Handout WK5 Data Analysis and Interpretation 2024

3/20/24
Data analysis and

interpretation I
© Copyright Showeet.com
2024 Spring
Qualitative research stages
(a) Defining the

(f) Write-up of a report
research problem
(e) Analysis and (b) Designing the research

interpretation of results schemata and research
(defining the number of
respondents, the number of
interviews, the location,
selection criteria, and choice of
the moderator, etc.)
(d) Conducting the (c) Setting up the

interviews interviews (recruitment, preparation of
the interview guide and
(moderating)
research materials, e.g.,
projective techniques)
Maison, D. (2018). Qualitative marketing research: Understanding consumer behaviour. Routledge.
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The phases of the research process and the person usually responsible for its execution
Phase of the research process Person responsible for execution

• Defining the research problem • Client – person responsible for the project on
the client side – or researcher in research
agency (often both: client and research agency)
• Establishing the research schemata • Researcher in research agency (with the client’s
(characteristic and the number of approval)
groups/interviews)
• Planning – defining the selection criteria, • Researcher in research agency (with the client’s
assigning the number of groups/interviews approval)
and the location; selection of the moderator,
etc.
• Preparing for interview execution
(a) Recruitment, technical, and organisational (a) Research agency fieldwork department or
aspects external fieldwork agency
(b) Preparing the interview guide and the (b) Researcher in research agency responsible for
research materials, etc. the execution of a given study (with the client’s
approval), sometimes the client him/herself
Maison, D. (2018). Qualitative marketing research: Understanding consumer behaviour. Routledge. 3
The phases of the research process and the person usually responsible for its execution
Phase of the research process Person responsible for execution

• Execution (moderation of interview) • Moderator/interviewer (research agency)
– sometimes the same person as the
researcher charged with the study,
sometimes somebody different. Usually
several persons for large projects
• Analysis and interpretation of results • Moderator/interviewer or qualitative

researcher (sometimes it is the same
person, sometimes a different one)
• Drawing up of the report, presentation • Moderator/interviewer or qualitative

of results researcher (sometimes it is the same
person, sometimes a different one)
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Four types of data collection methods
Implement each of the methods by using:
(1) a formal instrument and (2) a rigorously defined data collection procedure.
Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative Research from Start to Finish (2nd ed.). New York:
Why qualitative data analysis is difficult
• This is largely down to the constant hurry accompanying

marketing research is lack of enough time)
• Additionally, the analysis tends to be limited to the

statements made by respondents, without delving deeper
into the broader marketing context.
◦ This leads to a descriptive report of what happened
during the interviews, rather than a comprehensive
and insightful analysis.
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• When analyzing numbers, regardless of who is doing the

analysis, it’s enough to keep to some basic rules of
arithmetic in order always to obtain the same results.
◦ Two people can draw very different conclusions based
on the same information available.
◦ For one person, the word “sun” may sound pleasant
because of its association with summer vacations and
leisure, whilst for another, it may have negative
connotations since it reminds them of sunburn and
drought.
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• Qualitative analysis is very demanding and no clear rules

◦ Learn and mastering this specific kind of analysis
through personal experience, preferably under the
tutelage of an experienced researcher.
• Numerous publications, particularly academic ones, that are
available, which can also assist in the analysis and
interpretation of qualitative marketing research à
Systematic, time-consuming approach.
• In marketing research, predicting analyses to specific

theories is unnecessary, and the analysis does not have to
be performed as precisely and systematically as in academic
research.
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Stages in the data analysis of qualitative marketing research
• Four main stages in the analysis of qualitative research

findings
1. Raw data (transcripts)
2. Facts - description of the data (what happened)
3. Interpretation and conclusions (what does it mean and wha3.

stems from this)
4. Recommendations (what to do next)
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I. Correct preparation of data

