Princesses Girls’ School/IGCSE Dept.

2023/2024

Studying Notes

Biology
Year 7
Part 3

Name: ……………………………………………………............

Class: ……………………………………………………………….
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Some living things are so small that we need a microscope to see them. Most of
them are made of only one cell. These are microorganisms (microbes). They are
“organisms” because they are living things, and carry out the seven life processes.
They are “micro” because they are very small.

Activity:
What types of microorganisms are there?
There are different types of microorganisms. Use different books and the internet to
find:
a. The names of the different types of microorganisms.
b. An example of each type.
c. An example of how microorganisms are useful.
d. An example of how microorganisms cause problems.
Present your research as a table. Include in your table the place where
you found each piece of information. You must include more than
one place.

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Fungi:

This picture shows a common type of fungi. These organisms may look like plants
but they are not plants because they do not make their own food.
This type of fungi is large and contain many cells. Some fungi are much smaller,
such as those found in mouldy bread. The mould is a fungus.

Mould fungi reproduce using spores. These are single cells made by the fungus.
Spores are very light and so travel easily in the air. When they land on a source of
food, they grow into new moulds. Fungi grow best in damp and warm places.
Some fungi are even smaller than moulds and have only one cell. These fungi are
called yeast.

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Bacteria:

Bacteria have just one cell, although when they reproduce the new cells may stick
to each other for a while. Bacteria are another different type of organism (they are
not animals, plants or fungi).
- Reproduction is a life process. What happens in reproduction?
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- How do you know that the bacteria in the figure above have reproduced?
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 - The cells in the figure above are magnified x 4000. What does this mean?
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Viruses:

Viruses are tiny particles that get into the living cells of other organisms. A virus
particle causes a cell to make copies of the virus. On their own, viruses are not alive
and cannot reproduce.
- Which do you think are smaller, bacteria or viruses? Give your reasoning.
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Microorganisms were first seen by the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in
1674. For a long time, many scientists thought that microorganisms were created by
the substances they were found in. For example, they thought that bread created
mould. This idea was called ‘spontaneous generation’.
Louis Pasteur was a French scientist who lived in the 19th century. He wondered
why fresh, clear soup always went cloudy and started to smell bad. He used a
microscope to look at soups. He found that cloudy, bad soup contained many
microorganisms, which were not in fresh soup. He had an idea that microorganisms
from the air landed in the soup. As they reproduced, they made the soup go bad.

Scientific method:
 The scientific method is the series of stages that scientists use in their
investigations. They ask questions and think of ideas to answer them.
 They plan experiments and make predictions about what will happen. They
use results from their experiments as evidence to make conclusions.
 A scientific question is answered by using experiment. Pasteur asked: Do
microorganisms from the air cause clear soup to go bad?

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 He planned an experiment using clear soup in glass containers. Some
containers were open at the top. The tops of the other containers had an S-
shaped tube. He boiled the soups in the containers and then left them.
 A prediction says what you think will happen. Pasteur predict that only the
soup in the open-topped containers would go cloudy.
 Scientists explain their predictions. Pasteur thought that microorganisms
would fall into the containers with open tops and make the soup go bad. But
the S-shaped tubes would trap microorganisms. This would stop the
microorganisms reaching the soup in those containers, and so the soup would
not go bad.
 After a few weeks, only the soup in the open-topped containers was cloudy. S-
shaped containers, its soup is still clear.
 Evidence is in information is information that helps you decide if an idea is
correct. Pasteur made the conclusions that his evidence showed he was
correct- microorganisms from the air cause foods to spoil (go bad).

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Preserving foods
 Microorganisms need water to survive. For thousands of years people have
dried food to stop it spoiling. Pasteur discovered why this worked.
 Other traditional ways of preserving food include adding lots of salt or sugar,
and soaking foods in vinegar. All these methods kill the microorganisms.
 Today, we use fridges and freezers to keep food cold. The cold stops
microorganisms growing quickly.
 To preserve some things, such as milk and other drinks, people heat them to a
high temperature for a short time and then cool them quickly. The high
temperature kills most of the microorganisms. Louis Pasteur invented this
process, which we call pasteurisation.
Ghee is a traditional ingredient in Arabic and south Asian cooking. It
is made by boiling butter and collecting the clear liquid. This process
kills microorganisms and removes the substances that they feed on.
So, ghee lasts a very long time.

Think like a scientist

a. Explain why jam does not go bad very quickly.

