O o o o e o . o o e o
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Nr, So J, Sindeband, American Electm Metals Corporation,oo.oooooooooooo
nr. D. J. Clark, Cdiforda 1nsti.l.uk of T e c h n o P ~ g y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Dr, A, J, Herzig, Climax Molybdenum Corporation,oooooo.oooooo.~oooooooo
Dr, Harry B, Goodwin, Battelle 14emrial Instituteo,o,o,ooooOeoOOoo-090~O0,
Dr. A:. J, Shaler, The Pennsylvania State C o ~ e g e o , o o o , o o o . o o o o o o o o o o o ~ o o
Dr. R, Maddin, Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y o o O O O O O o O o o o O O o O O O o O O O O O O O O o O O o ~ o
Dr. H, wring, University of U t a h , o , . , o o , o o o o o o o o o ~ o o o o . o . o o o o . . ~ ~ ~ ~ - - o o o
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Dr, W, J, Moore, Indiana U n i v e r s i t y o o , o o o o o . O O O O e O O O O O O O O Q O ~ O o O O O o o ~ o o o ~ o
. Dr, Po A. Beck, University of Illinois,, ,,,,,,

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Dr, T. J, Neubert, Illfiois Institute of T e c h n o l o g y o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o . o e e

Office 'of Naval Research, Code ~21,... o o . O o ,,, ,
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Dr, A,,G. Guy, Dept, of Chem, & Metallurgical Eng,, F'urdue University,,,
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I U, C. Institute of &go Research, Bldg T-3,,Campus

California Research & Develop, Coo, Livermore,Research~Labooeooooooooooi
Dr, B, M, Gamson, Great Lakes Carbon Corporationoo,,ooooooeooooo~oos.oo.
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