Use of Library by Aminu Ibrahim (Al-Ameen)

MODULE ONE
HISTORY, OBJECTIVES, FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF LIBRARIES
By
HAYATUDEEN ADAMU
Department of Library and Information Sciences
Faculty of Education
Bayero University, Kano
hadamu.lis@buk.edu.ng and princehayatu@gmail.com

+23480 6287 0890
1.1 Introduction
The word library comes from liber, the Latin word for “book”. Libraries are collections of
books, manuscripts, journals, and other sources of recorded information. They commonly
include reference works, such as encyclopaedias that provide factual information and indexes
that help users find information in other sources; creative works, including poetry, novels,
short stories, music scores, and photographs; nonfiction, such as biographies, histories, and
other factual reports; and periodical publications, including magazines, scholarly journals,
and books published as part of a series. The contents of libraries are made available to people
for reading, study, or reference (Halsey, et. al; 2008).
People in many professions use library resources to assist them in their work. People also use
library resources to gain information about personal interests or to obtain recreational
materials such as films and novels. Students use libraries to supplement and enhance their
classroom experiences, to learn skills in locating sources of information, and to develop good
reading and study habits. The Use of Library Module in the General Studies Program (GSP)
have been designed to acquaint and familiarize all newly admitted students with
comprehensive details on the benefits of the library towards their academic pursuit, how to
search and retrieve information resources needed to support their academic research, and the
functions performed by the various sections, units, departments created to support teaching,
research and learning in the university library. As a newly admitted student in Bayero
University, you are expected to identify and apply from any among the numerous study skills
towards achieving your studying objectives; it is worthy to note that, just as individual
personality varies from one person to another, so also, the studying skill that best work for
one student might not necessarily work for another. However, irrespective of the type of
studying skills you choose to apply in your academic pursuit, there are similarities in the tools
to be applied in achieving this objectives i.e. the information resources and services found in
the library.
The central mission of a library is to collect, organize, preserve, and provide access to
information and knowledge. In fulfilling this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of
culture that can be passed down to succeeding generations. A library therefore is an
information environment that provides and enhances personal development, and more so,
influence students’ overall academic achievement. Thus, the effective utilization of
information resources in the library is critical to students’ overall academic achievement. A
library is involved in the business of information management through the effective
organization and dissemination of information resources and services that best satisfies the
information needs of its clientele. For the effective provision of information services, a
library is expected to provide the right information at the right time and in the right form
(Herald cited in Dili, 2007). Libraries therefore are partners in progress in the achievement of
the learning and development objective of every student. A library can also be described as
an organized collection of information resources made accessible to a defined community for
reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital (electronic) access to material, and
may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both (Olanlokun & Salisu, 1988). A
library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps,
prints, documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs, e-books,
audio-books, databases, and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of
books to several million items.
1.2 Historical Development of Libraries:

Historically known as places to keep the business, legal, historical and religious records of a
civilization; libraries have emerged since the middle of the 20th century as a far-reaching
body of information resources and services that do not even require a building. As to when
libraries actually began have been an issue of debate long before now; while some writers
believe library is as old as man himself and of which they based their argument on the fact
that the sole function of a library is simply that of information management and ensuring it
availability for use as at when needed. Hence, they hold the opinion that, the creation of man
marked the beginning of information and by extension, the generation, storage and it
subsequent dissemination in whatever format that was available to man as at that time.
On the other hand, others based their argument on believe that the invention of the art of
writing actually marked the beginning of libraries. This they attributed to the singular fact
that libraries never became prominent until the need to keep for reference and posterity
purpose, the records and information of the activities of man. The coming of writing made it
possible to develop different tools upon which the manifestation of writing were made;
notably among them were the writings made on bark of trees, wall of caves, stones,
parchments and vellums; clay tablets, papyrus, paper and up to the present age of electronic
information resources.
a. The First Libraries
In earliest times there was no distinction between a record room (or archive) and a library,
and in this sense libraries can be said to have existed for almost as long as records have been
kept. The Sumerians, an ancient Mesopotamian civilization, collected written records of legal
contracts, tax assessments, and bills of sale. They recorded these documents in cuneiform, a
system of writing in which scribes (writers or copiers) cut wedges of varying size, shape, and
depth into damp clay tablets.
b. Libraries in Greece and Alexandria
Ancient Greece and Alexandria (present day Egypt) was the first known civilization to
establish libraries for use by the popular classes as well as for members of the ruling elite. In
the 500s bc Pisistratus, who ruled Athens, and Polycrates, the ruler of Sámos, both began
constructing what could be considered public libraries. Most people still could not read,
however, so in practice these libraries served only a small percentage of the total population.
In addition to the government-owned libraries, wealthy Greeks and members of the
professional class established private libraries, as well as specialized libraries in medicine,
philosophy, and other disciplines. The philosopher Aristotle had an extensive library that
scholars consulted, although historians have found no actual listing of the titles in his
collection. Greek scholars Euripides, Plato, Thucydides, and Herodotus also owned
significant personal libraries (Kent, et. al. 1968)
c. The Libraries of Pergamum
For hundreds of years the only library to rival the library of Alexandria in the size and scope
of its collection was the library in the kingdom of Pergamum, in western Asia Minor (now
Turkey). Archaeological research indicates that the Pergamum library contained as many as
160,000 scrolls, and like the Alexandrian library it had a catalogue to simplify access to the
collections. The library was founded by Attalus I, who reigned from 241 to 197 bc. His son,
Eumenes II, who reigned from 197 to about 160 bc, significantly expanded the library.
d. Islamic Libraries
In the Middle East, followers of the prophet Muhammad (SAW) compiled written records of
his teachings and revelations, and transcribed them onto papyrus codices a few years after his
death in ad 632. These manuscripts became known as the Qur’an (Koran) and the Hadith, and
they quickly became the centrepieces of the Islamic religion. Muslims (followers of Islam)
were encouraged to read the Qur’an regularly and to memorize substantial portions of the
text. As Islam spread throughout the Middle East in subsequent centuries, Muslims
established libraries (also known as maktabat, madrassas, or schools) of sacred writings in
their mosques.
1.3 Objectives and Functions of Libraries
Just like every organization, libraries have set objectives designed for them to achieve. These
objectives are determined by the nature of activities carried out by libraries in satisfying the
information need of the users it serve. The main objectives of libraries are as follows:
 To provide information resources
 To provide information services
 To provide conducive environment for reading and research

There are several types of libraries within the Nigerian society vis-à-vis Special Library,
School Library, National Library, Public Library, Private Library and the Academic library.
In a bid to achieve the objective of the parent organization that finances the activities of a
particular library, they are expected to perform certain functions. Although the functions may
vary from one type of library to another, there are certain key functions uniform to all the
types of libraries in the Nigerian society. Therefore, irrespective of the individual function
specific to the individual types of libraries, the following functions are generally performed
by all libraries:
i. Identification and Selection of Information Resources:

ii. Acquisition of the Selected Resources:
o Purchase:
o Exchange
o Gift
o Donation
o Legal Deposit
o Bequest
iii. Organisation of Information Resources:
iv. Storage and Preservation of Information Resources:
v. Dissemination of Resources and Services
2.0 Types of Libraries in the Nigerian Society