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b. In some African countries, such as Nigeria, cassava is made into a mash and
dried to form ‘garri’. Explain why ‘garri’ keeps for a long time.
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c. Explain why milk in a fridge lasts for a long time but still goes bas eventually.
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Infectious diseases:
 In the 19th century, many scientists thought that breathing in ‘bad air’ caused
diseases. Louis Pasteur showed that microorganisms cause many diseases.
 Symptoms are the effects of a disease on your body. A doctor uses symptoms
as evidence, to make a conclusion about what disease someone has.
Disease Caused Symptoms
by
Athlete’s foot Fungus Red &itchy skin between the toes.
Chicken pox Virus Fever, raised red spots with yellow tops.
Cholera Bacterium Vomiting, very bad diarrhea, muscle
cramps.
Colds and influenza Virus Fever, sore throat, aches.
(flu)
Food poisoning Bacterium Vomiting, stomach pain, diarrhea.
Impetigo Bacterium Blisters on the skin that leave a yellow
crust.
Measles Virus Fever, flat red spots.
Tuberculosis (TB) Bacterium Fever, coughing up blood.

Infectious diseases are diseases that spread from person to person.

Microorganisms move from person to person in many ways. When the
microorganisms start to grow and reproduce in a person, that person is
infected.
 The air can carry microorganisms from person to person. When people cough
or sneeze, they spray tiny droplets of liquid into the air. These droplets contain
microorganisms. If someone breathes in the droplets, they could become
infected. Cold, measles, chicken pox and tuberculosis spread in this way.
 Touching spots or blisters on the skin can spread microorganisms, such as
those that cause impetigo and chicken pox.
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  Athlete’s foot spreads when people touch things that have been in contact with
an infected food (such as a wet floor near a swimming pool).
 Some microorganisms spread in foods and drinks. For example, cholera
bacteria spread in water.
 Animals spread some diseases. A bite from a dog with rabies transfers the
rabies virus. Mosquitoes spread the microorganisms that cause malaria.

Stopping diseases from spreading

To stop people from getting infectious diseases we prevent the spread of
microorganisms. Using a tissue when sneezing stop microorganisms from spreading
through the air.
We stop food and drink from causing diseases in many ways. Preserving food by
adding a lot of salt, sugar or vinegar kills microorganisms in them. Pasteurization
kills bacteria and fungi in drinks, such as milk.
Many of the products we put on our skin contain antiseptics to kill
microorganisms.
Disinfectants kill microorganisms on surfaces that we touch. We also move sewage
away from people, and treat it to kill microorganisms. Cholera often spreads when
sewage gets into drinking water.
Injecting people with a vaccine prevents from diseases.

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Useful microorgsnisms

We use bacteria and fungi to make many foods. We use yeast to make some types
of bread. Yeast cells feed on sugar in bread dough. As they respire, the yeast make
bubbles of carbon dioxide gas. This gas cause the dough to rise up and increase in
height. Then we bake the dough to make bread.

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???????

A student made six batches of bread dough, and added different amounts of sugar to
each. The student left each dough to rise for 20 minutes and then measured the
increase in volume. The table shows the results.
Mass of sugar added (g) Increase in volume after 20 minutes (cm3)
0 11
2 21
4 25
6 29
8 35
10 37
a. Which variable did the student change?
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b. State two variables that should be kept the same.
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c. Which variable did the student measure?
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d. Use the evidence in the table to make a conclusion.
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Decay
During decay, materials break into smaller parts. Decomposers are microorganisms
that cause decay. Bacteria and fungi are decomposers. Decay is not useful for food
but is important for removing dead organisms and animal wastes. Decay releases
useful substances from dead organisms and wastes, for other organisms to use.

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Classification: it is the arrangement of living organisms into groups according to
their similarities and differences, to facilitate their studying and identification.

Taxonomy: the science of studying the classification of the living organisms into
groups according to the scientific bases.

Importance of classification:
1. It facilitates identifying new organisms and adding them into similar
groups.
2. It benefits other fields of science.
3. It facilitates the study of different kinds of living organisms on scientific
bases.

Levels of taxonomy
 They are several levels or groups for classifying living organisms.
 Each group includes certain organisms that have more similar characteristics
than the group preceding. (it’s more specific).

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Classification of domestic cat:

So, the scientific name of the domestic cat is Felis domesticus

G Sp.

Dichotomous key:
It is a series of descriptions ordered in pairs the leads to identify an unknown living
organism.