Making transcripts
• In qualitative this usually requires verbatim transcription of the course of the

interviews.
• Not transcribing interviews/Preparing a report directly from video recordings.
◦ Transcriptions are less time-consuming and allow for a more concise
overview of results.
◦ Losing a lot of subtle information that could prove useful or sometimes
even fundamental to the analysis
• Transcription or accurate notes from the interview allow us to compare

information from different groups and moments in the interview.
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Processing the large volume of data
• This is why starting out moderators are often overwhelmed by the large
volumes of transcripts from several focus group interviews or twenty individual
in-depth interviews and are at a loss as to where to start the analysis.
Sort through the data, rejecting the fragments that are not
1 linked to the research agenda (which inevitably always crop
up during an interview).
The material should be categorized according to the

2 problems corresponding to the research goals.
Look for the interrelations between different themes
3 covered in the interview and try to find their meanings for
the investigated issues.
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Research material which has been sorted and categorised, with all the
unnecessary content being carefully sifted out (data reduction).
• Content categorization can be done in a number of different ways,
for instance, by highlighting the meaningful categories under each
research question using color codes.
◦ This facilitates navigation through the relevant fragments once
on the analysis stage of a given topic.
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• Content categorization can be done in a number of different ways,

for instance, by highlighting the meaningful categories under each
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• Content categorization can be done in a number of different

ways, for instance, by highlighting the meaningful categories
under each research question using color codes.
◦ This facilitates navigation through the relevant
fragments once on the analysis stage of a given topic.
• Another computer-assisted approach that is highly
recommended is sorting through the fragments that match
the relevant topics and putting them in order using tables,
which can later be printed up.
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• The researcher, by facilitating the interviews, will find it easier to

identify recurrent items across the groups and differences between
them.
◦ For instance, notice that the users of brand A speak differently of

• Content categorization can be done in a number of different
ways,the
forcategory, which may signify that they have a different
instance, by highlighting the meaningful categories
emotional connection with the brand, which has a disparate
under each research question using color codes.
meaning to them compared to the others (e.g., more hedonistic
approach), than users of brand B (e.g., more functional angle).
• The interrelation between specific parts of the interview can also be

picked up.
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II. Fact-Desceription of data
• Describe what happened (present the facts), then move on to the level
of interpretation of results, and finally to drawing the conclusions from
the research.
Problems in distinguishing the description of results from their interpretation
• Missing layer of analysis and • Conclusions are drawn too far-reaching and
interpretation illegitimate from the point of view of the
data supplied
If the question of “What actually results
from this?” keeps on cropping up while A good report should contain both a description
reading the report and no answers to this can and an interpretation of the findings and this
be found within its pages distinction between them (what the
respondents actually said vs. what the
Reports lack interpretation and give the researcher brought to the report) should be
impression that the interpretation and the very clear to the reader.
drawing of conclusions have been left to the
reader (client).
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• Theoretically, the interpretation is an additional explanation,

clarification, or commentary on the presented findings.
• The interpretation should be centered on explaining the reasons for the

results obtained and facilitating the understanding of their meaning and
significance.
When presenting the results, we are limited to the facts only

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• When presenting the results, we are limited to the facts only, for instance:
◦ According to the participants, the most frequently purchased products
influenced by advertising are cosmetics, toiletries, and cleaning products.
◦ In the interpretation, however, should relate to given interjections and

comments and present them in a broader context by pointing out that, for
instance:
1. These are also the most frequently advertised products
2. Since the study itself concerned the use of toiletries and

cleaning products, their mention can most of all result
from the topic of the study.
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Problems in distinguishing the description of results from their
interpretation
• A report narrowed down to the coverage of the interview and what was
said therein without any interpretation of the findings is, without
question, a bad report.
The data should be sorted, coded, and commented on