Long before the coming of the colonialist to the shores of Africa, certain people of different
ethnic and cultural background existed in different geographical areas of the then Niger area
that was to be later renamed as Nigeria by Mrs Flora Shaw (she later became the wife of the
then Governor General – Sir Lord Lugard). There existed a means for the generation, storage
and transmission of information among the people of that time referred to as Oral Tradition.
Oral tradition implies the process through which information is generated and transferred
from one generation to another through the word of mouth.
In identifying and describing libraries, certain factors such as the following need to be taken
into consideration:
 The pattern of services rendered
 The nature of their collections
 The users
In line with the above features, the major types of libraries in the Nigeria society are as
follows:
 Special Libraries
 Public Libraries
 National Libraries
 School Libraries
 Private Libraries
 Academic Libraries
3.0 University Library System
Universities in Nigeria in the world over are engines of growth and development. They are
increasingly recognized to have a broader role in the social, economic, technological and
manpower development of a nation. In fact, universities serve as the main source of supply of
skilled manpower needed in the various sectors of the nation. Popularly referred to as
Academic Libraries the evolution of university libraries in Nigeria can be linked to the
history of higher education in Nigeria for there can be no institution of higher learning
without a library
3.1 Organization of University Libraries in Nigeria
University libraries are usually divided into units and department in order to allow for
decentralization of leadership and most importantly, for the effective provision of services.
These units/departments are usually created to perform different functions that are geared
towards the achievement of the greater objectives of the library. Below are the typical
Departments found in an academic library:-
i. Circulation Section
ii. Reference Section
iii. Serial Section
iv. E-library Section
v. Special Needs Section
vi. Collection Development Section
vii. Reserve Section
viii. Reprographic Section
Conclusion
Libraries as institution for the development and advancement of the human minds are built
and well furnished with the requisite staff and information resources in different for the
satisfaction of its users information needs. Students are therefore encouraged to patronize and
make useful use of the resources of libraries at any time and from anywhere irrespective of
their location. While library resources can be found online through the internet, other library
resources and services are available offline through visiting the libraries and seeking the help
of professional library personnel who are always willing and happy to serve your need.
Conclusively, students are encouraged to handle library resources and facilities with absolute
care without subjecting them to mutilation and theft.

Practice Questions
At the completion of this module, students should be able to attempt the following questions:
1. Define the concept library and identify the functions of a library in supporting
teaching, learning and research in a university.
2. Describe any of the various types of libraries found in the ancient period
3. What is the contribution of Islam towards the development of libraries?
4. Identify and discuss the ways through which library resources can be acquired
5. With reference to any library of your choice, list and discuss any five functions of the
library
6. Cataloguing and Classification forms a part of the function of library organization.

Discuss
7. Identify and discuss any three of the ancient libraries you know
8. Identify and discuss any four of the types of libraries found in the Nigerian society
9. Academic libraries are regarded as the heart of every higher institution of learning,
a. What is an academic library?
b. Identify and discuss the function of section/departments found in academic

libraries
10. What are the differences between the circulation section and the reference section
found in a typical academic library?
BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
1ST SEMESTER 2020/2021 SESSION
GSP1202/2202 - USE OF LIBRARY,

STUDY SKILLS & ICT
Module 2: Information Resources and Services

Organization and Retrieval in Libraries
MANIR ABDULLAHI KAMBA Ph. D

Department of library and Information Sciences
Bayero University, Kano. 1
Benefits of the study of Use of Library
• The study of use of library will avail the students the opportunity to know,
among others:
• Various information resources for research, term paper, assignment, project,
etc.,
• How to use types of library and information resources in any type of library,
• Various sections of the library,
• How to locate information materials/resources without the help of a librarian or
a library staff,
• Be familiar with various information retrieval tools,
• Have the technique/skills to information retrieval,
• How to apply variety of search techniques,
• Know the rules and regulations governing the library,
• Organization/arrangement of information resources for easy access and
retrieval,
• Parts of a book and their importance to academic achievement,
• Stand the opportunity to do work study in the library’ etc..
2
Introduction
• Library can be described as a place where information
materials/resources of different formats are systematically
acquired, organized, stored, preserved and disseminated to
users at the appropriate time to meet their information needs.
• The library exists to support the parent organization (the

university) in achieving its objectives; the use of library will
help students, researchers and other library users to
overcome the barrier and dissuasion to information access
and use for the achievement of their academic pursuit.
• Therefore, the quality of education depends on the use of the 3

library and its resources.
• Library houses different materials ranging from printed and
electronic resources such as books, periodicals, journals,
encyclopedias, dictionaries, government publications, CD-
ROM, databases, internet resources, audio materials, video
materials, microforms, among others.
• Thus, this module will expose students to the various types of

information resources and how students can access and use
them at any point in time with the differing information
retrieval tools (e.g., the card catalogue, Online Public Access
Catalogue (OPAC), Indexes, bibliographies, etc.).
4
Information Resources in Libraries
• An information resource is container or format where an
individual, or organization got information from; this can be a
book or a Website. Information resources are the various
means by which information is recorded for use by an
individual or an organization.
• It is the means by which a person is informed about

something or knowledge is availed to someone, a group of
people or an organization. Information resources can be
observations, people, speeches, documents, pictures,
organizations. Information sources can be in print, non-print
and electronic media or format.
5
• Information resources or library collection may include books
on different subjects, periodicals (magazines, journals,
newspapers), manuscripts, reference materials
(encyclopedias, dictionaries, maps, gazetteers, indices and
abstracts ), audio books, microform, CD-ROMs, videotapes,
eBooks, databases (AGORA, AJOL, EBSCOHOST, HINARI, and so
on).
6
Types of Information Resources in Libraries
• There are basically two types of information

resources namely :
• Print Information Resources

• Electronic Information Resources
7
Print Information Resources
• Information could be in print format
and these include: all printed books,
periodicals, maps, bibliographies,
indexes and abstracts, photographs,
government documents, technical
reports, etc. Books are the most
common type of printed information
resources. 8
Electronic Information Resources
• Information could be in electronic format and these include:
audio, video, audio-visual and multimedia formats. Example of
audio information is music recorded on CDs and books on
audio or video tapes. Video information includes VCR tapes of
TV shows, movies and documentaries.
• Other examples are information on CD-ROMs, DVDs, Flash

drives and Web documents etc. Electronic resources (or e-
resources) are materials in digital format accessible
electronically.
• Examples of e-resources are electronic journals (e-journal),

electronic books (e-book) online databases in varied digital
formats, Adobe Acrobat documents (.pdf), WebPages (.htm,
.html, .asp etc) and more. 9
Summary and examples of Information
Resources in Libraries
Print Information Resources Electronic Information Resources
Books E-books
Periodicals (magazines, journals, newspapers) E-periodicals
Manuscripts and Special collections Microforms, microfiche
Reference materials (encyclopedias, dictionaries, maps, gazetteers, Databases (AGORA,AJOL, EBSCOHOST, HINARI,
indices abstracts) ELSEVIER, SCOPUS, SCIENCE DIRECT etc)
Research/Technical Reports Web and Internet resources