Attempts of classification of living organisms:

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 1. Aristotle:
He classified the living organisms into:
 Animals: red-blooded animals and bloodless animals.
Some can lay eggs and others cannot.
 Plants: trees, shrubs and weeds.
2. Carl Linnaeus:
He established the traditional classification system that classified living
organisms into animals kingdom and plant kingdom.
3. Robert Whittaker:
 He established the modern classification system that classified the living
organisms into 5 kingdoms which are: Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia.
 Some organisms do not follow Whittaker classification as viruses.

Viruses do not obey Whittaker classification

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  Viruses do not belong to any of these kingdoms, because they are not
considered as living organisms.
 They cannot reproduce on their own and cannot form their own food (protein).
 The replicate by ordering the host cells they infect.
 Viruses are very small in size and measured in nanometers (nm), and they can
be seen only with the electron microscope.
 They have a very simple structure which is made up of a genetic material
(DNA or RNA). That is surrounded by a protein coat.
 Viruses infect human, animal, plant or bacterial cell by sticking themselves to
the host cell and injecting their genetic material inside it, then reproduce by
replication.
 They keep replicating until the host cell bursts, then attack new cells and so
on.

What is a species?

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It is a group of living organisms that all share the same characteristics, and the
males and females breed to produce fertile individuals.

 Organisms that belong to the same species can breed with each other
producing fertile ones.
 But very occasionally, two organisms from different species do breed with
each other producing a hybrid offspring.
 This might happen in a zoo, and the produced individuals are infertile.
 For example, in a zoo, a male lion and a female tiger sometimes breed
together, if they don’t have a member of their own species to breed with.
 The young animals that are produced are called ligers.
 Ligers are infertile (sterile).
 Also, the breeding of a male donkey and a female horse produces an infertile
mule.

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Naming species (Latin Binomial Name):

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 Living organisms can be classified as
Unicellular Multicellular
The body consists of only one cell. The body consists of many cells.

Prokaryotic (cell) Eukaryotic

The genetic material (DNA) is not The genetic material (DNA) is
surrounded by a nuclear membrane. surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

Autotrophic (nutrition) Heterotrophic

The organism can make its own food by The organism depends on other
itelf, as plants. organisms to obtain its food, as in
humans and animals.

A sexual (Reproduction) Sexual

It needs only one organism It needs two parents that produce male
and female reproductive cells

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General characteristics of the organisms in the five kingdoms
1. Kingdom Monera
 Unicellular: composed of only one cell.
 Prokaryotic organism: the genetic material is not surrounded by a nuclear
membrane.
 Cytoplasm: no cell organelles are found, only the cell contains chromosomes.
 Cell membrane: protects the bacterium and keeps its shape.
 Genetic material: a single DNA molecule coiled up and contain the bacterium
genes.
 Reproduction: by binary fission, as one bacterium cell can divide into two
daughter cells.
 Respiration: some bacteria perform aerobic respiration consuming oxygen and
others perform anaerobic respiration in absence of oxygen.
 Nutrition: bacteria have managed to adapt to various environments as they
obtain food by various methods;
 Autotrophic: they can make their own food by photosynthesis process,
as in case of plants.
 Heterotrophic: they feed on ready-made food, such as: bacteria- blue
green algae.

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 2. Kingdom Protista
 Most of them are unicellular.
 Eukaryotic organisms: the genetic material is surrounded by nuclear
membrane.
 They are very simple cells, and some of them have cell walls and plastids.
 Examples: Amoeba- Paramecium.

3. Kingdom fungi
 Some are unicellular but majority are multicellular and composed of filaments
called hyphae.
 Eukaryotic organisms.
 Heterotrophic organisms.
 Reproduce sexually and a sexually by spores.
 Fungi are not considered as plants.
They do not contain chloroplasts and cannot perform photosynthesis.
The cell wall is made up of chitin not cellulose.
They store glycogen not starch.
They are heterotrophic not autotrophic.

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 4. Kingdom plants
 Multicellular.
 Eukaryotic.
 Cell wall consists of cellulose fibers.
 Cytoplasm contains many cell organelles including the chloroplasts that
contain chlorophyll pigment.
 Autotrophic.
 Most of them reproduce sexually.
 The plant kingdom contains several million different species of plants. These
are classified into four major groups:
1. Mosses:

2. Ferns:

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 3. Conifers:

4. Flowering plants:
 They have true roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
 They produce flowers which change into fruits enclosing seeds.
 They reproduce sexually.
 They are classified into two sub-classes; Monocotyledonous plants and
Dicotyledonous plants.