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III. Interpretation and conclusion
• The next and last steps of the analysis process are to discuss and
interpret the results, draw conclusions, and formulate
recommendations if necessary.
• The part of the report referred to as the discussion of results should

entail information on novel and unexpected items that appeared in the
study and the differences observed across groups.
• The most difficult part of this analysis is the articulation of

recommendations, which should go beyond the description and
interpretation of results.
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5. Key resources
Lexin has its own unique insight in book selection. The bookstore collects
many out-of-print books, signed poetry collections or set books. As far as
independent bookstores are concerned, they combine the advantages of
bookstores and second-hand bookstores to provide readers with more
valude added product.
”My opposite is to dig out very old books, out of print or out of stock, or books five
to ten years ago. Because those books are new to people nowadays, the guests may
have never read them. For example, the first book of a well-known author, the very
early book, I will dig it myself because I think the first one is a new book, and I don’t
know. These books, you can find the imprint of that era, what is the content, what is
the binding design, and the inner page design, it is very interesting to see what was
popular at that time, and we should let the guests know that there were these books
and these things happened at that time ” (Owner of Lexin Bookstore)
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IV. Recommendation
• Researchers may not always be equipped enough to give valid and well-
founded recommendations
◦ Not familiar enough with the marketing foundations of the study
◦ Not be abreast of the entire business and marketing context and
the strategic corporate goals
• Think twice before proffering any categorical recommendations the likes
of "best business direction to take based on the study results", “bring
product A to the market”, “go into positioning product B in a set
direction”, or “bring products with flavors A and B to the market”
(but may be able to single out the ones with the largest and smallest
potential )
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IV. Recommendation
• Throughout the entire course of the analysis, self-criticism

towards the conclusions drawn by the researcher and a
constant search for alternative explanations for the
observed events are also important.
• Ideally, the same research materials should be analysed by

two independent but equally proficient and experienced
researchers and then verified based on the conclusions
drawn.
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Characteristics of qualitative data analysis
• Qualitative data analysis should be: systematic

• Centered on the goals of the study
• Containing both a description of the data and their interpretation
• Internally valid – based on the same data set the same conclusions
should be reached by independent researchers
• Externally valid – the conclusions reached by the researcher must
reflect reality and cannot portray a false picture of it
• Reliable – should take into account all the data and not be vitiated by
the slightest error
Checking whether these issues have been addressed
in the report
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Types of presentation of qualitative research results © Copyright Showeet.com
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Reporting
• A written final report of the research is not required (Occasionally –

although this happens seldom).
• In such a case, the analysis and conclusions are limited to an oral

executive summary directly after the completion of the research.
◦ This may be the case when there is a client with extensive

experience in qualitative research who is also actively involved in
the research process (e.g., observing all interviews).
◦ Another situation is when firm and quick marketing decisions have

to be made just after the fieldwork (e.g., choosing one
advertisement version over another or setting the product
positioning direction).
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Principles of qualitative data analysis
• Starting qualitative analysis during the interview

◦ The analysis process involves aligning the interview with research
goals and questions, and steering the conversation towards these
objectives.
◦ Obtain enough information to gain a good and penetrating grasp of
the studied problem.
⎻ Adjusting the questions in response to the respondents' answers
provided enormous opportunities to obtain the information
sought.
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• Understanding the significance of statements
◦ The basic rule for ascertaining the validity of information obtained in

qualitative research is the repeatability of outcomes.
⎻ If an observation or association emerges once throughout the study,

we can never be sure whether this was only due to chance.
⎻ Should an association appear several or more times in subsequent

interviews, we can more likely assume that the given observation is
not a coincidence.
◦ When looking for the repeating outcomes, it’s also important to

remember that people’s expressions can have different meanings, and
people can describe the same things with different words..
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• Searching for a broader context

◦ Respondents' opinions collected in qualitative marketing research
are always confronted with the broader context of psychological
and sociological knowledge, consumer mechanisms, and the
principles of how advertising and marketing work.
◦ The subjective perspective, not the objective knowledge of the

world, is revealed in a conversation with a respondent.
⎻ If, for instance, a respondent shares that “This is a bad
commercial,” it does not mean (or at least does not have to
mean) that the tested advertisement is truly bad (objective
knowledge of the world), but that this is how the respondent
sees things (respondent’s subjective perspective).
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• Quantitative thinking trap: frequency vs. significance

◦ The repeatability of observations is a very important basis for
drawing conclusions.
◦ It would certainly be wrong if a researcher attempted to count the

frequency of occurrence of certain opinions and make inferences
on their meaningfulness solely on this basis.
◦ Some information/statements may recurrent a number of times

⎻ The situation provoked it.
⎻ Is it based on stereotypes and misconceptions, or is a dominant
cognitive schema influencing ways of thinking?
⎻ Especially in a focus group can also stem from the dominance
of one person with a fixed set of views over the entire
discussion group.
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• Review exemplars for inspiration and guidance.

