POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Overview
Power supply system is a collection of equipment and cables capable of producing electrical
energy and transferring it to the places where it can be used. Power system is made up of the
following three main operations:
Generation: the production of electricity
Transmission: the transfer of electrical energy over sizeable distances
Distribution: the connection of individual’s consumers and the sale electricity

Generation of Electricity
Alternating current is produced commercially by an a-c generator, generally called an alternator.
The prime mover may be any type of engine or turbine. Usually, electricity is generated in power
stations far away from the consumers. In the generating equipment, mechanical energy is
required to turn the magnet. Technically the magnets in the generator are turned by turbines. The
prime mover (turbine) is connected to and used to drive an electric power generator. As the
prime mover is turned on (turbine), the generator starts and electric power is generated. Energy
for turning the turbines can be derived from the following:
Hydropower – the energy needed to turn the turbine is derived from waterfall
Thermal power - water heated to steam is used to turn the turbine; this done by using gas.
The energy of steam from coal-fired boiler, or the energy in the diesel fuel, and so on, is fed into
the system and converted into electric energy. Figure 1 shows arrangement of a typical thermal
power station.

Fig. 1: A Generic Power Station

In this country, electricity is generated through the following hydropower:
(i) Kanji dam- the installed capacity is 760MW
(ii) Jebba dam – The installed capacity is 578MW
(iii) Shiroro dam – The installed capacity is 600MW
The thermal power stations include
(i) Egbin near Lagos- Installed capacity is 1320MW

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(ii) Sapele-installed capacity 1020MW
(iii) Afam (River State)-installed capacity 912MW
(iv) Delta-Aladja - installed capacity 912mw
(v) Ijora (rely on coal)-65MW
(vi) ENRON by Lagos State Government-installation in stages
There are also several Independent Power Stations of various installed capacity spread across the
country.

Principle of Electric Power generation (Generator theory)

The principle of electromagnetic induction is used in electrical generators to generate electricity.
The entire process is based on the one simple fact that if a conductor is passed broadside through
a magnetic field a voltage will be generated in the conductor, and if it is part of complete circuit
a current will flow while the conductor is passing through the field. The direction of movement
determines the polarity of the induced voltage as shown. If the conductor is formed into a coil
and rotated in the magnetic field, a voltage of alternating polarity is produced, that is, an
alternating current. It does not matter whether the conductor or the magnet moves; the motion of
the conductor and the field with respect to each other produces the voltage. The frequency of the
voltage generated is a function of the machine design and the speed at which it is driven.
The power generated can either be a single-phase supply or three-phase supply depending on
whether a single-phase or three-phase generator is installed. The process by which electricity is
produced in any power stations is illustrated in Figures 2-5.
Single-phase generation and supply (simple ac generator construction)
Figure 2 shows the construction of a simple ac generator used to generate electricity in any
power stations while Figure 4 depicts inexact section through the generator. Figure 2 shows N
pole and S poles of an electromagnet and wiring loop of the generator, which its magnetic field
flows from N to S, are connected together with wiring to form a loop. The loop which has its
connection extended upward to the right hand, is soldered to two brass rings called the slip
rings. These slip rings are solid continuous circles of brass, which is a good conductor of
electricity. The wire from conductor A extends to the right, makes an electrical connection to
the first brass slip ring, while the wire from conductor D passes through the first insulator wheel
and goes on to make electrical contact with the second slip ring. These brasses are secured to
round wheel-shaped pieces of insulating material which are mounted on a shaft which provides
an axis of rotation. The loop of wire containing the two conductors is also supported by the shaft
so that entire assembly can rotate with the two conductors moving in the magnetic field. Finally,
the carbon brushes are wired to a unit of electrical load-in this case, an electric light bulb. The
generator also includes two carbon brushes which are stationary and are held in close, intimate
contact with the slip rings. The carbon brushes are just little blocks of solid carbon shaped to the
contour of the slip rings.
As the shaft is turned, then, the loop and the two slip rings turn with it. As the shaft turns, the
loop turns with it, as do the two insulator wheels and the brass rings secured to the wheels. As
the loop of wire turns, conductors A and D will move in the magnetic field, and cuts its lines of
force. Then, voltage will be generated in both A and D, and since they are part of a complete
electrical circuit, current will flow in the direction shown by the arrows. This current will flow
through the slip rings and the carbon brushes to the light bulb which will be lighted. As the
conductor A moves to the right through the magnetic field and passes the north pole, its

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current will flow from left to right. At the same time, conductor D is moving to the left and
its current is moving from right to left. The two current supplement each other in causing
current flow throughout the entire circuit.
In Figure 3, which shows an inexact section through the generator, an aluminium rotor has been
added which is mounted on the generator shaft between the N and S poles, and on which the
winding is wound. Sides A and D of the winding are laid in milled slots in the rotor as the
winding is wound. One end of the winding connecting the two sides may be seen in the figure.
The vertical lines representing the lines of force of the magnetic field would run from the N pole
to the S pole through the rotors, but these have been omitted for clarity.
In the position shown in Figure 3, the sides A and D are moving parallel to the lines of force so
that no lines of force are being cut and no voltage is being generated. As the rotor and winding
continues to turn clockwise, side A will reach the top centre position with side D at the bottom.
In Figure 4, side A has current moving from left to right as it passes the North Pole. Later, when
side A passes the South Pole, current will move in it from right to left; this represents a change in
current flow direction. Instead of current flowing from side A to the first slip ring, current will be
flowing from the first sip ring to side A.
With side D at the top, passing the North Pole, current will flow to the right in side D and to the
second slip ring. Also, current will then flow from the second slip ring to the load instead of from
the load. This represents a change in the direction of current flow, and we now have alternating
current. Every time the rotor and its winding make one complete 360 o revolution, the current will
pass through one complete cycle with the current flowing first in one direction, then reversing
itself, and then returning to the first direction.
Suppose, again, that in Figure 3, side A of the winding is at the left and side D is at the right as
shown. Also, suppose that when A passes through the north pole and D passes the south pole, we
arbitrarily decide to call that positive electricity. Then, of course, when D passes the North Pole
and A passes the South Pole, the electricity that is being generated will be called negative.
When the winding of Figure 3 is at 45o angle, and not horizontal or vertical, the wires of the
winding will be cutting lines of force because those wires will have a horizontal component to
their motion. However, at the 45 o position, the wires are not moving horizontally as fast as they
will be when the winding reaches the vertical position. This means that at the 45 o position, the
winding is not cutting lines of force as fast as when at the vertical position, and as a result, not
much voltage is being generated.
The simple generator shown in Figures 2 and 3 produces a single-phase supply, and if it driven at
3600 rpm, it will deliver single-phase 50 HZ ac power (50-cycle power).

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 Fig. 2: Simple Single phase AC Generator

Fig. 3: Section through a Single-phase Generator

Three phase generation and supply
Practical supplies of electricity are usually generated and distributed as a three-phase supply,
which is, in effect, three separate single-phase supplies each equally out of step, as shown in
Figure 4. The figure shows the same generator with three windings on the rotor instead of one.
In addition to winding AD, there are added windings BE and CF. All the windings are identical
and are equally spaced around the rotor at 120 degrees. With three windings there are six leads
that must be properly connected and the way in which they are connected will determine the
polarity of each winding. The generator is essentially composed of three induction coils instead
of one, each coil being displaced from one another by 120 degrees. The three-phase can be
interconnected in different for different purposes as shown in Figure 4.
Following the same line of thought, when the side A of winding AD, the B side of winding BE,
and the C side of winding CF pass the North Pole, the voltage generated is positive. Of course,
then, when the A, B and C sides pass the south pole their voltage is negative, resulting in a
direction of current flow opposite to that of the positive voltage. With the one winding of the
single-phase generator, there are two leads or ends of the winding that are extended out and
connected to the slip rings.

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The A, B and C sides of the three windings are exactly 120 o apart around the rotor; therefore, the
three resulting pulses of voltage will be equally spaced along the time scale. Since the windings
do not pass the N and S pole pieces of the stator at the same time instant, their voltage pulses
cannot be coincident; they must be separated. They are separated equally along the time scale by
the time of 120o of rotation of the rotor. The rotor is turning 3600 rpm and one revolution then
requires 1/60 second. To turn 120o of rotation requires, then, 1/180 sec, so the voltage pulses of a
60HZ three-phase ac generator are 1/180 sec apart. Figure 5 shows the circuit diagram of three-
phase, four-wire AC supply.

Fig. 4: Section through a three-phase generator

Fig. 5: Circuit diagram of three-phase, four-wire AC supply

Cross-country Power Transmission and Distribution
Transmission is the next stage after electricity has been generated. Since power stations are cited
at convenient positions far away from towns and cities, national grid enables voltage to be
transmitted throughout the country with considerable economic advantages. Most power stations
generate power between an average of 16kV and 25kV. However, the voltage delivered by these
huge generators is much higher than what we could handle in a building, but it is not high

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enough for cross-country transmission. Thus, there is a need to step-up this voltage. So as the
power leaves the generating plant, its voltage is increased by a transformer to an extremely high
value-usually somewhere between 275 kV and 750 kV. However, these extremely high voltages
are not safe for low-level distribution over metropolitan areas. So, the voltage must be
transformed downward to safer levels. Therefore, the voltage of the power is stepped-down to
132/66/33kV kV as the case may be. Power to the larger towns may be taken by cable or
overhead line at 33 kV where it is transformed to 11kV for supply by underground cable to
substations. The power is converted yet again, to 415V and 240V where the supply to houses and
other small buildings is taken from.

Figure 6 shows a generic power station and transmission line while Figure 7 depicts a typical
power station and transmission line in case of Nigeria. The final distribution network usually
consists of four conductors. The conductor is earthed at the substation. Figure 8-9 show the four
conductors, the pattern of voltage variation between the three phases and neutral and variation of
voltage difference between two phases.

Note:
Power is transmitted in high voltages for the following reasons:
The size of conductor is governed by the current and not the voltage in the conductor. What is
being transmitted is power, the product of voltage and current. So when the voltage is high, the
current is low that is an increase in voltage causes a reduction in current to deliver a certain
power. Subsequently resulting in reduction of conductor size thus reducing cost of energy
transmission
It also allows for reduction in the value of voltage drop that arises from heat loss along the
conductors.
As such power can therefore be transmitted over long distance by high voltage, low current
systems and transformed locally to give safe, low voltage supplies for use in buildings.

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 Figure 6: Power Supply Situation in Nigeria
Distribution network
Feeding of consumers starts from either 33kV or 11kV substations. For distribution of electricity,
there are a number of 33kV/11kV substations, built over the cities from where supply is made to
consumer at low tension i.e., 415/400V or at H.T. voltage of 11kV/33kV at different tariffs.
(Figure 8). Some industrial consumers purchase electricity at 33kV and either use it at this
voltage or make their own arrangements for further modifications. Supplies to factories and other
larger buildings are also taken from the 33kV main supply. These larger buildings require their
own transformer. Some light industrial consumers purchase electricity 11kV and make their own
arrangements for further modifications. The 11kV supply is further reduced to 415V/240V, and
it is this network which supplies power to the great majority of buildings. Figure 9 depicts supply
from a transformer sub-station in a locality while Figure shows a typical connection from a local
transformer to load centres.