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Character Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous
Seeds One cotyledon Two cotyledon
Leaves Narrow, parallel veined Palmate or pinnate veined
Flowers Trimerous whorls or their Tetramerous or
multiples pentamerous whorls or
their multiples
Stems Bundles of vascular Bundles of vascular
tissues are scattered tissues are arranged in a
inside the stem ring
Roots Fibrous Tap
Examples Wheat, onion and palm Peas, bean and cotton

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 5. Kingdom Animalia
 Multicellular
 Eukaryotic.
 Can move and respond to stimuli.
 Most of them reproduce sexually.
 They are classified according to the presence or absence of the vertebral
column into vertebrates and invertebrates.
Classifying invertebrates
Phylum: porifera (sponges) Phylum: cnidarian (coelenterates)
 Most of them live in seas and  The majority are marine, live
oceans attached to rocks, and few individually or in colonies in
in fresh water. water.
 The body is simple, hollow and  The body is hollow, and the outer
contains many pores and canals. layer is provided with stinging
 Example: sponge animal cells which help in defense and
capture preys.
 Examples: hydra-jelly fish- sea
anemone.

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Phylum: Platyhelminthes Phylum: Nematoda Phylum: Annelida (ring or
(flat worms) (round worm) segmented worms)
 The majority are  Some are free  The majority are free-
parasitic on two living in water and living in salt or fresh
hosts and the few mud and others are water or muddy soil.
are free living. parasitic on  The body is divided
 The body is flat and animals, humans into rings or segments
very simple without and plants. and has spine-like
any systems.  The body is structure that are
 Examples: cylindrical and buried in the skin of
Planaria- Bilharzia- unsegmented. most worms to help
Tape worm.  Has an alimentary them move.
canal with mouth  Examples: Leech-
and anus opening. Earth worm which
 The size ranges aerate the soil by
from microscopic making burrows.
to more than one
meter.
 Examples: Ascaris
worm- Filaria
worm.

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 Phylum: Arthropods

o They have pairs of jointed legs.

o Their bodies are divided into segments.
o Arthropods have an outer body skeleton called exoskeleton.
Class: insects Class: Class: crustaceans Class: myriapods
arachnids
Arthropods with 6 Arthropods Arthropods with Arthropods with
jointed legs. with 8 jointed especially tough many pairs of
legs. exoskeleton. legs.
Body is divided into 3
parts (head, thorax, Do not have Have more than 4 Have one pair of
and abdomen). wings or pairs of jointed legs. antennae.
antennae.
Each of these parts are Have two pairs of Examples:
made up of several Examples: antennae. centipedes-
segments. spiders and millipedes.
Examples: lobsters-
scorpions.
Most have 2 pairs of water fleas-
wings which are woodlice.
attached to thorax.
One pair of antennae
in their head.
Examples: locust-
mosquito- cockroach

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Phylum: Mollusca
 Animals with soft bodies.
 They have muscular foot which
they use to move around.
 Some molluscs have shells.
 Examples: slugs- snails-
octopuses.
Phylum: Echinoermata
 The body is cylindrical or star
shaped and has some arms.
 The body is unsegment with
spines and a hard exoskeleton in
the form of calcareous plates.
 They move by tube feet, spines, or
arms.
 They reproduce sexually by
gametes and asexually by
regeneration.
 Examples: sea star- sea urchin-
sea cucumber.
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 Classifying vertebrates
 Vertebrates are animals with a backbone (vertebral column).
 They belong to phylum: Chordata which is classified in to 5 classes.
Class: fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Animals
Cold blooded. Cold blooded. Cold blooded. Warm Warm
blooded. blooded.
Move by fins. Young are Hard scaly
called tadpoles skin. Have wings, Body consists
Skin covered
and develop in feathers and of head, neck,
with moist Have 4 legs
water were beaks. thorax and
scales. except snakes.
they breathe abdomen.
Bones are
Breathe using using gills. Some live on
hollow and Body covered
gills. land and other
Adults live on light, to help with hairy
in water like
Reproduce land and flying. skin.
crocodiles.
sexually. breathe using
The chest Have 4 limbs
lungs. Reproduce
Lay eggs in bones are provided with
sexually
water. Have 4 limbs. broad for the claws, nails,
Lay their eggs attachment of hoofs, or pads.
Reproduce
on land. the strong
sexually. Dissimilar
chest muscles
Dinosaurs teeth.
Lay eggs in to help flying.
were also
water. Females have
reptiles. Reproduce
mammary
Have smooth sexually and
glands that
skin with no lay their eggs
secrete milk.
scales. on land.
Reproduce
sexually.
Give birth.
Golden fish Frog Crocodile Hawk Bats-dolphins

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 Variation and inheritance in a species
Organisms that share the same characteristics and can breed with one another, are
classified in the same species.
There are always differences between individuals.