◦ Reexamining classic works in your field can be a source of
inspiration. They are classics for a reason.
◦ Keep those exemplars nearby to reinvigorate and motivate you
when the drudgery of analysis sets in or doubts about what you’re
finding emerge.
◦ Those who wrote the classics experienced analysis fatigue and
doubts as well. They persevered. So will you.
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Recommended elements of the report in qualitative marketing research
• Title Page (title, author, audience, date)

• Table of Contents
• Methodology
◦ Research goals
◦ Research method
◦ Selection criteria of respondents
• Executive Summary of Findings – main results, conclusions,
and possible recommendations
• Results and their Interpretation (divided into sub-chapters
corresponding to specific issues)
• Annexes
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Data analysis process
• No matter what data analysis method being adopted, the rigorousness of the
analysis is the most important thing. During the analysis process, the following
three precautions should be taken:
1. Checking and rechecking

the accuracy of your data
2. Making your analysis as thorough and

complete as possible rather than cutting corners
3. Continually acknowledging any unwanted biases imposed

by yourown values when you are analyzing your data
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Data analysis process
• Selectively analyzing the data.

◦ For instance, have attended to some of your participants’ words and
phrases while downplaying otherso r to have colored your analysis
somehow with preconceptions you held before collecting your data
• All of these procedures are important because the lack of generally accepted
analytic procedures makes qualitative research extremely vulnerable to
accusations of selectivity and bias.
• Numerous texts suggest that most qualitative analysis, regardless of whether

any specialized type or variant of qualitative research is being emulated—
follows a general, five-phased cycle of data analysis:
Reassembling
Compiling Disassembling (and Arraying) Interpreting Concluding
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Five phases of analysis and their interactions
5. Conclude
2. 3.
Disassemble Resassemble
Data Data
4. Interpret
Data
• The two-way arrows

imply going back and
forth between two
phases many times 1. Compile

Database
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Five phases of analysis

Compiling Sort and organize field notes and other collected data into a database.
Disassembling Breaking down the compiled data into smaller fragments or pieces. The
procedure may (but does not have to) be accompanied by your assigning
new labels, or “codes,” to the fragments or pieces. The disassembling
procedure may be repeated many times as part of a trial-and-error process
of testing and refining labels.
Reassembling • Using substantive themes, based on combinations of disassembled items,
to reorganize the fragments or pieces into different groupings and
sequences than might have been in the original notes.
• Graphics, lists and other tabular forms can be used for such
reorganization of data.
Interpreting • Using the reassembled material to create a new narrative, with
accompanying tables and graphics where relevant, will become the key
analytic portion of your draft manuscript.
• May considering recompiling the database in some new way or
disassembling or reassembling the data differently, all being sequences
represented by the respective one-way and two-way arrows.
Concluding Conclusions should be drawn from the entire study. Such conclusions should
be related to the interpretation in the fourth phase and, through it, to all the
other phases of the cycle.
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Phase 1
Compiling an Orderly Set of Data

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Compiling an Orderly Set of Data (Phase 1)
• Creating a database
◦ Compiling the field notes and other notes and evidentiary
materials in an orderly fashion.
◦ Such organizing helps researchers to find and access their own
field notes and materials and helps with data analysis.
◦ Once organized and therefore compiled, the data may be
considered as your ”database”.
• Parallel to Quantitative Research?