Figure 7: Power Supply and Distribution from Town or Village Substations

What is a Substation?
An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation, transmission and
distribution system where voltage is transformed from high to low levels using transformers
(Figure 8). Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and
consumer, and may be changed in voltage in several steps. Figure 9 shows the one line diagram
of a substation.

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 Figure 8: Construction and layout of sub-station

Figure 9: One line diagram of a typical distribution system

Major equipments of the substation

Feeders
The electrical distribution system begins with a source of electrical energy that must be
distributed to each and every electrical load. The starting point of this system, which feeds
electrical energy into it, is known as a Feeder. The electricity delivered by a feeder is actually
distributed to different loads in the system.

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Distributors
A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken to the consumers. The current through
a distributor is not constant due to the tapings taken off at various places along its length. While
designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration as the voltage
variation limits are about 6% of the rated voltage at the consumer terminals.
Switch Gears
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the
combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to
clear faults downstream Panels are the compartments used for switchgear arrangement.
Switching Devices
A device designed to close, open, or both, one or more electric circuits. These include (i) HRC
fuses (ii) Magnetic contactor (iii) Circuit Breaker (Molded Case Circuit Breaker) (iv) Load
Break Switch

Figure 10: Switching devices

Private Sub -station

A private sub-station is required for the conversion, transformation and control of electrical
power. It is used where large buildings or complexes of buildings require greater power than the
standard low or medium potential of 230 and 400 volts. A sub-station must be constructed on the
customer's premises. It is supplied by high voltage cables from the electricity authority's nearest
switching station. The requirements for a sub-station depend upon the number and size of
transformers and switchgear.
Transformers
A transformer is a voltage changing device. It can transform voltage from higher level to lower
and vice versa. A transformer is basically two electric windings, magnetically inter-linked by an
iron core. An alternating electromotive force applied to one of the windings produces an
electromagnetic induction corresponding to an electromotive force in the other winding.
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 Figure 11: Principle of a transformer

If losses are ignored, the following relationship of a transformer apply:

V1/V2 =N1/N2 = I2/I1
where V1 =primary voltage
V2 = secondary voltage
N1 = number of primary turns
N2 = number of secondary turns
I1 = primary current
I2 = secondary current
Types
Current Transformers
Ammeters are employed for measurement of current in circuits. In high voltage transmission
lines, it is more feasible to use Current Transformers for measurement of current owing to its
higher range of measurement. High values of currents flowing in the transmission lines serve as
the primary circuit of a current transformer. The high current is stepped down to a much lower
value (normally not more than 5A) which is then measured by an ordinary ammeter. This way,
an ammeter is not exposed to high currents and voltages.

Potential Transformers
For measurement of high voltages, potential transformers are commonly used. Difference
between the potential transformers and current transformers is that Current Transformers are
connected in series whereas Potential Transformers are connected in parallel.
Among the available range of PTs and CTs, the selection is based on the following factors:
(i) Insulation Class
(ii) Primary to Secondary ratio
(iii) Continuous thermal rating
(iv) Service conditions
(v) Accuracy

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 Figure 12: Potential transformer
Distribution Transformer
Distribution transformer is used to convert electrical energy of higher voltage (usually 11-22-
33kV) to a lower voltage (230/240 or 400/415) with frequency identical before and after the
transformation. Its main application is mainly within suburban areas, public supply authorities
and industrial customers. With given secondary voltage, distribution transformer is usually the
last in the chain of electrical energy supply to households and industrial enterprises.

Figure 13: Power transformer

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Construction
There are 3 main parts in the distribution transformer:
Coils/winding where incoming alternating current (through primary winding) generates magnetic
flux, which in turn induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
Magnetic core material allowing transfer of magnetic field generated by primary winding to
secondary winding by the principle of electromagnetic induction.
A transformers core and windings are called its Active Parts. This is because these two are
responsible for transformers operation.
Tank serving as a mechanical package to protect active parts, as a holding vessel for transformer
oil used for cooling and insulation.
Transformer Accessories
(i) Breather (ii) Pressure relief device (iii) Temperature Indicator (iv) Tap Changer etc
Clip On Ammeter
Current is measured only when an ammeter is connected in a circuit in series. What if the current
in any wire connected to a load is required to be measured. Using an ammeter, we shall first need
to disconnect the load from the source, insert an ammeter and then measure the current. Instead
of doing all this, a clip on ammeter allows current measurement without disconnecting the line. It
operates on the concept of transformation, as in transformers where flux linkages produce
voltages.

Figure 14: Clip on Ammeter

Megger
Megger is a name given to an instrument used to measure large values of resistance. Measuring
resistance of machines and devices is very helpful in determining faults like short circuits etc.
Once a machine faces a fault, its internal resistance gets changed. Machine resistance is regularly
monitored in order to detect any internal faults occurring in the machines and other devices.

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 Figure 15: Megger

EXERCISE:
Give the purposes of the following parts of a Distribution Transformer:
1. Bushings
2. Conservator or expansion tank
3. Breather
4. Pressure relief device
5. Tap Changer (OFF Load)

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 BUILDING ELECTRICAL SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION

Electricity Intake to a Building

The following are the different systems by which electric power is supply to buildings:
Single phase 240V 50/60HZ, 2 wire supply system
A single-phase supply system is employed when electricity load is small and the total current
drawn is less than 30 amps. In a single-phase supply system (usually employed for
domestic/residential buildings), the electricity supply is usually provided by connection of one
phase wire and the neutral (Figs. 1 and 2). A system of fuse of 30 or 100 amperes capacity is
installed between the supply inlet and the electric meter board by the supply agency to isolate the
main supply from the building. From the fuses, the wires are led to the meter and from there, to
the consumer control unit or distribution fuseboard consisting of the earth leakage current circuit
breaker, main isolation switch and distribution points, from where the electricity is distributed to
the various parts of the building. The meter and the main supply are located at a convenient point
where it can be read by the agency.

Fig. 1: Typical domestic intake arrangement

Fig.2: (a) Details of single phase 240V 50/60HZ, 2 wire supply system

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Three phase 240V 50/60HZ, 4 wire supply system
When the sustain power demand of a building is in excess of 12 kW (that is the use of many
equipment such as air conditioners, cooking ranges etc), it becomes necessary for the incoming
supply to be of three-phase four wire supply (TP&N) in order to reduce the current that could
have been on a phase supply. Hence the cable size would be large. A three-phase supply system
comprises all the three phase wires and the neutral. In this way, we distribute the load drawn
amongst the three phases (Fig. 3).
As a precaution, when we distribute current from a three-phase supply, we should always avoid
proximity of cables of two phases as there is a danger of high voltage leaking into the system.

Fig. 3: Three-phase 400/415V 50/60HZ, 4 wire supply system

Figure 4 shows a connection of the three phase watt hour meter with the service main that
distribute the three-phase incoming service main & neural wire to different distribution boards &
electrical points (for appliances) in different rooms of a house.

Fig. 4: A connection of the three phase watt hour meter with the service main that distribute the
three-phase incoming service main & neural wire

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(a) In Room 1, 2, 3 &4
(i) 1 Tube Light is there on any one of the walls (ii) 1 Ceiling fan is there (iii) 1 DB is there (with
three switches & one socket).
(b) In each washroom,
(i) Only one light is there, controlled from outside the washroom.
(1) Red Phase is feeding Room 1 & Room 2 (2) Yellow Phase is feeding Room 3 (3) Blue Phase
is feeding Room 4.
Supply to Large Buildings
The supplies to large buildings comprise all the three phase wires and the neutral. This is
described as a three-phase supply service since it involves all the three phases. The building is
then divided into zones each of which is provided with a two-wire, single-phase supply service.
Some large apparatus, particularly electric motors, requires a complete three-phase supply
connected directly to the apparatus (Figs. 5-6).

Fig.5: Supply to Large Buildings

Fig.6: Details of supply to large buildings

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Supply and distribution to a larger or a group of small buildings can either be by radial or ring
distribution.
Radial distribution
In the radial system separate cables are laid from the substation or intake room to each building.
The system uses more cable than the ring system, but only one fused switch is required below the
distribution boards in each building (Fig. 7).

Fig 7: Radial distribution (Block plan)

Ring distribution
In a ring distribution system, a cable is laid from the substation and looping-in to each building.
In order to isolate the supply, two fused switches are required below the distribution boards in
each building. Current flows in both directions from the intake room and this provides supply
than the radial system. If the cable on the ring is damaged at any point the cable may be isolated
for repair without the loss of supply to any one of the building (Fig.8).

Figure 8: Ring distribution system

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Rising Main Electricity Distribution
The rising main supply system is used in high rise offices and flats. Copper busbars run
vertically inside trunking and are given support by insulated bars across the trunking chamber.
The supply to each floor is connected to the rising main by means of tap-off units. To balance
electrical distribution across the phases, connections at each floor should be spread between the
phase bars. If a six-storey building has the same loading on each floor, two floors would be
supplied from separate phases. Flats and apartments will require a meter at each tap-off unit.

To prevent the spread of fire and smoke, fire barriers are incorporated with the busbar chamber
at each compartment floor level. The chamber must also be fire stopped to the full depth of the
floor.

(a) Details of rising main (b) plan of busbar system (c) Method of fire protection
Fig. 9: Rising main

Construction Site Electricity

A temporary supply of electricity for construction work may be obtained from portable
generators. This may be adequate for small sites but most developments will require a mains
supply, possibly up to 400 volts in three phases for operating hoists and cranes. Application must
be made in good time to the local electricity authority to ascertain the type of supply and the total
load. The incoming metered supply provided by the electricity company will be housed in a
temporary structure constructed to the authority's approval. Thereafter, site distribution and
installation of reduced voltage transformers is undertaken by the developer's electrical contractor
subject to the supply company's inspection and testing.

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 Figure 10: Reduced voltage distribution

Figure 11: Goal posts (or barrier) give protection against contact with overhead power
line

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 Figure 12: Detail construction site electricity
Electrical Installation in a Factory
For a factory of modest size where the electrical load is not too high, a three-phase, four-wire,
400 volts supply will be sufficient. The distribution to three-phase motors is through exposed
copper busbars in steel trunking running around the periphery of the building. Supply to
individual motors is through steel conduit via push button switchgear. In addition to providing
protection and support, the trunking and conduit can be used as earth continuity.
Switches must be within easy reach of machinery operators and contain a device to prevent
restarting of the motor after a power failure stoppage.
Overhead busbars provide an easily accessible means of connecting supplies to machinery by
bolting the cable to the busbars.
Lighting and other single-phase circuits are supplied through separate distribution fuse boards.

Figure 13: Wiring system for a factory

Figure 14: Detail of overhead busbar

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Electrical Power Supply and Distribution in Buildings
Generally, building electrical supply and distribution systems consist of five basic components.
Fig. 1 pictures the five basic components of a building electrical supply and distribution.