Government Documents Video recordings (e.g.
television programs)
Conference proceedings, Theses/ Dissertations and Projects Audio recordings (e.g.
radio programs)
Bibliographies, Monographs Communications through social
Networking applications (e.g. Face
book, blogs, RSS, youtube etc.)
Almanac, Hand Books and Manual Others
Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant
specimens, fossils, furniture, tools,
clothing, all from the time under
study)
Works of art, architecture, literature, and music
(e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical scores,
buildings, novels, poems).
10
Information resources Organization
• The main purpose of libraries, particularly those situated in
University campuses, is to collect a large quantity of scholarly
materials from different time periods and on diverse topics to
make research easier for members of the community they
serve (staff and students.)
• Librarians select books, magazines, journals databases and

even Websites for use by their patrons. This selection process
enables the library to collect information resources considered
to be reliable, relevant and valuable.
• Information resources organization is done in libraries through 11

the following methods i.e. classification and cataloguing.
• In addition, Information resources are organized by title,
author and subjects thus making them easy to find. For easy
access, each item of information resources has a call number
that indicates where it is located on the stack/shelf.
• Libraries have collections with in-depth information that has

been published over time. Both current and out of print books
and magazines are stocked in libraries most of which are in
print formats.
12
• With the advent of the electronic age, some of these are now
accessible through digital libraries collections on the Web.
Libraries have trained staff called librarians who serve as a
bridge between users and information resources.
• They assist users in sorting through the maze of information in

their library collections. Librarians answer reference questions
and also help patrons to learn how to use new information
tools. If you need help with accessing information, contact
your librarian.
13
Classification
• Information resources in libraries are organized through the
use of classification system. Classification is the art of grouping
things based on shared similarities. The concept of
classification is universal as anything in life can be classify
according to its characteristics.
• The clothes in our wardrobes can also be classified according

to type such as gowns, skirts, blazers, and so on. Classification
can, therefore, be described as the action of recognizing and
establishing groups of classes of objects, the subclasses and
members of which all manifest (even though in different ways)
a particular characteristic or set of characteristics.
14
The reasons for classification in libraries are to:
• Aid information retrieval through systematic arrangement,

• provide subject analysis of a document,
• highlight relationship between classes and subclasses e.g
education and adult education
• bring related subjects into close proximity, and
• bring users in contact with specific books.
15
Classification systems and schemes
• Classification systems and schemes are, therefore, systematic

plans used for the arrangement of library materials. Most
library classification systems provide a scheme for the
classification of information materials.
• Classification schemes map out fields of knowledge in ways

that are suitable for library use by grouping related items into
classes, and arranging such groups in a hierarchy so that users
can trace topics in their context and scan subject field from
general to specific.
16
• A library classification is a system of knowledge organization
by which library resources are arranged according to subject.
Library classifications use a notational system that represents
the order of topics in the classification scheme and allows
items to be stored in that order.
• Library classification systems, group related materials

together, typically arranged in a hierarchical tree structure
(from general to specific). The library classification numbers
can be considered identifiers for resources, but are distinct
from the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) or
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN).
17
Types of classification schemes
• There are several types of classification systems used in libraries all

over the world. The choice of classification scheme in libraries is,
however, highly dependent on the ability of a classification scheme
to accommodate the disciplines offered by the users of a specific
library
• Special classification schemes
• Special classification schemes are meant for organizing specific

collections. In some cases, libraries dealing with specialized
collections such as medical information sources may want a
classification scheme that best accommodates or classifies medical
information and as such may prefer to use the National library of
Medicine (NLM) classification scheme which is developed
specifically to accommodate medical collections. The Oxford
Decimal Classification (ODC) used mainly in forestry research 18
institutes is another example of a special classification scheme
• National classification schemes
• Some library classification schemes are developed for use only
within a particular country. An example is the Swedish Library
Classification used in national and research libraries in
Sweden.
• General classification schemes
• A classification scheme is said to be general when it covers all
body of knowledge. These are classification schemes that can
be used in the classification of any subject. The Dewey
Decimal Classification and Library of Congress Classification
are the most popular types of general classification schemes
used all over the world. In terms of functionality, classification 19
schemes are often described as enumerative or faceted.
• Enumerative classification schemes are so called because they
attempt to list all the single and composite subject concepts.
Terms for aspects such as place, period, and form appear
repeatedly throughout the schedules making the scheme
bulky e.g., Library of Congress Classification Scheme.
• Faceted classification schemes on the other hand, list numbers

for only single concepts, thereby, allowing the cataloguer or
user of the scheme to construct (add) numbers to make up
composite subject concepts thereby making the scheme less
bulky e.g. Colon Classification.
20
Examples of Classification Schemes
1. DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION (DDC)
The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) is a general classification
scheme that is continuously revised to keep pace with knowledge. The
system was conceived by Melvil Dewey in 1873 and first published in
1876. According to Online computer Library Center (OCLC) (2003), the
DDC is the most widely used classification system in the world as it is
currently being used in more than 135 countries to organize and
provide access to their collections.
• Features of DDC
• The whole body of knowledge is divided into ten main classes, 000-
999 each main class can further be subdivided into divisions and
sections e.g. 600 = applied sciences, 630 = agriculture, 632 = plant
injuries. 6 3 2 = 6 for main class, 3 for division and 2 for section
• It uses only Arabic numerals as notation. It is, therefore, said to have
a pure notation. 21
• A decimal point, or dot, follows the third digit in a class
number, after which division by ten continues to the specific
degree of classification needed. The dot is not a decimal point
in the mathematical sense, but a psychological pause to break
the monotony of numerical digits and to ease the
transcription and copying of the class number.
• It has mnemonic devices as it can easily be remembered. E.g.
religion 200
• It shows hierarchy and net work of relationships, using military
science as an example. Military science 355 Military life and
custom 355.1, Promotion and demotion 355.112
• It is compact as it comes in four volumes, Volume 1
(Introduction), Volumes 2 and 3 (Schedules), and Volume 4
(Index). 22
Ten Main Classes of DDC (First summary)
• The ten main classes into which knowledge is divided using the
Dewey Decimal Classification is called the first summary.
• The First Summary
• 000 General works
• 100 Philosophy & psychology
• 200 Religions
• 300 Social sciences
• 400 Languages
• 500 Science
• 600 Technology
• 700 Arts & recreation
• 800 Literature
• 900 History & geography
23
The second summary
• Each main class is further divided into ten divisions
representing a part of the discipline. This forms the hundred
divisions known as the second summary.
000 Generalities 100 Philosophy
010 Bibliographies 110 Metaphysics
020 Library & information sciences 120 Epistemology
030 Encyclopedias & books of facts 130 Parapsychology & occultism
040 [Unassigned] 140 Philosophical schools of thought
050 Magazines, journals & serials 150 Psychology
060 Associations, organizations & museums 160 Logic
070 News media, journalism & publishing 170 Ethics
080 Quotations 180 Ancient, medieval & eastern philosophy
090 Manuscripts & rare books 190 Modern and western philosophies
200 Religion 300 Social sciences, sociology &

anthropology
210 Philosophy & theory of religion 310 Statistics
220 The Bible 320 Political science
230 Christianity & Christian theology 330 Economics
240 Christian practice & observance 340 Law
250 Christian pastoral practice & religious orders 350 Public administration & military science 24
260 Christian organization, social work & worship 360 Social problems & social services
270 History of Christianity 370 Education
280 Christian denominations 380 Commerce, communications & transport
290 Other religions 390 Customs, etiquette & folklore
400 Language 500 Science
410 Linguistics 510 Mathematics
420 English & Old English languages 520 Astronomy
430 German & related languages 530 Physics
440 French & related languages 540 Chemistry
450 Italian, Romanian & related languages 550 Earth sciences & geology
460 Spanish & Portuguese languages 560 Fossils & prehistoric life
470 Latin & Italic languages 570 Life sciences; biology
480 Classical & modern Greek languages 580 Plants (Botany)
490 Other languages 590 Animals (Zoology)
600 Technology 700 Arts

610 Medicine & health 710 Landscaping & area planning
620 Engineering 720 Architecture
630 Agriculture 730 Sculpture, ceramics & metalwork
640 Home & family management 740 Drawing & decorative arts
650 Management & public relations 750 Painting
660 Chemical engineering 760 Graphics arts
670 Manufacturing 770 Photography & computer art
680 Manufacture for specific uses 780 Music
25
690 Building & construction 790 Sports, games & entertainment
800 Literature, rhetoric & criticism 900 Geography & History
810 American literature in English 910 Geography & travel
820 English & Old English literatures 920 Biography & genealogy
830 German & related literatures 930 History of ancient world (to ca. 499)
840 French & related literatures 940 History of Europe
850 Italian, Romanian & related literatures 950 History of Asia
860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 960 History of Africa
870 Latin & Italic literatures 970 History of North America
880 Classical & modern Greek literatures 980 History of South America
890 Other literatures 990. story of other areas
26
2. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION
SCHEME
• The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a system of Library

Classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by
most research and academic libraries in U.S and other countries.
Library of Congress Classification Scheme assigns call numbers to
library resources using letters and numbers to sort books into
subject areas but each title does have its own unique call number
for systematic cataloguing and shelving.
• Library of Congress. The classification was originally developed by

Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of
Congress. With advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced
by Cutter Expansive Classification and the DDC, and was specially
designed for the special purposes of the Library of Congress. Over
the course of the twentieth century, the system was adopted for use
by other libraries as well, especially large academic libraries in the
United States. It is currently one of the most widely used library
classification systems in the world. 27
•
• Features of LCC
• The classification scheme comes in 47(41 as at 2012) separately

published schedules.
• The notation is mixed. It uses single capital letters for main classes Q
(science), double capital letters for sub classes (mathematics) it also
uses Arabic numerals for further sub divisions.
• It does not have a general index rather there is a detailed index in
each schedule.
• It has provision for further knowledge by leaving out IOWXY.
• The LCC does not have a single table but rather provides tables in
each schedule.
• It covers the body of known knowledge.
• Relationships among topics in LCC are shown not by the numbers
that are assigned to them, but by indenting subtopics under the
larger topics that they are a part of, much like an outline. 28
A General works
B –BJ Philosophy, Psychology
BL –BX Religion
C Auxiliary Sciences of History
D History: General and Old world (Eastern Hemisphere)
E –F History: America (Western Hemisphere)
G Geography, Maps, Anthropology, Recreation
H –HJ Social Sciences: Economics
HM –HX Social Sciences: Sociology
J Political Science
K Law (General)
KD Law of the United Kingdom and Ireland
KE Law of Canada
KF Law of United States
L Education
M Music
N Fine Arts
P –PA General Philology and Linguistics, Classical Languages and Literature.
PA Supplement –Byzantine and Modern Greek Literature, medieval and modern Latin Literature
PB –PH Modern European Languages

PG Russian Literature
PJ –PM Languages and Literature of Asia, Africa, Oceania, American
Indian Languages and Dialects.
PN, PR, PS, PZ General Literature, English and American Literature, Fiction in English and Juvenile Belles Letters.
PQ Part 1 French Literature

PQ Part 2 Indian, Spanish and Portuguese Literatures
PT Part 1 German Literature
PT Part 2 Dutch and Scandinavian Literature
Q Science
R Medicine
S Agriculture
T
U
Technology
Military Science
29
V Naval Science
Z Bibliography, Library Science
Some of the classes above can be broken down into various disciplines
e.g Q -Science.
• Q-Pure Science
• QA-Mathematics
• QB-Astronomy
• QC-Physics
• QD-Chemistry
• QE-Geology
• QH-Natural Science
• QK-Botany
• QL-Zoology
• QM-Human Anatomy
• QP-Physiology 30
• QR-Microbiology
Other Classification Schemes
• COLON CLASSIFICATION (CC) Colon classification is a system of
classification developed by S. R. Ranganathan. It was first
published in 1933.
• UNIVERSAL DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION (UDC) The UDC was

developed in 1885 by Belgian bibliographers Paul Otlet and
Henri la Fontaine. It is structured in such a way that new
developments and new fields of knowledge can be readily
incorporated.
31
• BLISS BIBLIOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION (BC) The Bliss
bibliographic classification (BC) is a faceted classification
scheme which was developed by Henry E. Bliss. The scheme
was first published in four volumes in the United States
between 1940 and 1953.
• MOY’S CLASSIFICATION SCHEME Moy’s Classification Scheme

was developed by Elizabeth (Betty) M. Moys in 1968. The
scheme provides a system for organising legal materials and as
such is used mainly in law libraries.
32
Information Retrieval
• Information resources are arranged in some sort of order in a
library. The resources are organized using a specific type of
Classification Scheme, to collate materials in a given subject
together or to arrange together materials of likes terms i.e.
materials of the same subjects.
• Within the library, there is a retrieval technique called a

Catalogue, which directs library patrons to the information
resources available in the library and how to access and
retrieve such materials with ease using the author, title or
subject catalogue.
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Library Catalogue
• A library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic items found
in a library arranged alphabetically by author, title, subject and
class mark. The catalogue is very important in a library
whenever its collection is growing too large.
• Regardless of the type of users, the primary purpose of all

libraries/information centres is to assist in the transfer of
information and the development of knowledge. In the
information world, every individual must learn and have the
tools needed to deal with the information age.
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• The most important of the retrieval tools of a library and
information centre collection is the catalogue. A catalogue is a
list of materials such as books, microforms, audio recordings,
etc. in a collection. It records, describes and locates each item
present in the collection.
• The catalogue helps to locate items and bring similar

identifiers together. It records resources of a library or
information center under the author, title, and subjects or
form headings. It is the key and pointer to the library
collections as it contains entries representing each material in
the library because of the functions it performs
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• The library catalogue facilitates finding of a desired item and
enlighten the user about related items by displaying in one
place all items that share a common characteristics.
• The common characteristic could be title, author, or subject.

The goal of a catalogue is not only to permit persons to find
items that they already know exist in the collection, but to
also help them find items of which they were not aware exist
in the collection.
• In summary, the catalogue is simply a record of what the

library has. It helps the library user to identify what the library 36
has, where to find it and how to locate it.
Functions of a Library Catalogue
• To enables a user to find out whether the library has a specific book,
• To enhances access to the library collections,
• To enables a person find or locate a book of which either the author,
title or subject is known or unknown,
• To shows what the library has:
• by a given author
• on a given subject
• in a given kind of literature,
• To assists in the choice of a book as to its edition and other
bibliographic details,
• To enables a user to know whether or not certain books are in the
library,
• To enables a user know all the works of a given author held in the
library,
• To shows at a glance the number of copies the library has on a title,
and
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• To gives information on author, title, subject, imprint, collation,
location, etc. of any information material available in the library.
FORMS OF LIBRARY CATALOGUE:
• The common and popularly known and used catalogue in

most libraries consist of the following:
• 1. Book catalogue
• 2. Card catalogue
• 3. Dictionary catalogue
• 4. Computer Output Microform (COM) catalogue
• 5. Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)
• 6. Shelf-list catalogue
• 7. Automated catalogue
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• BOOK CATALOGUE: As the name implies, book catalogue is a
kind of catalogue that is printed in a book form with entries
arranged in alphabetical order by author, title, subject or a
combination of all like a dictionary arranged words.
• CARD CATALOGUE: This is mostly found in libraries worldwide

and is the most common form of catalogue. It is a catalogue in
which entries are made on 7.5cm x 12.5cm (3” x 5”) card.
These cards are then filed in alphabetical order by author,
title, subject and call numbers in the drawers of the catalogue
cabinet to provide access to the library collections.
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• DICTIONARY CATALOGUE: This is a form of catalogue that
contains entries under author, title, subject, and all of them
interfiled in a single sequence, usually in alphabetical order.
The dictionary catalogue is popular in public libraries and it
presents the least amount of difficulty for general or casual
reader.
• CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE: This is a form of card catalogue that

is arranged by subject according to the classification scheme in
use by the library. It is arranged according to the class mark
assigned to each book in the library.
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• DIVIDED CATALOGUE: In this form of Cards catalogue enterers
are arranged in alphabetical sequence, with Author, Title and
Subject entries in a separate file usually referred to as three
way divided catalogues.
• COMPUTER OUTPUT MICROFORM CATALOGUE (COMcat)