◦ Textual (rather than numeric) data are to be ordered in some
systematic manner.
◦ In qualitative analysis, a glossary can help to define the important
terminology found in the qualitative text, assuring their consistent
use.
◦ Precisely how formal you make your compiled set of qualitative
data depends on your own preferences and style of work.
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• Rereading and relistening: getting to “know” your field notes
◦ Familiarize yourself with your own field notes and reread the
transcripts
◦ The reviewing should be highly analytic and might take a long time
(depending on the extent of the fieldwork and scope of the
research).
◦ Asking yourself such questions as:
⎻ What are the distinctive features of my data?
⎻ How might the collected data relate to my original research
questions?
⎻ Have new insights emerged?
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• Putting everything into a consistent format

◦ Attending carefully to potentially inconsistent usages of different words
and terms.
⎻ For instance, as you review your earlier notes, consider how to
rearrange them in a more orderly fashion.
⎻ You may find that you used the same terminology in two entirely
different (not contradictory) ways because they covered two different
field interviews or observations.
⎻ Such disparate, even inconsistent, usage may create analysis problems
later and should therefore be cleared up at this point.
◦ Deciding what can be relabeled and what should be left alone

◦ Building a glossary to keep track of your deliberations on whether you
decide to change some terms or retain their original usage.
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• Using Computer Software to Compile Your Records

◦ Depends on your preference and the amount of your data.
◦ You also may consider using CAQDAS software or the common
software in a limited way to assist in your compiling phase only.
◦ Recognizing the time needed to learn how to use the software,
you should proceed cautiously before adopting this more limited
application of the software.
◦ Whether you are using electronic or non-electronic formats,
expect no fast track to compiling your notes into an orderly set of
data. It’s a demanding and time-consuming procedure.
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Phase 2
Disassembling Data
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Disassembling Data (Phase 2)
• This particular phase may involve a recursive process, which

might require going both backward and forward simultaneously
or going backward by revisiting and modifying something that
was done in a previous phase and going forward by previewing
or brainstorming ideas for the next phase.
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Starting by Looking Back
The analysis stage in empirical inquiry aims to clearly connect data to the
substantive research interest from which you started.
Getting clues about where to start:
1. By reviewing your research questions (whether they surfaced before or

during your research)
2. By checking your notes for potentially new ideas that have run around
your head as you collected your data
3. By perusing new or existing research studies (by others) bearing on
your topic of interest.
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Starting by Looking Forward
Sketching your intentions for how you plan to go about the disassembling
process informally (or even mentally).
1. How might you first attend to the more relevant parts of your data to
see how disassembly works before attacking the rest of your data, and
if so, what parts will serve as the starting point?
2. How might you take an even smaller sub-part of your data and pretest a
tentative disassembling procedure?
3. Whether you need to code your data (or not), and whether to use some
computer software.
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• Making analytic memos

◦ Continually go back and forth between your initial ideas
about disassembling the data, potentially leading to
new conjectures about your initial ideas. These ideas
need to be put into an analytic memo.
• To code or not to code

◦ The various ways, including everyone’s home-grown
versions, will nevertheless boil down to whether or not
to code portions of the data—by assigning new labels
or codes to selected words, phrases, or other segments
of text in a database.
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• Coding data
◦ Conceptualization
• Conceptualization is the mental process of organizing one’s
observations and experiences into meaningful and coherent
wholes.
• “Concept” (also referred as construct) refers to end product of
conceptualization.
Conceptualisation Process
Sequeira (2014)
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Onen, D. (2016). Appropriate conceptualisation: The foundation of any solid quantitative research. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 14(1), pp28-38.
46 Sequeira (2014)
Onen, D. (2016). Appropriate conceptualisation: The foundation of any solid quantitative research. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 14(1), pp28-38.
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• Coding data
◦ Conceptualization
⎻ Coding for these data is to begin moving methodically to a
slightly higher conceptual level.
⎻ The codes represent the meanings that you infer from the
original data.
⎻ This higher conceptual level will help gain insight into
potentially important processes and sort the data for
similarities and dissimilarities.
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Level 1 codes/ Open codes (in vivo codes)
• The initial codes can be referred to as level 1 codes or open codes, it's nature
can vary.
• These codes can stick closely to the original data, even reusing the exact words
in the original data, sometimes referred to as in vivo codes.
Level 2 codes/ Category codes
• During the initial phase of coding, you may begin to comprehend how your data
is connected to more extensive conceptual matters.
• There could be some field experiences that are similar enough to consider
their codes as part of a broader category, representing a higher conceptual
level.
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Open codes/in vivo codes/ Category codes
Level 1 codes/ Open codes (in vivo codes)
• Open coding is the first step in the process of qualitative data analysis.
During this phase, researchers use in vivo coding, which involves using
the exact words or phrases of the participants as codes to capture their
experiences and perspectives.
Level 2 codes/ Category codes
• As you continue to work on the first level of coding, you might begin to
grasp how your data is correlated with more comprehensive conceptual
concerns. Some of your field experiences are alike enough to group
various coded data together on a more advanced conceptual level. This
process of coding is known as Level 2 or category codes.
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“What to code”
• Needed decisions about coding