Fig. 1: The five basic components of a building electrical system.

Service connection
The line bringing electric power from supplier`s low voltage distribution up to the energy meter
installed at the consumer`s premises is called service connection. It begins from where the
supplier`s distribution system brings power to a place just outside the consumer`s premises. The
electric power may be brought to the building either by underground cables (Figs. 2-4) or
through overhead lines or insulated cables (Figs. 4-5). If it is brought by underground cables,
depth of cover should be at least 750 mm below roads and 450 mm below open ground. If it is
brought by overhead cables, it is to be first run down the walls of the building by properly
insulated cable and then turned up at the entry point of the building to prevent rainwater running
along the cable into the electric board. Whatever method is used, it is essential that a safety
electrical earthing facility is provided. Meters are preferably sited in a purpose-made reinforced
plastic compartment set in or on the external wall of a building.

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 Figure 2: Underground service entry

Fig. 3: Underground service connection

Fig. 4: The detail connection of underground service cable

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 Figure 5: Overhead service connection

Figure 6: The detail connection of overhead service cable

Having brought the service line into the consumer`s premises, a system of fuse (main switch) of
30 Amp or 100 Amp capacity is installed between the supply inlet and the meter board to isolate
the main supply from the building. From the fuses, the service lines are connected to the input
terminal of the energy meter and from there to the consumer control unit (Fig.7), where the
electricity is distributed to the various load points. The cut-out contains a fuse wire so that if the
consumer draws heavier current than the rating of the meter, the fuse will blow off thus saving
the meter from damage. The cut-out also serves the purpose of enabling the supply authority to
discontinue supply should consumer fail to pay his bill. The energy meter should be installed at
such place which is readily accessible to the consumer as well as to the supply authority.

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Feeder system
Feeder system also known as load wire, is a system of heavy-duty conduit and wiring that carries
power from the service entrance equipment particularly energy meter to the various lighting and
power panelboards that are strategically located throughout a building. Feeders connect to the
several circuit breakers in the distribution board (Fig.7). In most cases, a minimum of 10mm 2
copper conductor is recommended for load wire.

Figure 7: A typical consumer control unit with a switch meter and Feeder System

Lighting and power panelboards (Consumer Control Unit or Distribution Board)

Historically, electrical installations required a separate fuse and isolator for each circuit. Modern
practice is to rationalise this into one `fuse box', known as a consumer's power supply control
unit or consumer unit for short. Lighting and power panelboards are metal enclosures which
house the circuit breakers, fuses, and fused switches to which all branch circuits connects and
which give electrical protection to those branch circuits. This unit contains a two-pole switch
isolator for the phase/live and neutral supply cables and three bars for the live, neutral and earth
terminals. The live bar is provided with several fuse ways or miniature circuit breakers (up to 16
in number for domestic use) to protect individual circuits from overload. Each fuse or mcb is
selected with a rating in accordance with its circuit function. Traditional fuses are rated at 5, 15,
20, 30 and 45 amps whilst the more modern mcbs are rated in accordance with BS EN 60898:
Circuit breakers for over current protection for household and similar installations. Figs. 8 and 9
show typical Consumer Control/Distribution Fuse Board.

Figure 8: A typical eight -way consumer control

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 Figure 9: Typical content of consumer unit
Branch circuits
Branch circuits are those portions of the electrical distribution system that extend beyond the last
circuit protective devices (circuit breakers and fuses) (Fig. 10)

Figure 10: A typical branch circuit

Electrical loads
Electrical load consists of a wide range of electrically operated equipment, including lighting
fixtures, electric motors, heaters, air conditioners, signal systems of many types. All electrical
equipment, wiring and fittings are always represented by symbols on electrical drawings. Fig. 11
shows the symbols of some common electrical loads found in buildings.

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 Figure 11: A typical electrical design plan showing electrical fitting symbols

Block diagram
Figure 12 shows the block diagram of the entire connection from the service connection to sub
circuits

Figure 12: Block diagram of the meter-distribution board

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Electric Power Distribution within Buildings
For distribution of electric power from the consumer control unit (CCU) or Distribution
Fuseboard (DFB) to other points in a building, the supply is divided into the following three
separate types of circuits:

Lighting circuit
Lighting sub-circuit only supply current to lighting installations or fittings. A lighting circuit has
5A fuses and can supply up to ten-100 watts bulbs. The wiring runs from the consumer unit
through the floor or roof space to small distribution boxes to the ceiling light point positions. The
5A fuse in the consumer unit protects the mains from overload (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Lighting circuit

Switching arrangement
Lighting circuits can incorporate various switching arrangements. The lighting circuit could be
wired in one-way single pole switch controlling one lamp (Fig. 2). In a one-way switch circuit
the single-pole switch must be connected to the live conductor. To ensure that both live and
neutral conductors are isolated from the supply a double-pole switch may be used, although these
are generally limited to installations in larger buildings where the number and type of light
fittings demand a relatively high current flow.

Fig.2: One-way single pole switch circuit controlling one lamp

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Provided the voltage drop (4% max.) is not exceeded, two or more lamps may be controlled by a
one-way single-pole switch (Fig.3).

Fig. 3: One-way single pole switch controlling two or more lamps

It could be two way switching (Fig.4). In principle, the two-way switch is a single-pole
changeover switch interconnected in pairs. Two switches provide control of one or more lamps
from two positions, such as that found in stair/landing, bedroom and corridor situations.

Fig. 4: Two way switching

It could be wired as two way switching with one intermediate switch (Fig.5). In large buildings,
every access point should have its own lighting control switch. Any number of these may be
incorporated into a two-way switch circuit. These additional controls are known as intermediate
switches.

28
 Fig. 5: Two way switching with one intermediate switch
Wiring techniques for lighting sub-circuit
Wiring for lighting is usually undertaken using the `looping-in' system, although it is possible to
use junction boxes instead of ceiling roses for connections to switches and light fittings. It could
be combination of looping-in system and junction boxes system. Fig. 6 show a typical loop-in
system.

Figure 6: Looping-in wiring system

Note: A sub-circuit for lighting is generally limited to a total load of 10 - 100 watt light fittings
and requires a 5 amp fuse or 6 amp mcb overload protection at the consumer unit.
The importance of not exceeding these ratings can be seen from the simple relationship between
current (amps), power (watts) and potential (voltage), i.e. Amps = Watts divide by Volts. To
avoid overloading the fuse or mcb, the limit of 10 lamps @ 100 watts becomes:
Amps = (10 x 100) divided 230 = 4.3 i.e. < 5 amps fuse protection. In large buildings higher
rated overload protection is often used due to the greater load.

29
(b) Power circuit
Two methods are common adopted for this purpose. They are as describe below.
(i) Radial circuit
Radial circuits are arranged in such a way that each socket outlet is supplied via the previous one
as shown below. The system uses more cable than the ring system but only one fused switch is
required below the distribution board (Figs. 7 and 8).

Fig. 7: Radial circuit

Fig 8: Details of radial circuit to power sockets

A radial circuit may be used as an alternative to a ring circuit to supply any number of power
sockets, provided the following limitations are effected:

Cable crossection Minimum overload protection (amps) Remarks

area
2.5 20 Max. 20m2 floor area, 17 m cable
4.0 30 Max. 50m2 floor area, 21 m cable

30
With 2.5 mm2 cable length limitation of 17 m over 20 m 2 floor area for a radial supply to sockets,
a ring main with a maximum cable length of 54 m over 100 m 2 will usually prove to be more
effective. Therefore, radial circuits are more suited to the following:
Application Cable cross section Minimum overload protection (amps) Remarks
area (mm2)
Lighting 1.5 5 Max. 10 light
fittings
Immersion heater 2.5 15 Butyl rubber flex
from 2-pole
control switch
Cooker 6 30 Cable and fuse
10 45 ratings to suit
cooker rating
Shower storage 4, 6 or 10 30 to 45 See page 286
Radiator 2.5 20 See page 410
Outside extension 2.2 20 Nominal light and
power
4 30 Max. five sockets
and 3-amp light
circuit

Radial Extension to an Outbuilding

An electricity supply to an outside building may be overhead at a height not less than 3.5 m. It
may be supported in a conduit or from a catenary suspension wire. An underground supply is
less obtrusive and should be at least 500 mm below the surface. The cable should be armoured
PVC sheathed or copper sheathed mineral insulated (MICC). Standard PVC insulated cable may
be used, provided it is enclosed in a protective conduit. Fused isolators are required in the supply
building and the outside building, and a residual current device (RCD) `trip switch' should also
be installed after the fused switch control from the consumer unit. Two-point-five cable size (2.5
mm2) cross sectional areas cable is adequate for limited installations containing no more than a
power socket and lighting. In excess of this, a 4 mm 2 cross sectional area cable is preferred
particularly if the outbuilding is some distance to overcome the voltage drop.

Figure 9: Schematic diagram of electricity supply to an outbuilding

31
(ii) Ring Circuit
A ring circuit is used for single-phase power supply to three-pin sockets. It consists of PVC
sheathed cable containing live and neutral conductors in PVC insulation and an exposed earth
looped into each socket outlet. In a domestic building a ring circuit may serve an unlimited
number of sockets up to a maximum floor area of 100 m 2. A separate circuit is also provided
solely for the kitchen, as this contains relatively high rated appliances. Plug connections to the
ring have small cartridge fuses up to 13 amp rating to suit the appliance wired to the plug. A
saving in cable length or run can sometimes be made using branching cable known as SPURS
instead of running the ring to remote socket outlet. However, not more than two outlets are taken
for a single spur (Fig. 10).
Note:
(i) A ring main, should have at least six outlets connects the wiring for wall sockets around the
building.
(ii) A building may have more than one ring main depending on the floor area
(iii) We need to be cautions in the use of spur (i) there must not be more than two socket outlets
per spur (ii) not more than 50% of the socket outlets must be served by spur.
(iv) Fixed appliances such as fires, heating controls and low powered water heaters can be
connected to a fused spur from a ring socket.