This is a form of library catalogue in which the bibliographic
records is printed in machine readable format such as
microfilm, microfiche and microcard. It is produced on this
media by a computer; hence the name computer output
microform. They are called microform because they cannot be
viewed with the naked eyes.
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• ONLINE PUBLIC ACCESS CATALOGUE (OPAC): This is an
electronic form of card catalogue. As computer technology
advances and the price of computer hardware and software
decreases, more libraries are converting their catalogues to
Online Public Access Catalogues (OPACs).
• SHELF-LIST CATALOGUE: This is actually a kind of library

catalogue. But because of its uniqueness and the role it plays
in the library it is worth discussing here. This is a kind of
catalogue that is arranged according to the class number.
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Conclusion
• The question, why study the use of library is like asking, why
does the library exist? The same way library exists to support
the parent organization (the university) in achieving its
objectives, is the same way the study of the use of library will
help students, researchers and other library users to
overcome the barrier and discouragement to information
access and use to achieve their academic pursuit.
• Hence, the quality of education depends on the use made of
the library and its resources. Students are faced with
challenges of information need in diverse ways for couple of
reasons.
• First, mass production of information also known as
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information explosion;
• Second, students are faced with challenges of information
need(s) in diverse ways: assignments, research, recreation,
projects, and term papers, among others.
• Third, the library is the largest and complicated piece of

educational equipment that students and non-students
encounter and many are discouraged in its complexity and in
most cases they are frustrated.
• Therefore, it is pertinent to know the routines and practices

involved in library services to avoid frustration and
discouragement 44
GSP1202/2202 – USE OF LIBRARY, STUDY SKILLS AND
ICT
MODULE THREE
Copyright and Censorship, Database Management and

Application of Internet to Library and Information Services
BY
Manir Abdullahi Kamba Ph D.

Hayatudeen Adamu
Ahmad Ameen Al-Deen Abubakar

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Outlines of the Module:
I. Copyright and Censorship of Materials in Libraries
II. Database Management
III. Application of ICT to Library and Information Centres
1.0 Introduction
Library and information centers are gateways to knowledge and culture; also, libraries have
come to be regarded as “people‟s universities” as they provide access to knowledge, learning and
ideas; which is an essential component to fostering a creative and innovative society. It is not
surprising that the two countries ranking number one in the UN Human Development Index over
the last ten years, Norway and Canada, both have strong library infrastructures. Libraries are not
just shelves of books or collections of databases. Resources are carefully selected and organized
by trained professionals. The unique role of libraries can be seen in the way they provide
personalized information and also respond to particular questions and individual needs of
citizens. This complements the general transmission of knowledge by the media, and makes
libraries vital to the creation of a well-informed citizenry and a democratic and open information
society.
2.0 Copyright and Censorship of Materials in Libraries
2.1 Copyright
Copyright is the legal right to reproduce, publish and sell the matter and form of a literary,
dramatic, musical or artistic work. The right is tenable for a limited but long period of time,
which may vary from country to country. It is also the branch of law granting authors the
exclusive privilege to reproduce, distribute, perform, or display their creative works. The goal of
copyright law is to encourage authors to invest effort in creating new works of art and literature.
Copyright is one among the three branches of the intellectual property law; the others are
trademark, and patent. Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the
community, to enjoy the art and to share in the scientific advancement and benefits. At the same
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time, everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interest resulting from
any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
Not every work of authorship is eligible for copyright; to qualify for copyright protection, a work
must be both fixed and original. The law considers a work to be fixed if it is recorded in some
permanent format. Acceptable ways of fixing a work include writing it down, storing it on a
computer floppy disk or compact disc (CD), recording it on videotape, or sculpting it in marble.
If a poet thinks of a new poem and recites it to an audience without writing it down, copyright
does not protect the poem because it is not fixed. To be original, the work must not be copied
from previously existing material and must display at least a reasonable amount of creativity.
A literary work is regarded as an intellectual property, which is granted copyright protection,

based on moral, economic and cultural grounds in order to:
a) Guarantee the author a monopoly right to control, for a specified period, the uses made of
his work, including sale to publisher
b) Guarantee a publisher a monopoly right to print (or arrange to print) a work within
national boundaries for a specified period
c) Provide financial compensation for authors to reward for their creativity.
d) Foster the development of arts and sciences in general.
2.1.2 Copyright Rules - What Students Need to Know
Today, the Internet has brought the issue of copyright to the forefront like nothing else in history.
The ease and speed with which people can share digital information has also made it very easy to
commit copyright infringement, intentionally or not. It becomes very imperative to ensure
students and users in general are made to be aware of copyright rules in order to avoid violation
them. It becomes pertinent for each student to take note of the following important tips:
 Plagiarism and copyright: the most basic difference between the two is this: Plagiarism
entails copying someone else‟s work and taking credit for it as your own original work;
copyright infringement entails using someone else‟s work and not paying them for it.
 Students are not allowed to make photocopy of the entire content of a test book or any
information resources, all photocopying must be within the principle of fair usage – the
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principle of this implies that only certain pages of an information resources is allowed to
be photocopied by a user for research and learning purpose. If you want the entire
content, you may have to purchase your own copy.
 Copyright protection is not limited to only information resources such as books; other
types of work protected by copyright include, but are not limited to: poetry, software,
music, plays, songs, novels and other literary works, audio recordings, and even
architecture. Copyright does not, however, protect intangibles such as ideas, methods of
operation, or systems. In addition, copyright does not protect things that are not
attributable to a creator, such as facts.
 Copyright protect both a published and an unpublished work. Unpublished works include
bounded copies of project found in university libraries.
 Immediately, as soon as you put pen to paper, brush to canvas, or fingers to keyboard,
and create something original, it is copyrighted. You necessarily don‟t have to, but it‟s a
good idea to add the copyright symbol to the things you create. Not having the symbol
doesn‟t mean content isn‟t still protected by copyright.
 In general, for any type of work, the copyright is in effect from the time the author
creates it, until that author‟s death, plus another 70 years beyond the date of death.
Copyright duration does vary, however, according to when the work was published and
in what manner, and whether the copyright was renewed.
 It is possible to bequeath creative works and their copyrights to people other than the
original authors. For example, if you write a book, you can leave that book and its unsold
rights to your heirs.
2.2 Censorship
The term censorship is derived from the Latin word „Censer‟ which means to access. Censorship
is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative materials which may be consider
objectionable, harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor. Encyclopaedia of Library &
Information Science, “Censorship is an effort by a government, or private organization, groups
or individuals to prevent people reading, seeing or hearing what may be considered as dangerous
to government and harmful to the public morality.” Harrods Librarian Glossary “Censorship is
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the prohibition of production, distribution, circulation or sale of materials considered to be
objectionable for reasons of politics, religion, obscenity or blasphemy.”
Censorship‟s may be applied to both written and oral communications. Its span encompasses
books, magazines, newspapers, radio, TV, movies, dramas, paintings, plays, speeches, dance,
music, art, literature, photographs, mails, emails, websites etc. deemed to be offensive, indecent,
obscene and sexually explicit. Today, censorship is no longer limited to printed media and
videos. Its impact is felt much more strongly with regard to Internet related resources of
information and communication such as access to websites, email and social networking tools
which is further enhanced by ubiquitous access through mobile phones and tablets. Some
countries are marked by severe restrictions and enforcement, a variety of initiatives in enforcing
censorship (pervasive as well as implied), as well as initiatives to counter censorship.
2.2.1 Types of Censorship
The following are the types of censorship:
a) Political Censorship: - Political censorship occurs when governments hold back