◦ Decisions involving ”what is to be coded”: (for example)
⎻ Whether to do line-by-line coding.
⎻ Whether you will make discretionary choices about the
segments of text (words or phrases or larger chunks of text) to
be coded.
⎻ What is salient enough to be coded—for example, repetitive
segments, unusual segments, segments where participants
may have agreed or disagreed with each other, or simply just
those segments that appear “interesting”.
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“What to code”
• Needed decisions about coding

◦ More substantively, the coded segments can represent processes,
important aspects of participants’ everyday lives, or practical
concerns and conditions.
◦ The grammatical form of the coded word(s): Gerunds tend to help

portray actions and processes, whereas nouns “turn actions into
topics.”
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Example: Indonesian caregiver case
Need • Chinese learning need Healthcare Communication Indonesian food

identificati
on
Verb • Communicating with the • Need to keep records in • Having
+ elderly health caring work homesickness
Noun • Finding a better job • Communicate with the • Cooking halal food
• Knowing your rights and elderly, family members, • Purchase and store
responsibilities and medical staff about halalfood and
Gerunds • Making new friends the health condition ingredients
• Having insufficient pre- • Regularly supply
employment training or medical information
reaining that is different required by hopitals
from the real situation • Hospital lacks care
information and data
colleciton form in
Indonesia
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• Developing a schematic diagram as a heuristic device

◦ The diagram can extend all the way from the Disassembling (Phase 2) to
the Concluding (Phase 5) phases of the analytic cycle.
◦ The diagram takes the form of a conceptual tree and does not involve
any actual data or coding.
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With the thinnest branches The gradually merging branches The trunk of the tree
representing the most concrete move from more concrete to having the most abstract
concepts (to be used in the more abstract concepts, with concepts (to be used in
disassembling phase) each level of the tree pulling the concluding phase)
together a larger group of related
items at the next level below
The most concrete concepts will At the next higher level of The next set of branches
be the initial level 1 open codes abstraction will be potential level will group the categories
that you conjecture might be 2 category codes that might into yet more abstract
associated with your compiled combine two or more of the and complex themes
data. initial codes into different groups. that will bear on your
potential interpretations.
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• Developing a schematic diagram as a heuristic device

◦ The diagram is used to overcome the problem of
starting the disassembly process.
◦ It's a heuristic device and not any permanent, much
less core, part of your methods.
◦ If you did not encounter any problems in starting the
disassembling process, you don’t need a diagram in the
first place.
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• Disassembling data without coding them
• The process may be more discretionary and less routine

• The process can lead to nonsystematic and inconsistent judgments.
• When one decides not to code the data and needs to take the
precautions related to maintaining a methodic analytic procedure,.
2. Making your analysis as 3. Continually acknowledge any

1. Checking and rechecking thorough and complete as unwanted biases imposed by
the accuracy of your data possible rather than your own values when you are
cutting corners analyzing your data.
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• Disassembling data without coding them

◦ Identify segments from the original database and create a new set
of your substantive notes. In these derived notes, you will take
notes about your original.
◦ The derived notes can include direct quotes from the original data,
paraphrases of the data, and your interpretations of the data.
◦ The derived notes can then be thematically organized so that you

can combine the original data in a different order or under
different concepts and ideas than those used during the fieldwork.
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Examples of level 1 and level 2 coding