Fig. 10: A ring main system with socket outlets

32
 Figure 11: Detail of ring main system with socket outlets

Power Sockets
Power sockets should be positioned between 150 mm and 250 mm above floor levels and work
surfaces. An exception is in buildings designed for the elderly or infirm, where socket heights
should be between 750 and 900 mm above the floor. Every socket terminal should be fitted with
a double outlet to reduce the need for adaptors. Disposition of sockets would limit the need for
lead lengths to no more than 2 m. The following provides guidance on the minimum provision
for power sockets in domestic accommodation:
Location Minimum quantity of sockets
Living room 8
Kitchen 6
Master bedroom 6
Dining room 4
Study bedroom 4
Utility room 4
Single bedrooms 4
Hall and landing 2
Garage/workshop 2
Bathroom 1-double insulated shaver socket

33
Maximum appliance load (watts) and plug cartridge fuse (BS 1362) selection for 230 Volt supply
Maximum load (W) Plug fuse rating (amp)
230 1
460 2
690 3
1150 5
1610 7
2300 10
2900 13
Calculated from Watts = Amperes x Voltage

(iii) Socket outlet for fixed appliances (15amp socket outlet)

This is the final sub-circuit for appliances and installations with a load factor above 3 kW or a
socket outlet having a rating exceeding 15A. According to IEEE Regulations, a final sub-circuit
having a rating exceeding 15amps or a load factor above 3kW shall not supplied more than one
point. The socket outlet is connected directly to the 30A or 45A fuse in the consumer distribution
box, and must not be connected to any part of a ring circuit. They are supplied from a separate
radial circuit from the consumer unit. The appliances here include AC, electric cooker, water
heater, under-floor heating system, night storage, immersion heater, extension to an outbuilding
etc.
A final sub-circuit is a circuit which connected to any one-way distribution fuse board or switch
fuse feeding one or more points without the intervention of further distribution fuse board.
Cooker control circuits
Cooker ratings vary, but a total load of about 12 kW is normal for a domestic appliance and may
be exceeded with a separate hob and oven. Most modern units require a 45A overload protection
through 6.0 mm2 even 10.0 mm2 cable, terminating at a 50A rated double pole control switch.
Smaller free-standing units are supplied from a 30 or 32A fuse/MCB with 4.0mm 2 cable (Fig.
10). The cable run should be as short and direct as possible, terminating at a control unit not less
than 1.35 m above floor level and slightly to one side of the cooker.

Figure 12: Cooker control circuits

34
Hot water heater circuit
Immersion unit
They are usually rate at 3kW and therefore would impose too much if they spurred off the ring
main. Cable rated at 1.5 mm 2 is sufficient, but 2.5mm2 is preferred for 15A or 16A overload
protection. A 4-kW element will require 20 A.
Instantaneous water heater to showers
These are rated between 5 and 9.5 kW and therefore require a fuse or MCB rating of between 30
and 45 A at the consumer unit. The radial supply cable may be 4.0 mm 2 for the lower building,
but 6.0 mm2 should be used in the event of a higher-rated replacement unit being fitted at a later
date. The highest-rated showers will need 10 mm2.
MCB: 30 A for 7 kW element; 32 A for 7.5kW element and 40 A for 8-9kW element

Air-conditioners
Air conditioner (A/C) is wired with either 4.0mm2 or 6 mm2 requires 30A overload protection.
A 3-kW water heater
A 3-kW water heater will have a 15A fuse in the consumer unit. A cable runs from the consumer
control unit to an isolating switch near the water heater. This switch usually has a pilot light to
show if it is on. The supply passes from the switch to terminals on the immersion heater.

Figure 13: Consumer control unit with a hot water heater and cooker control unit

35
 PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL SERVICES IN BUILDING

Basic regulation guiding electricity supply and distribution in Buildings

For safety of installations and occupants` life, there are basic regulations guiding supply of
electricity. According to these regulations (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Regulations For
Controlling, Distribution and Excess Current Protection), every consumer installation supplied
from an external source shall be adequately control by switchgear accessible to the consumer to
provide
(i) Means of isolation (switch)
(ii) Means of excess current protection
(iii) Mean of earth leakage current

Various Forms of Protection

(i) Protection of electrical installations against overload
Electrical installations must be protected from current overload, otherwise appliances, cables and
people using the equipment could be damaged. Protection devices can be considered in three
categories:
(a) Semi-enclosed (rewirable) fuses
Inexpensive. Simple, i.e. no moving parts. Prone to abuse (wrong wire could be used). Age
deterioration. Unreliable with temperature variations. Cannot be tested.

Figure 1: Rewirable fuse

(b) High breaking or rupturing capacity (HBC or HRC) cartridge fuses
Compact. Fairly inexpensive, but cost more than rewirable. No moving parts. Not repairable.
Could be abused.

36
Figure 2: HRC cartridge fuse
(c) Miniature circuit breaker
Relatively expensive. Factory tested. Instantaneous in high current flow. Unlikely to be misused.

Figure 3: Electromagnetic mcb

Note: None of these devices necessarily operate instantly. Their efficiency depends on the degree
of overload. Rewirable fuses can have a fusing factor of up to twice their current rating and
cartridge fuses up to about 1.6. Mcbs can carry some overload, but will be instantaneous (0.01
seconds) at very high currents.
(ii) Protection of electrical installations against excess current protection
Excess current can result in a circuit when a sustain current higher than the current carrying
capacity of that circuit occurs. It can also result due to the connection of too many pieces of
electrical loads or apparatus to a particular circuit or as a result of fault in the wiring. Protection
is required against damage to the building and lives. Three devices are available for protection
against excess current flow. These are:
(a) Rewirable fuse,
(b) Cartridge fuse and
(c) Miniature circuit breaker (MCB).
They are designed to disconnect the current whenever they detect excess current flows. The
devices are located on the live cable to the circuit to ensure that the circuit does not exceed the
capacity of the wire.
(iii) Protection against earth leakage current and Shock
Leakage of current to any metal work of equipment can occur if (1) the wires are displaced or
insulation is frayed (2) It can also occur if the switches or other electric points on a wall get
damped or moist from rains or other means. These can produce shock to the user. This can be

37
avoided by earthing the equipment and using an Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) or
Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB).
To ensure freedom from risk of electric shock as a result of earth leakage current, it is also
important that the earth connection linking the metal work of electrical equipment has a low
resistance. The aim is to change a linking current into an excess current by producing low
resistant part for current flow.

Figure 4: risk of electric shock as a result of earth leakage current

Figure 5: Risk of electric shock as a result of earth leakage current

Figure 6: Risk of electric shock as a result of earth leakage current

Earthing
Supply systems require a safety electrical earthing facility. The manner in which this is effected
will depend on whether the supply is overhead or underground and the conductive property of
the ground surrounding the installation.
Earthing mean connecting earth terminals to the electrodes installed solidly in the general mass
of earth. Earthing ensures low earth resistance when there is a fault. Ensuring low earth
resistance is important in earthing process. In case where protection against the faulted list is
provided by mean of fuse or a circuit breaker, the total resistance of the earth path must be low
enough to enable the operation of the protective device.

38
Earthing provides protection to personnel and equipment by ensuring operation of protective
control gear and isolation of the faulted circuit in the following cases.
(i) Insulation puncture or failure
(ii) Breakdown of insulation between primary & secondary windings of a transformer.
(iii) Lighting stroke
Earthing has three parts. They are:
Earth continuity conductor
This is the conductor which joins up the metal work which is to be earthed to the consumer unit
earth terminal.
Earth conductor/earth lead
This connects the consumer unit to the earth electrode.
Earth electrode
This is the electrode which makes the final connection to the general mass of the earth. It is
usually buried in soil and it is the final point of discharge into the earth. The earth electrode
resistance depends upon the electrical resistivity of the soil in which the electrode is installed,
which in turn is determined by the following factors:
(1) Nature of soil
(2) Extent of moisture
(3) Presence of suitable salts dissolved in moisture.

Figure 7: Earth electrode buried into the soil

39
Connection of Earthing to Earth
Unless wet, the ground surface is not usually a very good conductor, therefore ground contact is
made at about 1.5 to 2 m below the surface. In the past this was achieved by earth bonding to
metal water and gas mains. Since the introduction of plastic pipe materials, this is of course no
longer acceptable. Current practices include burying a metal plate or a metal tape mesh arranged
over several square metres, or driving a metal rod electrode into the ground. The latter is
normally adequate for domestic and other small-scale installations. In some instances, the
electrode is housed as shown below. Whatever earth method used, a low resistance to an
electrical fault is essential. The IEE Wiring Regulations recommend that the earth electrode
resistance should not exceed 200 ohms.

Figure 8: Installation of a typical earth electrode

Types of earth electrodes
(i) Rod & Pipe Electrodes
*This type of earthing is more suited for a soil possessing high resistivity and the electrode is
required to be longer & driven deeper into the soil to obtain a lower resistance to ground. The
diameter, thickness and length of the pipe is recommended as follows:
Cast iron (CI) pipes - 100mm (internal diameter), 2.5 to 3 m (long); 13mm thick.
MS pipes - 38 to 50mm (internal diameter), 2.5 to 3 m (long); 13mm thick
Copper - 13, 16 or 19 mm diameter; 1.22 to 2.44m long.

40
 Figure 9: A typical layout of pipe electrode grounding

In this case, the approximate resistance to ground in a uniform soil can be expressed by:

where:
R= Resistance in ohms
l = length of pipe in cm
d = internal diameter of pipe in cm

(ii) Plate Electrodes:

Plate electrodes consist of copper, cast iron or steel plate. The minimum thickness of plate is
recommended as follows:
For cast iron - 12mm
For GI or steel - 6.3mm
For Copper - 3.15mm

*Size not less than 600mm x 600mm.

41
 Figure 10: A typical layout of plate electrode

The approximate resistance to ground in a uniform soil can be expressed by

where:
p = resistivity of soil, considered uniform in m.
A= area of each side of the plate in m2

(iii) Strip or Round Conductor Electrodes

Resistivity of Soil:
Type of soil Average resistivity (ohms)
1. Wet organic soil 10
2. Moist Soil 100
3. Dry Soil 1000
4. Bedrock 10000
It has been found that the resistivity of the soil can be reduces by a chemical treatment with the
following salts:
(i) Normal salt (NaCl) and a mixture salt & soft coke (ii) MgSO4 (iii) CuSO4 [Economical and
most commonly used salts] (iv) CaCl2 (v) Na2CO3 [More common salts

42
Measuring the soil resistivity:
*Soil resistivity is the key factor that determines what the resistance of a grounding electrode
will be, and to what depth it must be driven to obtain low ground resistance. The resistivity of the
soil varies widely throughout the world and changes seasonally. *Soil resistivity is determined
largely by its content of electrolytes, which consist of moisture, minerals and dissolved salts. A
dry soil has high resistivity if it contains no soluble salts.

4 Pole Method
A simple way to measure the resistivity of soil is a four-pin method in which four probes are
drilled into the ground along a straight line at equal distances a and depth b. Then a voltage V is
applied to the two inner probes and a current, I f, is measured in the two outer probes (Fig.
11).This test can also be conducted with the help of a ground tester, which normally also has a
provision for this test. The formula for measuring soil resistivity is given below;

Figure 11: 4 Pole Method of measuring soil resistivity

where:
a= distance between the electrodes in centimeters
b= electrode depth in centimeters
σ = Soil resistivity (ohm-cm)

43
Since generally

Measuring the ground resistance:

The resistance of a grounding station can be measured with the help of a ground tester, which
generates a constant voltage for accurate measurement. The tester has two potential and one
current probe. The procedure of measurement is illustrated in Figure.