Variation: it is the differences between individual members of a species.

For example, all domestic dogs belong to the same species.

Types of variation
Continuous variation
A characteristic that changes gradually
for any species over a range of value.
Discontinuous variation
A characteristic of any species with
only a limited number of possible
values.

 Human height.  Blood group.

 Weight.  Gender.
 Foot length.  Eye color.

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Causes of variation:
Inherited
 Caused by the genes inherited
from the parents through sperm
and ova, so offspring usually
gather their genetic information
from both parents, but not
identical to them.
 In human: eye colour, air colour,
skin colour, presence or absence
of ear lobes are considered as
inherited variations.
 Gender is also an inherited
variation.
So, features vary because of a mixture of inherited and environmental
variations.
Environmental
 Caused by the surrounding
environmental conditions.
 Characteristics of an animal or a
plant species can be affected by
some environmental factors as
climate, diet, accidents, culture
and lifestyle.
 For example, if you stay in the sun
for long periods, your skin will get
darker, and plants in the shade
will grow longer to reach more
light.
 Languages and religions are
environmental, and also the colour
of Hydrangea flowers, which
grow blue flowers in an acidic soil
and pink flowers in an alkaline
soil.
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 Inheritance
Genes:
 They are made up of a chemical known as Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA).
 A gene is a section of DNA.
 It contains messages or codes that can instruct a cell.
 It includes information about how the body will grow and develops.

DNA:
 DNA has a structure which is like a twisted ladder, known as double helix.
 Genes are found in DNA.

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Chromosomes:
 If we pack genes together, we will have a very long thread of DNA.
 To store the genetic material into a cell, DNA is coiled and packed into tiny
structures known as chromosomes.
 Chromosomes can be found in the nucleus of a cell.
 Different species have a different number of chromosomes.
 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes) in every nucleus of
our cells.

How are genes passed on the next generation during reproduction?

 Reproduction includes reproductive cells (gametes).
 Gametes have half number of chromosomes.
 In human, gametes (male & female) Have only 23 chromosomes, while the
other cells contain 46 chromosomes.
 During reproduction, the male gamete and female gamete meets.
 Fertilisation occurs when the nucleus of the male gamete fuse with the nucleus
of the female gamete to form a single cell.
 This is known as zygote.
 The chromosomes from male (23) and female (23) combine when nuclei of
the gametes are fused.
 It explains why we get half the genes from our father and the other half from
our mother.

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 Using keys
Keys are used to identify different species or unknown organisms.

Types of keys:
1. Branched (spider) key:

2. Numerical (alphabetical) key:

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 Selection
It is the process of choosing the best varieties which are well adapted to the
environment and allow them to grow and reproduce.

Types of selection:
Selective breeding (artificial) Natural selection

 It is a process carried out by man  It is the process by which the best

to choose and breed the best
varieties of domestic animals and
plants in order to improve their
strains.
 We breed plants and animals for
food.
 We also breed plants for
decoration.
 Some animals are also bred to be
kept as pets.
 Artificial selection results in new
varieties within a particular
organisms are adapted to their
environment and tend to have an
increased chance of survival.
 The desirable characteristics are
passed on to future generations.
 Individuals with characteristics
that don’t help them to survive
well in a habitat will die.
 These undesirable characteristics
are not passed on to future
generations.
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species but does not form new
species in most cases.

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The population is growing fast and it is estimated that by 2025, world population
will be over 8 billion.

Factors affecting the size of a population:

1. Food and clean water supply.
2. Population of predators.
3. Availability of suitable habitat or living space.
4. Availability of light for plant population.
5. Diseases.

Increasing human population has many negative influences on the

environment.
 There will be an increase in the need for air, living space, water, food and
mineral resources.
Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation,
pollution, burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

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Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality
and undrinkable water.
These negative impacts can affect human health and behavior.