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Examples of level 1 and level 2 coding
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Phase 3
Reassembling Data
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Reassembling Data (Phase 3)
• Disassembling them—by either having coded them (the coding

option) or having created a new set of derived notes from your
database (the noncoding option)—may have distracted you from
the desired pattern-seeking quest.
• Most textbooks commonly give detailed attention to coding or

disassembling data and then little attention to what to do with
the disassembled data. (Falling into a coding trap and assumed
that careful coding would lead the data to “speak for themselves.”)
• In Yin’s point of view, all of the latter three analytic phases—

the Reassembling, Interpreting, and Concluding—are aimed at
filling this gap.
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• Looking for Patterns

◦ Turning your attention fully to the search for patterns.
⎻ The patterns may be broad or narrow, may cover different topics, and
do not need to converge.
◦ "Patterns" will be the main outcome of this third phase in the analysis
cycle.
◦ You may in fact have unearthed hints of potentially interesting patterns in

the data during the Compiling and Disassembling phases.
◦ Through formal coding, Level 1 and Level 2 codes will be elevated,

resulting in the emergence of Level 3 and Level 4 codes based on themes
and theoretical concepts.
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• Looking for Patterns

◦ Regardless of whether using coding or not using coding options, during
the reassembling process, you should constantly be querying yourself
(and the data).
◦ Typical questions might be:
How might different events or experiences in the database somehow

be related to each other?
Do the emerging patterns move you to a substantively important plane?
How do the patterns relate to the concepts and hypotheses entertained

at the outset of your study?
Do the patterns (desirably) become more complicated or expansive
when you review additional segments from your database?
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• Using arrays to help reassemble data
◦ The reassembling process will involve playing with the data. You should mix and
match them under different arrangements and themes and then alter and re-alter
the arrangements and themes until some patterns emerge that seem satisfactory
to you.
⎻ For instance, use CAQDAS software to examine different combinations of codes.
⎻ Alternatively, in the noncoding option, you can manipulate the cards into
different combinations if your new set of derived notes is on index cards and in
manual form.
◦ The manipulations might follow one or more of the following patterns:

⎻ tracking how the same individual is represented at different times and places
⎻ examining the structure of actions in terms of the people, things, or ideas
involved
⎻ comparing some patterns with those found in other studies
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Observations and advice from a qualitative software consultant
● Question: You work a lot with qualitative software. What do you tell clients and students
that qualitative software does well—and doesn’t do?
○ Answer: Software organizes and codes information, allowing for storage of data
and codes in one place. It also enables coding of multiple sources such as papers,
interviews, focus group transcripts, and field notes.
● Question: What are the most common misunderstandings about qualitative software?
○ Answer: Software does not code the data for you, it only stores the information.
Researchers are responsible for coding the text and making decisions about what
to code. Software is not a method, it is a program. ……
● Question: What are the greatest advantages of qualitative software?

○ Answer: It stores the information in one place and allows you to code in more detail.
● Question: Advice about using software? Cautions? Like with any software, it is important
to save your work often. Your wisdom about qualitative software?
○ Answer: Software doesn't code data for you. Researchers must understand
qualitative methods and methodologies to code their data.
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Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. sage.
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◦ Creating hierarchical arrays
⎻ A more abstract concept grouping some of the concrete items would
be at a higher level.
⎻ By reassembling the data so that related data fall under similar
concepts and unrelated data fall under separate concepts, the
hierarchy can point to different groupings (i.e., Potential “classes” or
“typologies” of things).
⎻ The hierarchy can also suggest associations across groupings (i.e.,