Figure 12: Pole Method of measuring soil resistance

3 Pole Method
The method for measuring earthing resistance is given below. One of the potential probes A is
drilled into the ground at about 15 m from the grounding station G, whose resistance is to be
measured. The second probe B is placed between the two. The current lead of the meter is
connected to the grounding station. The meter will indicate some resistance, which may be
noted. Two more readings are also taken by shifting the centre probe B by almost 3m on either
side of the original location. For an accurate due of the ground resistance, the values obtained
must be same. If they are not, the probe B is still within the resistance area of the grounding
station G. Shift away probe A by another 6m or so and place probe B between G and A, and
repeat the test. If the three readings are now the same, consider this as the actual ground
resistance of station G, otherwise shift probe A farther away until a constant reading is obtained.

Effect of Ground Electrode Size and Depth on Resistance Size:

*Diameter: Increasing the diameter of the rod does not materially reduce its resistance. Doubling
the diameter reduces resistance by less than 10%.
*Depth: As a ground rod is driven deeper into the earth, its resistance is substantially reduced. In
general, doubling the rod length reduces the resistance by an additional 40%. The NEC (1987,
250-83-3) requires a minimum of 2.4m to be in contact with the soil. The most common is a 3m
cylindrical rod which meets the NEC code. A minimum diameter of 1.59cm is required for steel
rods and 1.27cm for copper or copper clad steel rods (NEC1987, 250-83-2). Minimum practical
diameters for driving limitations for 3 m rods are:
1.27cm in average soil
1.59cm in moist soil
1.91cm in hard soil or more than 10ft driving depths

44
To measure Earthing Resistance and Soil resistivity the following apparatus are needed:
(i) Earth Resistance Tester (ii) Hammer (iii) Measuring Tape
Arrangement of Earthing Systems
Earth Leakage protective devices or systems can be arranged in the following ways:
TT System
TT System is the mostly likely to be used where the installation is supplied overhead without an
earth terminal. The consumer must provide an earth electrode, but as high resistance to earth may
affect the connection, a residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) or trip switch should be provide
between the meter and the consumer unit. RCCB operates on the principle of an installation fault
causing an imbalance between the phase or live conductor and the neutral. As can be seen in Fig.
13, a fault will energise the core coil to effect the electromagnetic trip.

Figure 13: TT system of arrangement

TN-S System
TN-S system is applied to underground supplies which have meal sheathed and insulate cable. In
this system, the electricity supply company provides an earth terminal with the intake cable. The
consumers` earth terminal is connected to the metal sheath and this provide continuity back to
the 11 kV transformer, where it is effectively connected to earth (Fig.14). This system is
otherwise known as the supply protective conductor. It connects back to the star point at the area
transformer, where it is effectively earthed.

45
 Figure 14: TN-S system of arrangement
TN-C-S System
TNC-S system is called so when the earth and metal conductors combine to provide a protective
and neutral (PEN), but if the consumer`s installation has a separate neutral and earth connected
to TN-C supply, it is referred to as TN-C-S. Fig. 16 shows the earth bar in the consumer unit
connecting directly with the supply authority`s neutral at the intake. Most new installations
follow this mode, which is otherwise known as protective multiple earthing (PME). The
advantage is that a fault to earth is also a fault to neutral, which creates a high fault current. This
will operate the overload protection (fuse or circuit breaker) rapidly.

Figure 15: TNC-S system of arrangement

Note: Specification of installation cable between supply company's sealing chamber and
consumer's unit - phase/live and neutral 25 mm2, earth 10 mm2 cross-sectional area.

46
(iv) Earth Bonding of Services and Extraneous Metalwork
The Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) Wiring Regulations require the metal sheaths and
armour of all cables operating at low and medium voltage to be cross-bonded to ensure the same
potential as the electrical installation. This includes all metal trunking and ducts for the
conveyance and support of electrical services and any other bare earth continuity conductors and
metalwork used in conjunction with electrical appliances. The bonding of the services shall be as
close as possible to the point of entry of the services into a building. Other fixed metalwork shall
be supplementary earth bonded. This will prevent significant voltage differences at any point of
contact. It be undertaken in 10mm2 cable at the entry point of the service as shown below (Fig.
16).
Supplementary bonding may also be required where other extraneous metalwork exists. For
instance, hot and cold-water service pipe to bath, basin, sink, etc, are cross-bonded as shown in
Figure 17 to protect a person making simultaneous contact with two electrically related piece of
equipment, when one may be faulty, e.g. an electric kettle and hot water tap.

Figure 16: Bonding of services at intake

Fig.17: Examples of supplementary bonding

47
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
There are two principal types of ELCBs used in home installations-the current operated and the
voltage operated. Current operated ELCBs work on the principle of a core balanced transformer
and are more expensive than the voltage-operated ELCBs. It has two ratings-firstly as a main
switch (60 or 100A) and secondly as its operating tripping current rating capacity usually being
30Ma. The voltage-operated device has many disadvantages.

Figure 18: Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB)
This is a much more positive protection device that can be provided instead of ELCB to avoid
electric shock and also current leakage in wiring of buildings. An RCCB is connected to all the
three phases and the neutral. It is more expensive than ELCB and provides good protection
against even minor defects in the wiring of a building. However, the wiring should be perfect,
otherwise even with a small defect, it will trip until it is made good.
RCCB operates on the principle of an installation fault causing an imbalance between the phase
or live conductor and the neutral. As can be seen in slide 30, a fault will energise the core coil to
effect the electromagnetic trip. With an RCCB in the system, even a very small leakage will
operate the circuit breaker and switch off the current in a period of microsecond. As the neutral
wire will not serve this purpose, a separate set of conductors called earthing is provided in all
buildings. Earthing is carried out as described in IEEE Regulations.

Figure 19: Single and three phase RCCB

48
Question
(i) Describe four ways of protecting building electrical installation against excess current,
overload, electric shock and earth leakage current
(ii) What is earthing? What is its function(s) in building electrical installation? How does it
perform its functions?
(iii) What factors influence the manner in which earthing will be effected?
(iv) What factors influence the earth electrode resistance?
(v) What effect(s) does/does the diameter and size of has/have earth electrode resistance?
(vi) What effect(s) does/do depth of the electrode has/have on its resistance?
(vii) State the minimum practical diameters for driving limitations for 3 m rods
(QUESTION 9) Describe at least two methods of arranging earthing systems
(ix) Describe two methods of measuring earth resistance and earth resistivity
(x) List the apparatus needed during the measurement of earthing resistance and soil resistivity
(xi) List common chemical treatment normally employ to improve soil resistivity
(xii) Describe the type of earthing more suited for a soil possessing high resistivity and what
must be done to the electrode in order to obtain a lower resistance to ground.
(xiii) Using line diagram only show how earthing is connected to the earth.

49
MATERIALS AND DEVICES FOR ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION IN BUILDINGS
Cable, Conductor and Insulator
Cable
A cable is defined as an assembly of conductors and insulators used for the transfer of power and
connect the source of electricity to the appliance which uses this electricity. They are required to
conduit electricity efficiently, cheaply and safely.
The efficiency of a cable is determined by how it can limit voltage drop along its length. So,
there is optimum size of a cable for particular electrical load delivery. This size should not be too
small in order to limit the internal voltage drop. The cross-sectional area should not be too large
so as to limit the cost of cable and installation. It should have good insulation; this is to prevent
current leaking in order to reduce the risk of fire and shock. Cables are mostly laid under the
ground in order not to disturb the land beauty and to avoid using the land for power transmission
purposes.

Parts of Cable
A Cable is composed of the following parts:
Conductor
Conductor (wire) which is the basic component which conducts electricity.
Types of conductors
Copper and aluminium are the materials used as conductor in cable. Copper conductors have
smaller cross-section area. Copper has a higher conductivity than aluminium. So, the resistivity
of copper is lower than that of aluminium.

To make it easy for handling and facilitating bending, conductors are stranded that is a number of
small wires are twisted together spirally to form a core. Very small conductor comes in one
strand. The number of strands may be one and could be as higher as 127. The sizes are specified
by their circular cross-sectional area and also used to specify the size of cable. The unit is mm 2
The range of sizes of conductor is between 0.1mm2 to 630 mm2 and usually written on the skin of
cable. The specification could be given as 1/1.13 mm which indicates that the conductors is of
one strand and the diameter of the strand is 1.13m. For example, if a cable is specified as
127/2.32mm, it means that the conductor is made up of 127 strands twisted together and each of
diameter 2.32 mm.

50
Insulators
Insulators confine current around the wire and itself does not conduct electricity. The function of
insulation is to confine the current to the conductor. To this end, the insulation itself must be a
poor conductor of electricity i.e. it must offer a high resistance to electricity flow. The insulation
is arranged to surround the conductor throughout its length. Common insulating materials are
vulcanized rubber (no longer in use), polyvinylchloride (PVC), butyl rubber, silicone rubber,
impregnated paper.

Mechanical support (Armour cable)

Beyond the insulation, there is need for another material to protect and hold a cable. This
provides additional protection against mechanical damage. In most cases, cable consisting of 1,
2, or 3 insulated cores, are enclosed inside another tough insulating material which serves the
entire cables mechanical support. This process of protecting insulated cores is called sheathing
and the material used for covering is called sheath. Different materials that can provide
protection to the insulated core include tough rubber sheathed cable, P.V.C sheathed cable,
armour cable etc.
Note: A cable may have all these components or not. For instance, the aluminium cable used on
electric poles has only the conductor. The PVC cable has the conductor and insulator only. A
typical armour cable consists of the following parts:
Core
All cables either have a central core (conductor) or a number of cores made of strands of Copper
or Aluminum conductors having highest conductivity. Conductors are stranded in order to reduce
the skin effect.
Insulation
It is provided to insulate the conductors from each other and from the outside periphery. The
common insulating materials are Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) and Polyethylene.
Metallic Sheath
Metallic Sheath protects the cable against the entry of moisture. It is made of lead, some alloy of
lead or Aluminum
Bedding
In order to protect the metallic sheath from injury, bedding is wound over it. It consists of paper
tape compounded with a fibrous material.
Armoring
It consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers of steel tape, to avoid the
mechanical injury. Armoring provides mechanical strength to the cable.
Serving
A layer of fibrous material, used to protect the armoring.

51
 Figure 1: Parts of armour cables

Figure 2: Cross sectional view of armour cable

Types of cable
Cables can come as paper insulated, lead sheathed cable, P.V.C cables, mineral insulated copper
covered (MICC), paper impregnated copper conductors, armour cables etc. Figs.1 and 2 show
some common types.

Figure 3: Type of cable

52
 Figure 4: Type of cable

Armoured cable is used for mains and sub-mains. The cable is laid below ground level, breaking
the surface where it enters sub-stations or transformers and other buildings. High voltage cable is
protected below ground by precast concrete `tiles'.

Figure 4: Armour cable

Mineral insulated copper covered cable (MICC) has copper conductors insulated with highly
compressed magnesium oxide powder inside a copper tube. When installing the cable, it is
essential that the hygroscopic insulant does not come into contact with a damp atmosphere.
Cutting the cable involves special procedures which are used to seal the insulant from
penetration of atmospheric dampness. The cable provides an excellent earth conductor; it is also
resistant to most corrosive atmospheres and is unaffected by extremes of heat.