1. Deforestation:
It is the cleaning of forests to obtain timber or to provide space for farming or
urban development.
 Natural habitats and animal’s food supply are destroyed.
 There will be a decrease in oxygen gas and an increase in carbon dioxide gas
which leads to global warming.
 There will be a decrease in water vapour concentration, so a decrease in
clouds, leading to less rain, then drought.
 Soil erosion takes place and soil fertility decreases.
 Extinction of some animals’ species due to loss of habitat and food.

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2. Overfishing and hunting:
Overfishing and hunting of a particular species may cause it to be completely
wiped out over time.
This disrupts the food chains in which the species was part of.
For instance, predators that feed on the species would have difficulty finding
food.

3. Pollution:
Air pollution.
Water pollution.
Soil pollution.

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 Air pollution
 Every day we burn large amounts of fuel in power stations to produce
electricity. This provides us with light, warmth and power.
 The power is used in all kinds of industries, for the manufacture of a wide
range of things.
 In the home, electricity runs washing machines, fridges and computers.
 When coal and oil are burned, however, they produce carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and other gases.

Carbon dioxide:
 It is described as a greenhouse gas because it acts like the glass in the
greenhouse.
 It allows heat energy from the sun to pass through it to reach the earth, but it
prevents much of the heat energy radiating from the earth’s surface from
passing out into space.
 The heat energy remains in the atmosphere and warms it up.
 In the past the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has remained low,
but the level is now beginning to rise.
 A rise in the temperature of the atmosphere will cause melting of ice caps on
the continent of Antarctica.
 This leads to raising of the sea level and a change in the climate for almost all
parts of the earth.
 The rise in temperature is known as global warming.

Ozone depletion:
 It protects living organisms by absorbing harmful (UV) that is emitted by the
sun causing skin cancer, eye diseases and damage the plants.
 Gases called chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) are thought to cause ozone
depletion. They are man-made and are found in air conditioners, refrigerators,
and aerosols.
 As more CFCs enters the atmosphere, more chlorine will be released, and
more ozone molecules will be broken down.
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  They last a very long time, react with ozone and break it down, forming the
hole and allowing more UV rays to enter the earth.

Carbon monoxide:
 It is a very poisonous gas. It readily combines with the haemoglobin in the
blood forming carboxyhaemoglobin and stops oxygen being transported.

Acid rain:
 Sulphur dioxide is produced by the combustion of sulphur in a fuel, when it is
burned.
 Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapour and oxygen in the air forming
sulphuric acid. This may fall to the ground as acid rain or snow.
 Oxides of nitrogen are converted to nitric acid in the atmosphere, and this also
falls to the ground as acid rain or as snow.
 When acid rain reaches the ground, it drains into the soil, dissolves some of
the minerals there and carries them away. (Leaching).
 It drains into the rivers and lakes, that lowers the PH of the water (makes it
more acidic), this causes the death of the aquatic life.

Soot and smog:

Soot
It is the particles in the air from smoke
settle on buildings and plant life.
They make buildings dirty and form
black coatings on their outer surfaces.
They also block stomata of the plant
leaves.
When it covers leaves, it cuts down the
amount of light reaching the leaf cells
and slows down photosynthesis
Smog
It is the smoke from the burning of coal
combines with water droplets in foggy
weather.
When people inhale air containing
smog, the lining of their respiratory
systems become damaged.
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 Water pollution
Fresh
The most harmful pollutants in water
are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
and heavy metals such as cadmium,
chromium, nickel and lead.
In large concentration, these metals
damage many of the organs of the body
and can cause cancers to develop.
They are passed up the food chain as
each organism is eaten by the next one
along the chain.
This leads to organisms at the end of the
food chain having large amounts of
toxic chemicals in their bodies, which
can cause damge or death.
Salty
The pollutants of fresh water are
washed into the sea where they may
collect in the coastal marine life.
The pollutants may cause damage to the
plants and animals that live in the sea
and make them unfit to be collected for
human food.
Large amounts of oil are transported by
tankers across the ocean every day,
where the oil that was released from the
ship formed a film on the water surface
which prevented oxygen entering the
water from the air.

Soil pollution
To increase food production by intensive farming, two compounds must be used,
fertilisers and pesticides.

The risk of using fertilisers:

1. The amount of fertilizer added to the soil must be calculated carefully.
2. If too little is added, the amount of food produced by the crop will be small.
3. If too much is added, the plants will not use all the minerals and they may be
washed into streams and rivers and cause pollution.