information from their citizens. Many political parties published many objectionable
items, which may create unwanted problems for the Governments.
b) Moral/Ethical Censorship: - Moral censorship is the removal of materials that a censor
regards to be obscene or otherwise questionable. Pornography, for example, is often
censored under this rationale especially child pornography, which is censored in most
jurisdiction in the world.
c) Religion Censorship: - Religion Censorship is the means by which any material
objectionable to a certain faith is removed. This often involves a dominate religion
forcing limitation on less prevalent ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the work
of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their faith.
d) Military Censorship: - The task of protecting the territorial integrity of any nation both
from internal or external aggression lies in the hand of the Military; therefore, Military
administrations are usually the highest authority to protect the sovereignty for a country.
So any pamphlet, letter, report and publication against military roles are censors for
defence and security of the country.
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e) Internet Censorship: - Unlike censorship in other areas, Internet censorship is a
relatively new phenomenon and remains seriously under-researched. Censored content
varies widely based on country, culture and context.
3.0 Database Management
Database refers to a collection of electronic records that could be processed to produce useful
information. The data can be accessed, modified, managed, controlled and organized to perform
various data-processing operations.
3.1 Database Management Systems

A Database is a collection of records. Database management systems are designed as the means
of managing all the records. Database Management is a software system that uses a standard
method and running queries with some of them designed for the oversight and proper control of
databases.
Types of Database Management Systems
There are seven structural types of database management systems:
 Hierarchical databases
 Network databases
 Relational databases
 Object-oriented databases
 Graph databases
 ER model databases
 Document databases
a) Hierarchical Databases (DBMS)
It is very fast and simple. In a hierarchical database, records contain information about groups of
parent/child relationships, just like as a tree structure. The structure implies that a record can
have repeating information. In this structure data follows a series of records; it is a set of field
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values attached to it. It collects all records together as a record type. These record types are the
equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the equivalent
of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model uses these type
Relationships.
b) Network Database
Network databases are mainly used on large digital computers. Network databases are similar to
hierarchical databases by also having a hierarchical structure. A network database looks more
like a cobweb or interconnected network of records. In network databases, children are called
members and parents are called occupier.
The Approval of the network data model is similar with the esteem of the hierarchical data
model. Some data were more naturally modeled with more than one parent per child. The
network model authorized the modeling of many-to-many relationships in data. The network
model is very similar to the hierarchical model. Actually the hierarchical model is a subset of the
network model. However, instead of using a single-parent tree hierarchy, the network model uses
set theory to provide a tree-like hierarchy with the exception that child tables were allowed to
have more than one parent. It supports many-to-many relationships.
c) Relational Databases
In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational. Hierarchical and network
databases require the user to pass a hierarchy in order to access needed data. These databases
connect to the data in different files by using common data numbers or a key field. Data in
relational databases is stored in different access control tables, each having a key field that
mainly identifies each row. In relational databases, tables or files filled up with data are called
relations (tuples) designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as attributes or fields.
Relational databases work on each table has a key field that uniquely indicates each row, and that
these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another.
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d) Object-Oriented Model Databases
Object DBMS provides full-featured database programming capability, while containing native
language compatibility. It adds the database functionality to object programming languages. This
approach is the analogical of the application and database development into a constant data
model and language environment. Applications require less code, use more natural data
modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain. Object developers can write complete database
applications with a decent amount of additional effort.
e) Graph Databases
Graph Databases are NoSQL databases and use a graph structure for semantic queries. The data
is stored in form of nodes, edges, and properties. In a graph database, a Node represents an entity
or instance such as customer, person, or a car. A node is equivalent to a record in a relational
database system. An Edge in a graph database represents a relationship that connects nodes.
Properties are additional information added to the nodes.
f) ER Model Databases
An ER model is typically implemented as a database. In a simple relational database
implementation, each row of a table represents one instance of an entity type, and each field in a
table represents an attribute type. In a relational database a relationship between entities is
implemented by storing the primary key of one entity as a pointer or "foreign key" in the table of
another entity.
g) Document Databases
Document databases are also NoSQL database that store data in form of documents. Each
document represents the data, its relationship between other data elements, and attributes of data.
Document database store data in a key value form.
3.2 Electronic Databases

An electronic database (e-database) is an organised collection of information of a particular
subject or multi-disciplinary subject areas in electronic form. It could also be referred to as a
collection of electronic data arranged in a systematic way to make search easy and fast. In other
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words, it is a computer-based collection or listing of information, usually organized with
searchable elements or fields. In recent years, the Internet and other digital sources of
information are widely used tools for research and other information needs. Hence, many
indexing and abstracting services have provided their content in electronic format. Instead of
using a print index, you can now search this material from your computer. The advantages of
electronic searching include greater flexibility, more up-to-date material, and, in some cases,
access to the actual articles or materials rather than just a citation. The Contents of e-database
usually include journal articles, newspaper articles, book reviews and conference proceedings,
etc. and usually updated on a daily, weekly, monthly or quarterly basis.
4.0 Application of ICT to Library and Information Centres
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is often used as an extended synonym for
Information Technology (IT), but it is a more specific term that stresses the role of unified
communication and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals),
computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middle ware, storage, and audio-visual
systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. ICTs
according to Islam and Islam (2006) is a comprehensive concept and also a parallel concept with
Information Technology (IT) that denotes not only a single unit but an assembly of technologies
like telecommunication equipment, data processing equipment, semi-conductors, consumer
electronics etc. The concept has brought phenomenal change in the information collection,
preservation and dissemination scene such as libraries and information centers.
Application of ICTs to library and information work has revolutionized the traditional concept of
libraries from a store house of books to an intellectual information center connoting the concept
of electronic libraries. According to Nasiruddin and Roknuzzaman (2002), it has opened up a
new chapter in library communication and facilitated global access to information crossing
geographical limitations. Libraries in recent times are shifting their role from the custodian of
traditional information resources to the provider of service-oriented digital information
resources. Adamu & Umar (2017) noted that through the widespread use of computers, increased
reliance on computer networks, rapid growth of Internet and explosion in the quality, and
9
quantity of information; have compelled libraries to adopt new means and methods for the
storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
4.1 Benefits of ICTs to Library Users