53
 Figure 5: Mineral insulated copper covered cable (MICC)

PVC and rubber insulated cables are relatively inexpensive and simple to install, requiring
clipped support at regular intervals. PVC cables are in general use, but they have a temperature
limitation between 0oC and 70oC. Below zero they become brittle and are easily damaged and at
the higher temperature they become soft, which could encourage the conductor to migrate
through the PVC. Outside of these temperatures, the cable must be protected or an appropriate
rubber insulant specified. Cables usually contain one, two or three conductors. In three-core
cable the live and neutral are insulated with brown and blue colour coding respectively. The
earth is bare and must be protected with green and yellow sleeving where exposed at junction
boxes, sockets, etc. Grey and black insulated conductors are occasionally used where an
additional facility is required, e.g. two-way lighting.

Figure 6: PVC or rubber insulated cable

Electric Wiring
Electric wiring can be surface or conduit. Conduit for electrical services is produced in steel
(galvanised or painted black) or plastic tube into which insulated cables are drawn. The conduit
protects the cable from physical damage and heat. It also provides continuous support and if it is
metal, it may be used as an earth conductor. Standard outside diameters are 20, 25, 32 and 40
mm. Steel is produced in either light or heavy gauge. Light gauge is connected by grip fittings,

54
whilst the thicker walled heavy gauge can be screw threaded to fittings and couplings. Plastic
conduit has push-fit connections.

Figure 7: Steel conduit and fittings

Explain the following processes:

1. Annealing & Importance
2. Galvanizing
3. Vulcanizing

Give short answers to the following questions:

1. What will be the difference in size of Cu & Al conductor for same installation? (Hints: refer
table)
2. Why do we use ACSR conductors for transmission not in distribution?
3. Mostly Aluminum is used in transmission system as a conductor, why not Cu as a conductor?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(4) Carry out market survey on common cables used in Nigeria-Types, Sizes and their functions

55
Testing Completed Installation
Electrical installations must be tested on completion to verify that the system will operate
efficiently and safely. The tests are extensive, as defined in the Institution of Electrical Engineers
Regulations. They can only be carried out by a competent person, i.e. a qualified electrician or
electrical engineer.
Testing is undertaken by visual inspection and the use of a multi-purpose meter (multimeter) or
an instrument specifically for recording resistance, i.e. an ohmmeter. The following tests are an
essential part of the proceedings:
(1) Continuity.
There are several types of continuity test for ring mains. Each is to ensure integrity of the live,
neutral and earth conductors without bridging (shorting out) of connections. The following is one
established test to be applied to each conductor:
(i) Record the resistance between the ends of the ring circuit (A).
(ii) Record the resistance between closed ends of the circuit and a point mid-way in the circuit
(B).
(iii) Check the resistance of the test lead (C).
(iv) Circuit integrity is indicated by: A ÷ 4 approx. = B - C.

Figure 1: Continuity test

(2) Insulation
This test is to ensure that there is a high resistance between live and neutral conductors and these
conductors and earth. A low resistance will result in current leakage and energy waste which
could deteriorate the insulation and be a potential fire hazard. The test to earth requires all lamps
and other equipment to be disconnected, all switches and circuit breakers closed and fuses left in.
Ohmmeter readings should be at least 1 Mega ohm.

56
 Figure 2: Insulation test
Polarity
This is to ensure that all switches and circuit breakers are connected in the phase or live
conductor. An inadvertant connection of switchgear to a neutral conductor would lead to a very
dangerous situation where apparent isolation of equipment would still leave it live! The test leads
connect the live bar in the disconnected consumer unit to live terminals at switches. A very low
resistance reading indicates the polarity is correct and operation of the switches will give a
fluctuation on the ohmmeter.

Figure 3: Polarity test

57
 EMERGENCY POWER SUPPLY (GENERATING SET)
It is common practice to provide the standby emergency source of supply at all important
installations such as large factories, railways, airports & other essential services. This is usually
achieved with the use of a captive Diesel Generator Set (DG Set).
Main Components of a Diesel Generating Set
DG Set comprises of three main parts:
(i) Engine
This is the main prime mover (PM) for the generator and may be a gas, petrol or diesel engine,
depending upon the availability of fuel. In this LAB we will discuss the Diesel generating Set,
being used more commonly for captive power generation.
The control of power output is obtained through this PM only. It has a drooping characteristic.
Governor
This senses the speed of the machine and performs extremely fast and accurate adjustments in
the fuel supply to the PM. In turn it regulates the speed and output of the PM within predefined
limits, depending upon the droop of the PM. The governor may be a mechanical (manual),
hydraulic or electronic (automatic) device.
Generator
Generator is responsible for changing engine power (hp or kW) into electrical power (kVA).
They also must satisfy high magnetizing current draws (kVAR) of electrical equipment. NEMA
suggests 0.8pf for standard generator.

Engine & Generator Sizing

Engines are sized according to the actual power in kW required to meet the need of the facility.
The generator on the otherhand, must be capable of handling the maximum apparent power
which is measured in kVA. Thus engine provide power (kW) and frequency control, generator
influence kVA and voltage control.

58
 Figure 1: A complete DG set

Figure 2: Auxiliary fuel tank

Figure 3: A front view of a Diesel Generating Set

59
Figure 4: Air ducting Figure 5: Batteries & Battery charger

Figure 6: Vibration isolator Figure 7: Batteries

Exercise:
Fill the following household equipments ratings:

This chart is very useful in calculating the size of the generator required for your home.
Question:
Explain the following parts or terms of Diesel Generating Set:

60
 DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS IN BUILDINGS

A. Electricity Charges and Tariff System

Overview of Power Supply Industry
The saleable commodity, electricity, is generated in power stations from a variety of primary
energy sources. In broad terms, the various component parts of an electric supply industry are:
The generation process
This takes place in the power stations and involves the conversion of primary energy from fossil
fuels into electricity. This process involves the construction, operations and maintenance of large
power stations and the purchase, transportation and storage of primary fuels. The generating
companies must also have enough spare capacity to cope with the high peak in demand which
occur at certain times of the year. Therefore, many smaller and less efficient power stations are
rarely used and only operate when demand no the transmission grid is high
The transmission process
This is the process whereby electricity is transported through a transmission grid over long
distances around a region or country. The transmission grid is operated at a very high voltage, for
example, 400kV, 750kV, in order to minimise the energy wasted. This process involves the
construction and maintenance of large pieces of infrastructure. Naturally large costs are incurred
in operating such a network and these must by recovered from the sale of any electricity which is
transmitted through the grid.
The distribution processes
At various points along the transmission grid electricity will be siphoned off into local
distribution networks. These distribution networks are regional grids, operating at a lower
voltage (such as 132kV and 33kV, which distribute the electricity around a city or a particular
locality. During this process the voltage of the electricity is stepped down (through the use of
substations) to the voltage required by the consumers (240V, 414V, 11kV). The costs involved in
maintaining and operating a distribution network are recouped from the revenue received from
the electricity sold.
The sales process
All utility companies have to market their product in order to attract customers, and once
customers have been found a utility company must monitor and record all the energy that is
consumed, so that customers can be billed and revenue collected. Considerable administrative
costs are associated in managing each customer`s account. These costs are usually recovered by
levying a periodic standing charge on each customer.
From the above discussions, many costs are incurred in generating and supplying electricity and
these must be recovered from the end users. The costs incurred, in providing the infrastructural
facilities for the processes associated with generation and supply of electricity to the consumers
are;
(i) The cost of purchasing the primary energy and converting it to electricity
(ii) The cost of transporting electricity around a region or country
(iii) The cost of distributing electricity to the customers

61
(iv) The cost involved in meter reading, billing and managing customers` accounts.

Tariffs reflect the various costs incurred and they are structured to recover the various costs
incurred in generating, transmitting, distribution and selling of electricity. Tariffs are also used to
encourage consumers of electricity to change to nighttime or off-peak tariff system. In practice
they discourage high electricity usage by levying large demand charge on customers who use
electricity during periods of peak demand. Besides, it is use by utility companies to discourage
building designers from over designing their electrical installation by leveling availability
charges. Generally, utility companies influence demand on their network by altering the charges
levied on customers under tariff.
Types of tariff system
Domestic/Residential tariff
They are offered to domestic and other small consumers and they are usually billed monthly.
Block Tariff
They are offered to larger non-domestic consumers with demand below 50kW.
Maximum demand tariff
They are offered to larger commercial and industrial consumers
Components of a Tariff
(i) Amount of electricity consumption (kWh)
(ii) The demand rate at which energy is consumed/fixed [kW]
(iii) Maintenance charge
(iv) Value added tax (VAT)
Terminologies
Amount of electricity consumption
Amount of electricity consumption is how much energy you use over a period of time, measured
in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The amount of energy consumed is measured by Energy meter.
Demand
Demand is how much power you require at a single point in time, measured in kilowatts (kW).
The demand of the system during the demand interval is measured by Demand meter. Demand
varies by customer and month. To record demand, a special meter tracks the flow of electricity to
a facility over a period of time, usually 30-minute intervals. Over the course of a month, the 30-
minute interval with the highest demand is recorded and reflected on a monthly bill.
Fixed Charges
Fixed Charges means the part of sale rate in a two-part tariff to be recovered on the basis of
Billing Demand in kilowatt on monthly basis.
Minimum Charges
Minimum Charges means a charge to recover the costs for providing customer service to
consumers even if no energy is consumed during the month.
Variable Charge
Variable Charge means the sale rate per kilowatt-hour (kWh) as a single rate or part of a two-part
tariff applicable to the actual kWh consumed by the consumer during a billing period.
Maximum Demand
Maximum Demand (MXD) where applicable, means the maximum of the demand obtained in
any month measured over successive periods each of 30 minutes duration.
62
Sanctioned Load
Sanctioned Load where applicable means the installed load in kilowatt as applied for by the
consumer and allowed/authorized by the Company for usage by the consumer.
Power Factor
Power Factor shall be to the ratio of kWh to KVAh recorded during the month or the ratio of
kWh to the square root of sum of square of kWh and kVARh.