relationships across the “classes” or “typologies”).
• For the coding option, the hierarchy can be seen as an array of
codes and concepts ranging from level 1 to level 4.
• From the derived notes created during the disassembling phase,
a similar hierarchy—probably more conceptual than literal—can
be developed for the noncoding option.
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◦ Designing matrices as arrays
⎻ For reassembling the data, the goal is to place some data in each cell
1. First, the entries should be your actual data, whether represented
directly or by the codes assigned in the disassembling process.
2. Second, transferring data from your database into the cells,
especially when not using codes, may make the cells too large or
overcrowded.
3. Third, the cells should not contain your own opinions or conclusions.
The desired matrix is to be a data matrix, permitting you to examine
your data and only then to start developing interpretations.
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• Important methodological procedures during the

reassembling process
◦ Avoid problems and stimulate ideas about newer

patterns: Constant comparisons, watching for negative
cases, and rival thinking.
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1. Making constant comparisons:
You can apply the same principle throughout the reassembling
process, regardless of whether your qualitative research is following
a grounded theory approach or whether you have coded your data:
◦ When making reassembling decisions about an emerging pattern
or theme, continually compare the decisions with other patterns
and themes.
◦ Questioning why you might have regarded the items as being
similar or dissimilar in the reassembling of your data.
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2. Watching for negative instances:
For example, uncovering item that on the surface might
have seemed similar but on closerexamination appear to
be misfits.
3. Engaging constantly in rival thinking—as in searching

for plausible rival explanations for your initial
observations.
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• Using computer software to assist in reassembling data
◦ Software can present the resulting hierarchy graphically.
◦ The software also may not be able to support the development of more creative or
idiosyncratic arrays, may consider a combination of computer-based and manual
operations.
◦ Resisting using softwareto count the frequency of occurrence of words as the main
reassembling strategy, except for possibly three situations:
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3/20/24

Data analysis and

Qualitative research stages

(a) Defining the

(e) Analysis and (b) Designing the research

(d) Conducting the (c) Setting up the

Phase of the research process Person responsible for execution

Maison, D. (2018). Qualitative marketing research: Understanding consumer behaviour. Routledge. 3

Phase of the research process Person responsible for execution

• Analysis and interpretation of results • Moderator/interviewer or qualitative

• Drawing up of the report, presentation • Moderator/interviewer or qualitative

Maison, D. (2018). Qualitative marketing research: Understanding consumer behaviour. Routledge. 4

Four types of data collection methods

Why qualitative data analysis is difficult

• This is largely down to the constant hurry accompanying

• Additionally, the analysis tends to be limited to the

Why qualitative data analysis is difficult

• When analyzing numbers, regardless of who is doing the

Why qualitative data analysis is difficult

• Qualitative analysis is very demanding and no clear rules

• In marketing research, predicting analyses to specific

Stages in the data analysis of qualitative marketing research

• Four main stages in the analysis of qualitative research

1. Raw data (transcripts)

2. Facts - description of the data (what happened)

3. Interpretation and conclusions (what does it mean and wha3.

4. Recommendations (what to do next)

I. Correct preparation of data

• In qualitative this usually requires verbatim transcription of the course of the

• Transcription or accurate notes from the interview allow us to compare

I. Correct preparation of data

The material should be categorized according to the

I. Correct preparation of data

• Content categorization can be done in a number of different ways,

I. Correct preparation of data

• Content categorization can be done in a number of different

I. Correct preparation of data

• The researcher, by facilitating the interviews, will find it easier to

◦ For instance, notice that the users of brand A speak differently of

• The interrelation between specific parts of the interview can also be

II. Fact-Desceription of data

Problems in distinguishing the description of results from their interpretation

II. Fact-Desceription of data

• Theoretically, the interpretation is an additional explanation,

• The interpretation should be centered on explaining the reasons for the

When presenting the results, we are limited to the facts only

II. Fact-Desceription of data

Problems in distinguishing the description of results from their interpretation

◦ In the interpretation, however, should relate to given interjections and

1. These are also the most frequently advertised products

2. Since the study itself concerned the use of toiletries and

II. Fact-Desceription of data

The data should be sorted, coded, and commented on

III. Interpretation and conclusion

• The part of the report referred to as the discussion of results should

• The most difficult part of this analysis is the articulation of

• Throughout the entire course of the analysis, self-criticism