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Pesticides:
The crop plants may be affected by other organisms, which either compete with
them for resources, or feed on them.
These organisms are known as pests, and chemicals called pesticides have been
developed to kill them.
There are three kinds of pesticides
Herbicides Fungicides Insecticides

 Selective: kills only Is a substance that kills  Narrow spectrum:

certain plants, the fungi. kill only a specific
weeds. kind of insects,
They make coats on the
Can be used when leaving others
seeds to protect them
the crop is growing. unharmed.
during germination.
 Non-selective: kills  Broad spectrum: kill
any plant. Can be They are also applied to a wide range of
used to clear areas the soil to prevent fungi insects.
of all plant life. from attacking the roots.
Must not be used
when a crop is
growing.

Scientists found that DDT “Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane” which is an

insecticide, can be carried through the food chain till reach to the top carnivore
which may die after eating many preys.

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 Energy resources
Non-renewable Renewable

 Resources that will run our or  Resources that will not run out
cannot be replaced within our life and can be replaced or renewed
time. again by natural processes.
 They cause many problems in the  They are clean.
environment.  Such as: solar energy, wind,
 They are fossil fuels that are water, tidal energy and geothermal
formed under very high
temperature and pressure under
the earth’s surface, MILLIONS
OF years ago.
 Their rate of formation is much
slower that the rate of used up.

Positive human influences on the environment

 Conserve natural resources through: reduce waste, reuse old items and recycle
materials.
 Conserve natural habitat by:
 Reforestation by planting large numbers of trees on land which has few
or no trees on it.
 Government involvement by educating their citizens to know the impact
of human activities and how we can help to reduce the negative impact
and bring about positive influences to our environment.

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53
It is a branch of biology that deals with living organisms, their interaction with
other, with the environment and the relation of all to man.
Term Description
Environment All the conditions that surround a living organism.
Habitat The place where an organism lives.
It provides the organism with all its needs.
Population All the members of a single species that live in a habitat.
Community All the populations of different species that live together in a
habitat.
Ecosystem A community and the habitat in which organisms live.
Adaptation Special characteristics of organisms that help them survive in a
habitat. (structural & behavioral)

Daily Seasonal
Plants  Some plants such as tulip The abiotic (non-living factors), in
and crocus, open their a habitat changes with seasons.
flowers during day and
 In winter daffodil leaves die
close them at night.
and the plant forms a bulb in
 Night scented stock opens
the soil.
its flowers in evening and
 Bark is an adaptation of the
closes during daytime. This
trees that provides a
allows moth to visit the
protective layer around the
flowers for pollination.
woody shoot in winter.
 Clover leaf is divided into 3
 Some trees have broad big
leaflets, during day they
leaves that are lost during
become horizontal for
winter due to the freezing in
receiving sunlight to make
food. In evening the leaflets
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 fold, close together helping
in decrease the amount of
water loss.
Animals  Tawny owl has large eyes
that are sensitive to low
light intensity at night.
- Wings are shaped and
edged to move noiseless.
- Sharp talons on its toes,
that act as daggers to kill
and carry the prey.
 Insects such as butterflies,
bees and wasps are active at
daytime while moths are
active at nighttime,
searching for food.
 Squirrel is active at daytime
because at night surfaces
cool down due to water
vapour in the air condenses
and forms dew.
the ground that prevents taken
up water through roots.
 The leaves are present again
once the conditions improve.
(Deciduous trees).
 Roe deer their body is covered
with short hair in spring and
summer, while in autumn in
winter it grows longer hair to
reduce heat loss.
 Ptarmigan in summer has
brown plumage that helps it
hide from predators, while in
winter it turns into white to
reduce heat loss and also for
camouflage.
- It has feather toes which
allow it to walk across
the snow without
sinking.
 Lung fish lives in rivers of
South America that becomes
dry in dry seasons.
- It digs burrow in the
riverbed and rests, also
breathes through lungs.
(Aestivation).
 Bats has nothing to eat in
winter, so it stores fats and
sleep throughout winter.
(Hibernation).
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Adaptation for feeding
Herbivores Carnivores
Animals which are adapted to feed only Animals that feed on other animals.
on plants.
They are predators that have special
They are the preys for carnivorous features to allow them to catch preys.
animals.
Spiders feed on trapping insects in their
So, they have some special features to webs.
reduce their chance for being caught or
Frogs flick out their tongues to carry
eaten.
insects.
Deers may hideaway during day in
Shrews feed mainly on insects; they are
vegetation and come out during night.
called insectivores.
So, at night it is difficult to be seen by
Eagles have got long claws to grab and
carnivores.
stab the prey, and hooked beaks for
Rabbits have side eyes that enable them ripping up the prey.
to have wide vision. They also have got
They have eyes that face forward,
large ears, so the sound of approaching
which let them judge the distance where
predators can be detected.
each eye partly overlaps the field of
view of the other eye.