Example 1
Assume the following appliances are used daily in a house (show below); determine the energy
consumed by these appliances in one month of 30 days if the average cost of energy is N4.60.
Also, calculate the monthly tariff of these appliances. No added charges
Appliance Power rating Period of use
Toaster 1340 Watts 15 minutes
Electric iron 1200 30 minutes
Deep freezer 1560 30 minutes
Four lamps 40W each 6 hours
Television 600 Watts 4 hours
Solution
Energy consumed = power x time
Toaster = 1.340 x 0.25 x 30 = 10.05 kWh
Electric iron = 1.2 x 0.5 x 30 = 18kWh
Deep freezer = 1.56 x 0.5 x 30 = 23.4 kWh
4-lamps = 4 x 0.04 x 30 -= 28.8 kWh
Television = 0.3 x 6 x 30 = 54.6 kWh
Total energy consumed = 134.25 kWh
Basic cost = Rate x Energy Consumed
Basic cost = N4.60 x 134.25 kWh
= N617.55
Example 2
An installation comprises the following and they are used as follows daily (show below). Find
the total daily energy consumption of these appliances and determine the monthly energy cost in
February, 2015 if the supply authority tariff is N4.60 per kWh. No added charges.
Appliance Power rating Period of use

2-Water heater 1500 Watts 2 hours each

1-Electric iron 1200 90 minutes

1- Toaster 1300 Watts 45 minutes

18-Lamps 60W each 4 hours

1-Pumping Machine 1HP 20 minutes

Solution

63
Energy consumed = power x time
2-water heater = 1.5 x 2 x 29 = 18.4 kWh
1-electric hour = 1.2 x 1.5 x 29 = 52.2 kWh
1-toaster = 1.3 x 0.75 x 29 = 28.275kWh
18-lamps = 18 x 0.06 x 4 x 29 = 125.28kWh
5-lamps = 5 x 0.1 x 5 x 29 = 116 kWh
1-pumping machine = 0.75 x 0.33 x 29 = 7.25 kWh
Total energy = 523.025 kWh
Basic cost = Rate x Energy
Basic cost = N4.60 x 503.025
= N2313.32

B. Estimation of Design Load and Cable Size or Rating

Determination of cable size is so important in order to take care of deterioration caused by power
passing through the cable. To determine cable size to be used one need to know the current that is
to pass through it and this is done by estimating the design load. The design load is made up of
lighting load, ring circuit and fixed appliance load.
For small circuits and domestic installations using PVC sheathed and insulated cables, the
specification is fairly standard as listed in Table 7.1. From this table, the minimum size of cable
for lighting circuit is 1.0 mm2 or 1.5mm2, for ring circuit = 2.5 mm2 and for fixed appliance is
4mm2 or 6mm2.
Table 7.1: Cable rating and standard applications
Application Cable cross-section Minimum overload Comments and limitations
(mm2) protection (A)
Lighting 1.0 or 1.5 5 Max. 10lights
Immersion heater 1.5 or 2.5 15 Heat-resisting flex from fused
socket to element
Socket on radial 2.5 20 Max. 20m2 floor area and 17 m of
circuit cable
4.0 30 Max. 50 m2 floor area and 21m of
cable
Sockets on ring 2.5 30 Max. 100 m2 floor area and 54 m of
circuit cable
Cooker 6.0 or 10 30 or 45 Cable and fuse specification
depends on cooker rating
Shower 4 (7.2 kW) 45 4 mm2 cable, max.18 m length
6 (8.5 kW) 6 mm2 cable, max. 27 m length
46 (TN-C-S system)

However, when unusual or special installations are needed, the cable specification must be
calculated. Where non-standard circuits or special installations are necessary, the cable
specification must be calculated in the following stages:
(i) Determination of the design current and relates this to the cable current carrying capacity
shown in Table 7.2.
(ii)Select an appropriate cable (see table below).
(iii) A check that the fitted appliances will not suffer a voltage drop in excess of 4 percent is also
necessary.

64
Table 7.2: Properties of PVC insulated conductor cables
Conductor cross-sectional Current carrying capacity (A) Voltage drop per amp per
area (mm2) Loose clipped In conduit metre (mV)
1.00 15.5 13.5 44.0
1.50 20.0 17.5 29.0
2.50 27.0 24.0 18.0
4.00 37.0 32.0 11.0
6.00 47.0 41.0 7.3
10.00 65.0 57.0 4.4
16.00 87.0 76.0 2.8
25.00 11.0 101.0 1.8
35.00 141.0 125.0 1.3

Also, the following other conditions should be considered before selecting cable suitable for a
specific situation:
(i) Short-circuit temperature limit dependent upon energy produced during the short-circuit
(ii) The length of cable and associated voltage drop
(iii) Location of cable, whether exposed or protected
(iv) Whether the cable is closely grouped with others
(v) Air temperature surrounding the cable
(v) The overload protection provided

C. Procedures for Determination of the size of cable required & voltage drop in the cable
Assuming A 150kW, three phase load is supplying from a 400V, 50Hz supply. The circuit is
protected using BS EN60898 Type B circuit breaker and is situated 150m away from the
distribution board. It is run with two other power circuits and is buried in the ground at a depth of
0.8m. There the soil resistivity is 1.2ºC.m/W. The temperature within the installation can be
assumed to be 30C. Calculate the size of cable required, assume armored Cu cable is used here.

9.
Method:
STEP 1
Determine the current requirements of the circuit. This current is known as Design current, either
specified by the manufacturer or can be calculated by the formulae.

If kVA power is given the above formula will change accordingly. If motor power is given in hp
then use the conversion 1hp =746 Watts. Here,
Design Current (IN) = _______________________ = Amps
STEP 2

65
Determine the method of cable installation to be used.
Installation Conditions: The current-carrying capacity of a cable is dependent on the method of
installation to maintain the temperature of the cable within its operating limits. Different methods
of installation vary the rate at which the heat generated by the current flow is dissipated to the
surrounding medium. Specific conditions of installation are there like cables installed with or
without wiring enclosures in air, in the ground or embedded in building materials.
STEP 3
Determine the environmental conditions in the vicinity of the cable installation, where
applicable, like
(i) the ambient air or soil temperature
(ii) the depth of laying rating factor
(iii) the soil thermal resistivity rating factor
Use any cables table book to find out the correction factor values. Here, the correction factors
from the tables:
Grouping Factor (Cg): _______
Ambient Temperature (Ca): _______
Soil Resistivity Factor (Cr): _______
Depth of laying factor (Cd): _______
STEP 4
Apply the correction factors to determine the current carrying capacity (I c) of the cable by using
the formula. Current carrying capacity of cable = Design current.
Correction Factors
The above factors should be applied according to the design situation.

Here, Current carrying capacity of cable = ________________________

Current carrying capacity of cable = ______________
Minimum cable size = _____________mm2
Finding the Protective Device Size (IF).
The design current should be no greater than the fuse rating. The fuse rating must be no greater
than the current carrying capacity of the cable. The current carrying capacity of the cable should
not be greater than the tabulated capacity of the cable i.e.

The Worst-Case Scenario

A cable may experience various different environments along its route. For example it may start
at a switchboard, run through the switch room in a trench with a lid or steel flooring, pass
through a duct in a wall and under a roadway, run along way directly buried and finish on a
ladder rack at the consumer. At each of these environments the thermal resistivity and ambient
temperature will be different. The environment that causes the most derating of the rated current
should be taken and used for the whole cable.
D. Determination of Voltage Drop from Milli Volts Peramp –Metre
According to IEE Regulation 522-8 of the 15 th edition, it is stipulated that: The voltage drop
within the installation does not exceed a value appropriate to the safe functioning of the
associated equipment in normal service. For final circuits protected by an overcurrent protective

66
device having a normal current not exceeding 100A, this requirement is deemed to be satisfied if
the drop in voltage from the origin of the circuit to any other point in the circuit does not exceed
2.5 per cent of the nominal voltage at the design current, disregarding staring conditions. The
voltage drop can be determined using the following formula 50 for applications where only the
route length and load current of balanced circuits are known.

Where
Vc = the millivolt drop per ampere-metre route length of circuit, as shown in the tables for
various conductors, in millivolts per ampere metre (mV/A.m)
Vd = actual voltage drop, in volts
L = route length of circuit, in meters
IN= the current to be carried by the cable, in amperes.
Here, L = 80m
IN = __________ Amps
Vc= __________ mV/A.m
Voltage Drop (Vd) = _________________ 1000
Voltage Drop (Vd) = _______ i.e. % of 400V.
Hence the selected cable of mm2 is suitable for normal current of Amps & cable length of 80m

Example 1
A 7.2 kW shower with a cable length of 10 m in conduit, determine the cable size.
Solution
Amps = Watts ÷ Volts = 7200 ÷230 = 31. 3
From table, select 4 mm2 c.s.a. (32 amps)
Voltage drop = (mV x Current flowing x Cable length) ÷1000
Voltage drop = (11 x 31 x 3 x 10) ÷1000 = 3.44 volts
Maximum voltage drop = 230 x 4% = 9. 2 volts.
Therefore, 4 mm2 c.s.a. cable is satisfactory.
Note: Correction factors may need to be applied, e.g., when cables are grouped, insulated or in
an unusual temperature. The IEE regulations should be consulted to determine where corrections
are necessary.

Example 2
A 6 kW motor is to operate from a 230 V single phase cable, 10 m long. Find the current flowing
in the circuit.
Solution
Power( Watt) 6000
1. Find the current flowing: I (amp) = = =26 A
Voltage(Volts) 230
2. From Table 7.2 select a suitable that is 2.5mm2 loose clipped (27A) or 4 mm2 to conduit (32A)
3. Check voltage drop (4 percent):
mV × current flowing ×cable length
Volt drop =
1000

67
 18× 26 ×10
For 2.5 mm2 (loose) Volt drop = =4.68 V
1000
11×26 ×10
For 4.0 mm2 (clipped) Volt drop = 2.86 V
1000
4
4. Maximum voltage drop acceptable is: 230 × =9.2 V
100
Therefore, both cables selected are satisfactory since their voltage drop is less than the maximum
voltage permissible that is 4.68 < 9.2 V or 2.86 < 9.2 V
Example 3
A-3 kW load from a 230V single phase loose clipped supply cable, 30 m long, calculate the size
of cable for optimum operation.
Solution
Power( Watt) 3000
1. Find the current flowing: I (amp) = = =13 A
Voltage(Volts) 230

2. From Table 7.2 select a suitable that is 1.00 mm2 loose clipped (15.5A) appears satisfactory
3. Check voltage drop (4 percent):
mV × current flowing ×cable length
Volt drop =
1000
44 × 13× 30
For 1.00 mm2 (loose) Volt drop = =17.16 V
1000
4
4. Maximum voltage drop acceptable is: 230 × =9.2 V ¿ 17.16 V
100
Therefore 1.00 mm2 cable size selected is unacceptable
5. Try a higher specification cable and then calculate again the maximum permissible voltage
drop (4%); Let us say 1.5 mm2 (loose)
29× 13 ×30
Volt drop = =11.3V , is also unacceptable since the maximum permissible voltage
1000
drop less than voltage drop of the selected cable (i.e., 9.2 V < 11.3 V)
18× 13 ×30
6. Try a 2.5 mm2 cable, Volt drop= 7.02 V , is acceptable since the
1000
maximum permissible voltage drop is greater than voltage drop of the selected cable (i.e., 9.2 V ¿
7.02 V)
Design/Connected Load, Maximum Demand and Diversity Factors
If cables and overload protection devices were rated for full capacity of every sub-circuit, then
size of components, and costs would be impractical, prohibition and unnecessary. Therefore, the
Institute of Electrical Engineers` (IEE) Regulations permit diversity factors or allowances for

68
practical use of some facilities and equipment to be incorporated into the calculations, when
assessing maximum demand.
Design/Connected load
Design/Connected load is the total load of all installations in a building.
Maximum expected load
Maximum expected load is the load expected to be used at a particular time between the total
connected load and its maximum expected load.