The application of ICTs to library has led to numerous improvements in the way library users‟
access and use library‟s information resources and services. Other than enhancing user
satisfaction, it has provided other benefits as highlighted by (Henderson cited in Adamu, 2017):
 Provide easy and speedy access to information:
 Provide remote access to users at every hour and at all time.
 Provide access to unlimited information from different sources
 Provides increased flexibility
 Facilitate the reformatting and combination of data from different sources
 Facilitate the dissemination of information in line with users information need
 An alternative choice for the use of information resources
4.2 ICT Based Library Services
Library have been providing different forms of services that were ordinarily delivered manually
in the past by taking advantage of ICTs, some of those ICT based services provided by libraries
are as follows:
 Library Web Portal: Libraries provide quick access to users through a specially designed
and developed Web Portal for the library which is available on the Intranet, it enables users
to access many useful information frequently required by them, like links to online journals
subscribed, links to electronic resources available through consortia programme.
 OPAC: Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) give access to the user for searching
available reading material in library through computer terminal. OPAC allows searching the
entire catalogue online, conveniently and quickly, using one or more search technique e.g.
searching using the author, title, keywords, class number etc.
 Resource Sharing (consortia): The libraries are also using information technology for
resource sharing. Libraries having computerized their working and services can be linked
with each other through a suitable telecommunication technology.
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 Database Services: A database is any collection of data organized for storage in a computer
memory and designed for easy access by authorized users. The data may be in the form of
text, numbers, or encoded graphics. Examples of databases available to academic libraries
are the Science Direct, SAGE, DOAJ, AGORA, etc.
 Literature Search Services: Library is providing the e-service for literature search through
various information sources within the library, outside the library or at national or
international level, in a short time with accuracy. Current Awareness Services (CAS) and
Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) services have become easy and it can be
provided without causing any delay by using the new IT.
 Bibliographic Services: Compilation of bibliographies is parts of Library work, particularly
in research and academic libraries. Browsing through the manual indexes and abstracts is a
tedious and time consuming work, and does not always produce up to date result.
Availability of databases in electronic form on CDROM or online, offers convenient,
efficient and cost effective system for information retrieval.
 Online Reference Services: Digital reference (or virtual reference) is a service by which a
library reference service is conducted online, and the reference transaction is a computer-
mediated communication.
 Access to Web Resources: Libraries provide access to other forms of Electronic Information
Resources such as e-journals, e-books electronic theses and dissertations etc. From the
library‟s point of view digital format offers convenience of storage and maintenance, cost
advantage, ability to target global users, etc. Dissertations and theses are important sources of
information and knowledge for further research. Thus it has to be converted into digital form
and made available on Internet or Intranet for continuous access.
 Video Library Services: Some libraries keep collections of audio and video on CDs about
seminars and lecture series presented at the various faculties within the university. Students
and researchers can now refer back to previous episode in order to gain better understanding
even long after the class is over.
 Email Publishing Services: Email publishing is designed for delivering regular content-
based email messages. Email publishing is a popular choice among readers who enjoy the
ease of receiving news items, articles and short newsletters in their email box. Newsletters
are also widely used by media companies to complement their web and print offerings.
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Research, Plagiarism, Referencing/Citation & Use of Dictionary
Research
Research is simply a ‘scientific’ and carefully planned investigation into an identified problem
in a given field of study or endeavour.
 Universities are research institutions. As university students, you are potential
researchers and it is expected of you to submit a research report/Project before
graduation.
 The word research is a blend of ‘re’ and ‘search’. There are already given and identified
fields of study in the arts, sciences, humanities, and management, however, there is
need for continued development and improvement, hence ‘re’ search.
 Research has to be scientific: objective and verifiable.
 It has to revolve around an identified/stated ‘problem’ within a given field of study.
 Identifying research problem stems from having the knowledge of a given field of study
through literature review (previous/existing research).
 Research report/Project is usually presented as outcome of research. It is written and/or
presented in a prescribed format.
 Evidence of existing knowledge/research has to be properly acknowledged in the
Project/Research Report, to avoid plagiarism.
Plagiarism
This is presenting someone else’s work/findings as yours. It is caused by failure to properly
acknowledge the source of an information/knowledge, thereby making a researcher appear to
be the author.
Copying and presenting entire or parts of someone else’s project is also plagiarism.
 Plagiarism is a punishable offence
 It is a mark of laziness and poor research ethics
ULSSI Sketch Lecture Notes prepared by Dameh J. Ali

 The DEAR Handbook discusses penalties for plagiarism.
 To avoid being a plagiarist, it is important to properly Reference and cite sources.
Reference and Citation
Referencing is the way-out of plagiarism and a mark of a good research/researcher.
Reference is simply acknowledging the source of an information/finding by another/earlier
research/researcher. It is the method of attributing authorial rights, rightly.
Academic writing relies on more than just the ideas and experience of one author. It also uses
the ideas and research of other sources: books, journal articles, websites, and so forth. These
other sources may be used to support the author's ideas, or the author may be discussing,
analysing, or critiquing other sources.
Referencing is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been used in an
assignment.
There are many reasons why it is important to reference sources correctly:
i. It shows the reader that you can find and use sources to create a solid argument
ii. It properly credits the originators of ideas, theories, and research findings
iii. It shows the reader how your argument relates to the big picture
Failure to properly acknowledge sources is called plagiarism, and it can carry significant
academic penalties. Fortunately, plagiarism is easy to avoid by following a few basic
principles.
There are two elements used in referencing:
1. A citation in the text of the assignment (also known as in-text citations)
2. An entry in a reference list at the end of the assignment

The citation contains only enough information for the reader to find the source in the reference
list. Usually, this is the name of the source's author and the year the source was published. For
example:
When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic information about
the users (Musa, 2006).
In this example, (Musa, 2006) tells the reader that this information has come from a source
written by Musa, which was published in 2006. This is a signpost, pointing the reader to the
reference list.
The reference list is a list of all the sources used (and cited) in an assignment/work. It is
alphabetised according to the names of the authors. Each entry in the reference list contains
detailed information about one source. This usually includes the author's name, the year of
publication, the title of the source, and source location details (e.g., publisher’s name, URL).
For example:
References
Durie, M. (2003). Using Wood: Launching Māori futures. Huia.

Hazledine, T., & Quiggan, J. (2006). Public policy in Australia and New Zealand: The new
global context. Australian Journal of Political Science, 41(2), 131–143.
Musa, J. (2006). Web Usability: A user-Centred design approach. Pearson Addison Wesley.
Ministry for Primary Industries. (2012). Food safety. https://www.mpi.govt.nz/food-safety
If they wanted to, a reader could use this information to find these sources in a library or
online.
What needs to be referenced

Whenever an assignment uses words, facts, ideas, theories, or interpretations from other
sources, those sources must be referenced.
Referencing is needed when:
You have copied words from a book, article, or other source exactly (quotation)
You have used an idea or fact from an outside source, even if you haven't used their exact
wording (paraphrasing and summarising)
The only exception to this is when the information is common knowledge, which is something
that anyone is likely to know. If you are uncertain whether to reference something or not, it is
better to reference it.
Referencing Styles
Referencing is a formal system: there are rules and standards to follow when formatting
citations and references. Many students find referencing quite intimidating at first. Like any
skill, it takes time and patience to learn.
The examples above use APA style, a format created by the American Psychological
Association.
Other styles include MLA style, Oxford style, Harvard style, and Chicago style. These styles
are subtly different, and different colleges and departments may ask you to use different styles.
Oxford style, for example, uses footnotes instead of in-text citations, and a bibliography instead
of a reference list.

Use of Dictionary
The dictionary is simply a manual for language. Hence every language has or should have a
dictionary. It captures all known words in a language. The words are arranged alphabetically.
On each page, a Headword is placed at the topmost right/left as a pointer to other words that
could be found on that page.
The English Language dictionary provides the following information about each word entry:
1. Definition (denotative and connotative)
2. Pronunciation (phonetic alphabets) beauty /bjuti/
3. Stress pattern /’bjuti/
4. Origin/etymology of words
5. Synonyms/antonyms
6. Usage (how a word is to be used in a sentence)
7. Word class (part of speech).