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Adaptation to certain habitats
1. Desert ecosystem:
a. Cacti:
 They survive dry conditions by storing water inside their bodies.
 Some cacti have roots which spread out a long away just underneath the soil
to collect the rainwater.
 Others have long roots to collect the water drained down.
 Cacti have thick waxy covering layer to prevent water loss from the stem
surface.
 They have spikes to prevent water loss and prevent animals from eating them.
b. Camels:
 Have got thick pods to insulate their feet from the hot sand.
 Webbed feet to spread out their weight, not to sink into sand.
 Have muscles in their noses to enable the nostrils shut; this keeps
sand out of the respiratory system.
 Long lashes keeping flying sand from reaching the eyes in sandstorm.
 Third transparent eyelid for each eye, that allows camels to see during
walking in sandstorms.
 Strong teeth to grind tough leaves of desert plants.
 Store fats in their humps.
2. Mountains ecosystem:
The conditions on mountains tops are similar to that of the polar regions.
 Raven and golden eagle, they visit the mountains tops in summer to look
for food.
 Mountain hare changes its colour from brown in summer to white in
winter.
 Also, animals have thick fur and a thick layer of fat to keep their bodies
warm.
 They have sharp claws to prevent sliding on ice.
 Animals have small ears and nose to decrease heat loss.
 They have white fur for camouflage.

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  Some plants survive by having hairy leaves that prevent water lose and
provide insulation.
 Mountain plants also grow close to the ground, to avoid their damage by
frequent wind.

3. Aquatic ecosystem:
Fresh water:
 The stems of water plants have cavities in them through which air can
pass to roots.
 Water plants use gases they produce to hold their bodies up, so no need
for supporting tissues like land plants.
 Minerals can be taken with water by the roots to the rest of the plant.
 Leaves of the submerge water plants are thin, to allow minerals in the
water to pass into them easily.
 Leaves have feathery structure that makes a large surface area in contact
with water.
o Animals like diving beetles live under water but can breathe air.
o They raise their wing covers and take in air through the breathing holes, called
spiracles, on their backs.
o When they lower their wing covers, more air is trapped in the hairs between
them.
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o So, this allows the beetles to swim underwater longer.
o Diving beetles feed on small fish, tadpoles and other insects.

Salty water:
 Algae contain drops of oil to help them float, and long spines to slow down
the speed at which the sink.
 These algae can make their food by photosynthesis.
 Seaweeds are large algae which live at the edges of seas, oceans and rocky
shores.
o The seas and oceans are home to great variety of animal species, and new
species are discovered every year.
o Animals which live on the ocean floor as sea spiders have long legs to help
them walk over the mud.
o In the deep-ocean water where sunlight does not reach, many animals have
special organs to generate light (bioluminescence).
o The light is used by animals to recognize each other in the dark and to find
food.
o Animals on the seashore are in danger of being swept away by water currents.
o Lugworms and mollusks such as cockles and razor shells burrow in sandy
beaches to stay on the shore.
o The limpet has a fleshy foot which acts like sucker to hold it in place on a
rocky shore.
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o Sea anemones also have a sucker- like base which helps them to grip the sides
of a rock.

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Decomposers:
o They are organisms which can break down organic matter in dead bodies of
plants or animals.
o Decomposers can also break down organic matter in animal wastes.
o They break down organic matter into simple molecules through enzymes.
o Bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
o Mould is a fungus which is often found in rotten fruit or food.
o Decomposers help return nutrients to the soil.
o Once the organic matter os broken down into simple molecules, the plant can
absorb these molecules as nutrients.

The impact of the bioaccumulation of toxic substances on an

ecosystem:
Bioaccumulation in organisms may enhance the persistence of industrial chemicals
in the ecosystem, as a whole, since they can be fixed in the tissues of organisms.
The stored chemicals are not exposed to direct physical, chemical, or biochemical
degradation.

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They can directly affect an individual’s health.
Predators of those organisms that have bioaccumulated harmful substances may be
endangered by food chain effects.

A new invasion can affect other organisms and an ecosystem:

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