Diversity factor
In practice, not all electrical loads in buildings are put to use at the same time. So some diversity
can be incorporated into calculations. The application of diversity factor enables the designers to
determine the actual size of supply cable and sub-main cable which supply the intake panel and
the sequence line of distribution. It forms the basis for design and assessment of all electrical
installation work. However, it is not required to size the final sub-circuit. Diversity factor
expressed the relationship between the total connected load and the maximum expected load.
Table below gives guide value of diversity allowance for different types of buildings such as
domestic, hotels, shops and offices.

Table of Diversity factor

Circuit Diversity factor
Lighting 66% of the total current demand
Power sockets 100% of the largest circuit full load current +40% of
the remainder
Cooker 10amps + 30% full load +5 amps if a socket outlet is
provided
Immersion heater 100%
Storage radiators 100%
Shower 100% +25% of any remaining

Example 1
A house with 7.2 kW shower, 3 kW immersion heater, three ring circuits and three lighting
circuits of 800 W each:
Solution
Appliance/circuit Current demand (amps) Diversity allowance (amps)
Shower 7200/230=31.3 31.3x100%=31.3
Ring circuit-1 30 30x100% =30
Ring circuit -2 30 30x40%=12
Ring circuit-3 30 30x40%=12
Lighting 3x800 =2400/230 =10.4 10.4 x 66% = 6.9
Total =92.2amps

Example 2
A typical three-bedroom estate house, with single phase 240V supply having: two lighting
circuits of 900W each; three-30A ring circuits to 13 A power sockets; one 3kW immersion
heater and one 12 kW cooker with one power socket. Calculate the total current flowing into the
estate house. The diversity factors for the various electrical loads are as follows:

69
Lighting load
66%
Ring circuit
The diversity factor allowed is 100% largest fuse or circuit breaker rating of individual circuits +
40% sum of fuse or C.B ratings of other circuits
Water heater
No diversity factor that is 100% apply to this category of load
Cooker
10A + 30% of remainder + 5A for power socket
Solution
Lighting load
P = IV
P = 2 x 900 = 1800 W
P 1800
I= = = 7.83A
V 230
66
Using diversity factor of 66%, I = 7.83A × = 5.16A
100
3-Ring circuit
Using diversity factor of 100% largest fuse or circuit breaker rating of individual circuits + 40%
sum of fuse or C.B ratings of other circuits
Load (A) =30A + 30% (2 x 30)
= 30A + 24 A
= 54 A
Water heater
P 3× 1000
Load (A) = = =13.04A
V 230
No diversity factor apply t(100%) that 13.04A
Cooker
Note: the first 10A of the total rated current of the connected cooking appliance, plus 30% of the
remainder of the total rated current of the connected appliance, plus 5A if there is a socket outlet
in the control unit.
12× 1000
Load (A) = = 52.17A
230
Using diversity factor of 10A + 30% of remainder (42.17A) + 5A for socket
= 10A + 12.63A + 5A
= 27.63A
Now you can input the results in tabular for as shown in the table below.
Appliances Current demand (A) Diversity factor Diversified current
demand (A)

1. Lighting load

P = 2 x 900 = 1800
W

70
 P 1800 7.83 66% 5.16
I= =
V 230

2. Ring circuit

Circuit 1 30.00 100% 30

Circuit 2 30.00 40% 12

Circuit 3 30.00 40% 12

3. Water heater

P
Load(A) =
V 13.04 100% 13.04

3× 1000
=
230

4. Cooker 10A + 30% of 10

remainder
Load (A) = 52.17 (42.17A) + 5A 12.63
for socket
12× 1000
5
230
Total = 99.85A

Example 3
A 12-bedroom hotel with 230V, 3-phase supply has four lighting circuits of 800kW each; four-
30A ring mains, one 6 kW immersion heater and three 12 kW cookers. Determine the total
current flowing into the hotel building. The diversity factors for the various electrical loads are as
follows:
Lighting load
75%
Ring circuit
The diversity factor allowed is 100% largest fuse or circuit breaker rating of individual circuits +
50% sum of fuse or C.B ratings of other circuits
Water heater
No diversity factor that 100% apply to this category of load
Cooker
100% full load of largest appliance load (A) + 80% full load of largest load+ 60% full load of
third largest load.

71
Solution
Appliances Current demand (A) Diversity factor Diversified current
demand (A)
1. Lighting load

P = 4 x 800 = 3200 W 13.91 75% 10.63

P 3200
I= =
V 230

2. Ring circuit
Circuit 1 30.00 100% 30
Circuit 2 30.00 50% 15
Circuit 3 30.00 50% 15
Circuit 4 30.00 50% 15
3. Water heater

P 26.08 100% 26.08

Load(A) =
V

6 ×1000
=
230

P 12× 1000 52.17 100% 52.17

4. I = = 80% 41.74
V 230
60% 31.30
Total = 236.72A
I = 52.17A
52.17

52.17

236.74
Spread over three phases =
230
= 79 A per phase

Example4
A residential building of 6 flats with similar electrical installation has the following electrical
installation in each flat.
Lighting load: 10 lamps of 60 watts each and 3 ceiling fans of 200 watts each
Power load: 2 ring circuits, 3 A/C units of 2h.p. each, 1 water heater of 1.2 kW and 1 electric
cooker of 6kW.
Using the diversity factor table, determine the design load (maximum expected load) of the block
of flats. The diversity factors for the various electrical loads are as follows:
Light and ceiling fan
50%
Ring circuit

72
The diversity factor allowed is 100% largest fuse or circuit breaker rating of individual circuits +
40% sum of fuse or C.B ratings of other circuits
A/C unit
100% of largest point + 40% of full load of remaining points
Cooker
100% full load of largest appliance + 50% full load of second largest + 33% full load of third
largest + 25% of fourth + 20% full load of remaining appliances.
Note: To convert wattage to ampere, divide by 240V

P =IV
P
I=
V
Solution
Lighting load
P = IV
P = 10 x 6 x 60 = 3600 W
P 3600
I= = = 7.5A
V 240
Fan load
P = IV
P = 3 x 6 x 200 = 3600W
P 3600
I= = = 7.5A
V 240
Ring circuit
Load (A) =30A + 40% (11 x 30)
= 30A + 132 A
= 162 A
A/C units
Load (A) = 100% of 15A + 40% of (15 x 17)
= 15A + 102 A
= 117A
Water heater
No diversity factor applies
Cooker
Load (W) = 6000 + 3000 + 1980 + 1500 x 2400
= 14880W
Now you can input the results in tabular for as shown in the table below.
Appliance Connected load Diversity factor Design load Design load (A)
(W)

Lamps 10 x 6 x 60 = 3600 50% 1800 P 1800

I= = =¿
W V 240
7.5

Ceiling fans 3 x 6 x 200 = 50% 1800 P 1800

I= = =¿
3600W V 240

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 7.5

Ring circuit 12 nos 100% of largest point P = I × V 162

+ 40% of full load of
remaining points =162 ×240

¿38880

A/C units 3 x 6 x 2 x 746 = 100% of largest point P = I ×V 117

26856 + 40% of full load of
remaining points = 117 × 240

=28080

Water heater 6 x 1.2 x 1000 = No DF 7200 7200

I= =¿30
7200W 240

Electric cooker 6 x 6 x 1000 = 100% full load of P = I ×V 62

36000 W largest appliance +
50% full load of = 62 × 240
second largest + 33% = 14880
full load of third
largest + 25% of
fourth + 20% full load
of remaining
appliances.

TOTAL 386

386
To distribute on 3-phase wire, divide total load by 3 = = 128.67A
3
Each cable will carry 128.67 A
The cable size will be checked from relevant table as provided in IEE Regulations

Example 4
The full-load rating of a 230V cooker is 11.5Kw. Calculate, using diversity the assumed current
demand. The cooker control unit has a socket outlet. (Note: the first 10A of the total rated current
of the connected cooking appliance, plus 30% of the remainder of the total rated current of the
connected appliance, plus 5A if there is a socket outlet in the control unit.
Solution
Actual full load demand
P = IV

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 P 11500
I= = = 50A
V 230
Assumed demand using diversity
30×(50−10)
I = 10 + +5
100
30× 40
I = 10 + +5
100
I = 10 + 12 + 5
I = 27A

E. Determination of the Size of Distribution Fuseboard

Example 1
A domestic installation is to consist of the following loads (i) 8-45 Watts light fittings (ii) 2-60
Watts light fittings (iii) 4-100Watts light fittings (iv) 1-A/C unit of 2.5 H.P (v) 1-8 kilowatts
electric cooker. The floor area is 80m 2. Determine (a) the total number of sub-circuits of that
installation and (b) identify and specify the fuse rating protecting each of the final sub-circuit.
Solution
8-45 Watts light = 360W
2-60 Watts light = 120 W
4-100 Watts = 400 W
Total = 880W
So, 1 No lighting sub-circuit
1 No fixed appliance sub-circuit for A/C unit
1 No fixed appliance sub-circuit for electric cooker
1 No ring circuit per 100m2 floor area
Total: 4-No final sub-circuit (4-Way Distribution Fuseboard)
Fuse-rating
Lighting sub-circuit -5A
Sub-circuit for A/C -30A
Sub-circuit for electric cooker-30A
Ring circuit-30A
Example 2
A typical 4- bedroom flat having the following electrical loads: four lighting circuits of
800watts, one air conditioner of 2H.P and one 8 kW immersion water heater, is supply with
single phase 230V. The floor area is 370m 2. Determine (i) the total number of final sub-circuits
and (ii) identify and specify the fuse rating protecting each of these final sub-circuits.
SOLUTION
(i) Determination of the number of circuits
For lighting point 4 circuits
For 2HP-A/C 1 circuit
For 8kW immersion heater 1 circuit
For the floor area (370m2) 4 circuits (Each 100m2 floor area require 1-30A ring circuit
Total 10 circuit all together
(c) Identify and specify the fuse rating protecting each of these final sub-circuits

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Circuit Protective device
Lighting circuit 5A
2HP A/C 30A
For 8Kw immersion heater 20A
For ring main circuit 30A

Exercise
(1) A domestic installation is to consist of the following loads: (i) 8-60 W lighting, 6-100W, 12-
30W lighting, 2-2HP A/C units, 1-1.5kW electric water heater, 1-21/2HP water pump and 1-
7kW electric cooker. Determine the total number of final sub-circuit required; identify each of
these final sub-circuits. Specify the number of ways and the current rating of the distribution box
or consumer unit for the installation
(2) The electrical installation in a private house consists of the following loads: 15 No-
Incandescent lamps of 60W each, 8No-40W fluorescent lamps- 2No-2.5kW electric water heater,
and 3-No-2HP A/C unit. The floor area is 400m 2. Determine the number of final sub-circuit to be
used in the installation and (ii) (ii) identify and specify the fuse rating for protecting each of
these final sub-circuits.

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