School of General and Entrepreneurship Studies
GSP1202/2202: Use of Library Study Skills and ICT(ULSSI)

(First Semester, 2020/2021 Session)
Module 4: Research Skills

What is Research?
▪ Research is made up of ‘re’ – to do again and ‘search’ – to find/to
discover. Hence, Research is searching again.
▪ Research is simply a ‘scientific’ and carefully planned investigation

focused on an identified problem in a given field of study or
endeavour.
▪ Universities are research institutions. As university students, you are

potential researchers and it is expected of you to submit a research
report/Project before graduation.
The Basics of Research
• Research has to be scientific, objective and verifiable.
• It has to revolve around an identified/stated ‘problem’ within a given field

of study.
• Identifying research problem stems from having the knowledge of a given

field of study through literature review (previous/existing research).
• Research report/Project is usually presented as outcome of research. It is

written and/or presented in a prescribed format.
• The aim and objectives of every research must be carefully thought-out and
written
• Evidence of existing knowledge/research has to be properly acknowledged

(in-text and end reference/bibliography) in the Project/Research Report, to
avoid plagiarism.
• In text citation appears within the paragraph while Reference/Bibliography

is placed at the tail end of the research writing
Plagiarism
• This is presenting someone else’s work/findings as yours.
• It is caused by failure to properly acknowledge the source of an
information/knowledge, thereby making a researcher appear to be
the author.
• Copying and presenting entire or parts of someone else’s project is
also plagiarism.
• Plagiarism is a punishable offence It is a mark of laziness and poor
research ethics
• To avoid being a plagiarist, it is important to properly Reference and
cite sources
Reference and Citation
• Referencing is the way-out of plagiarism and a mark of a good research/researcher.
• Reference is simply acknowledging the source of an information/finding by
another/earlier research/researcher.
• It is the method of attributing authorial rights, rightly. Academic writing relies on
more than just the ideas and experience of one author. It also uses the ideas and
research of other sources: books, journal articles, websites, and so forth.
• These other sources may be used to support the author's ideas, or the author may
be discussing, analysing, or critiquing other sources.
• Referencing is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been
used in an assignment.
• There are many reasons why it is important to reference sources
correctly
• i. It shows the reader that you can find and use sources to create a
solid argument
• ii. It properly credits the originators of ideas, theories, and research
findings
• iii. It shows the reader how your argument relates to the big picture
FAILURE TO PROPERLY ACKNOWLEDGE SOURCES IS CALLED

PLAGIARISM, AND IT CAN CARRY SIGNIFICANT ACADEMIC
PENALTIES. FORTUNATELY, PLAGIARISM IS EASY TO AVOID BY
FOLLOWING A FEW BASIC PRINCIPLES
• There are two elements used in referencing
• 1. A citation in the text of the assignment (also known as in-text
citations)
• 2. An entry in a reference list at the end of the assignment/research
writing
• The citation contains only enough information for the reader to find
the source in the reference list. Usually, this is the name of the
source's author and the year the source was published
• Example:
When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather
demographic information about the users (Musa, 2006).
• In this example, (Musa, 2006) tells the reader that this information
has come from a source written by Musa, which was published in
2006. This is a signpost, pointing the reader to the reference list
• The reference list is a list of all the sources used (and cited) in an
assignment/work. It is alphabetised according to the names of the
authors. Each entry in the reference list contains detailed information
about one source. This usually includes the author's name, the year
of publication, the title of the source, and source location details
(e.g., publisher’s name, URL). For example:
• References
Durie, M. (2003). Using Wood: Launching Māori futures. Huia.
Hazledine, T., & Quiggan, J. (2006). Public policy in Australia and New
Zealand: The new global context. Australian Journal of Political
Science, 41(2), 131–143.
Musa, J. (2006). Web Usability: A user-Centred design approach.
Pearson Addison Wesley.
Ministry for Primary Industries. (2012). Food safety.
https://www.mpi.govt.nz/food-safety
• If they wanted to, a reader could use this information to find these
sources in a library or online
Referencing Styles
• Referencing is a formal system of documenting the details of
consulted sources.
• There are rules and standards to follow when formatting citations
and references.
• Many students find referencing quite intimidating at first. Like any
skill, it takes time and patience to learn.
• The example above use APA style, a format created by the American
Psychological Association. Other styles include MLA style, Oxford
style, Harvard style, and Chicago style.
• These styles are subtly different, and different colleges and
departments may ask you to use different styles. Oxford style, for
example, uses footnotes instead of in-text citations, and a
bibliography instead of a reference list.
• Exercises
1. What is plagiarism ?
2. Why is citation and referencing necessary in assignment, seminars
and research writing?
3. What really is research?
4. What is literature review?
These questions will be discussed during interactive sessions.

End of Presentation
Thank you for listening.

UOE 1202/2202
Module 5: Use of Library
Listening and Note-Taking
Dr. Isa Muhammad Inuwa

1
Introduction: What is Listening?
•Listening is simply defined as the ability to
identify and understand what others are
saying.
2
Listening consists of two parts:
•It is physiological in nature
•It is a psychological act
•Bromwell, (2006) says that effective
listeners are “open-minded and interested
in wide variety of subjects”.
3
Listening is a skill as an aspect of verbal
communication.
•It is very vital to communication, for without

listening, messages would not be well
received, hence, there would be breakdown
of communication and misunderstanding.
4
Importance of Listening to Effective
Communication
•It is pertinent for students to learn listening
skill, because teaching and learning in
Universities are mainly through oral-aural,
i.e., (verbal/audio) interactions with
lecturers.
5
Some characteristics of effective listener –
(Purdy and Deborah,1997) :
• A competent listener:
• Uses eye contact appropriately
• Is attentive and alert to a speaker’s verbal and nonverbal
behavior
• Is patient and does not interrupt, waiting for the speaker to
finish
• Is responsive, using verbal and nonverbal expressions
• Asks questions in a nonthreatening tone
6
• Paraphrases, restates or summarizes what the speaker says
• Provides constructive verbal and nonverbal feedback
• Is emphatic, makes an effort to understand the speaker
• Demonstrates interest in the speaker
• Demonstrates caring attitude and is willing to listen
• Does not criticize, is nonjudgmental
• Is open-minded
7
Objectives of Listening
• In everything we do, we have some reasons for doing it.

Listening in this module is described as the mixture of
hearing and paying attention to some sounds.
• As such, there must be some reasons for focusing on such

sounds. These reasons defer from one situation to another.
Whatever those reasons are, are the objectives of one’s
listening to those sounds.
8
Other objectives of listening comprise of:
• Understanding the speaker
• Developing relationship
• Retaining the information ( and this can be either
temporarily or permanently)
• Getting knowledge
• Participation in the communication process.
9
Types of Listening
• INFORMATIONAL: Informative listening is the name given to

the situation where the listener’s primary concern is to
understand the message.
• APPRECIATIVE:
• CRITICAL/ANALYTICAL/EVALUATIVE: this is a type of
Listening that one does in order to evaluate, criticise, pass
judgment, form an opinion or make a decision on what
someone else has said.
• DISCRIMINATIVE LISTENING:
10
NOTE-TAKING
• What is Note-Taking?
• Note-taking can be seen as writing down of relevant piece

of information or points from a speech or a written
document. Notes can be taken for so many reasons,
depending on the purpose of taking them.
• In academic context, note-taking is done mainly for two

purposes: examination and research. Although note-taking
can occur by using written materials, students take notes
mostly in the class (and laboratories).
11
Preparation for Note-Taking Before the Lecture. Students should:
. Review their previous lecture notes
. Check the Course Outline for the topics to be treated next, and try to
have an idea about the topic
. Complete outside reading related to the next lecture
. Complete and review any assignment or reading expected to be

submitted or discussed in the next lecture. 12
Preparations for Note-Taking during the lecture. Students
should:
. Write the title of the lecture, name of the course and date
. Listen carefully to the introduction
. Write their notes in their own words, and be brief
. Try to recognize main ideas
. Write down what sup[ports the main ideas
. Pay attention to the conclusion,, ensure their understanding of the
lecture
. Ask questions about points they did not understand
13
• Preparations for Note-Taking After the Lecture. Students
should:
• Revise their notes as quickly as possible,(preferably not

long after the lecture)
• Revise their lecture notes at least once a week

14
Methods of Note-Taking
•Outline Method
•It is a method of note-taking in which a
student listens and then writes his/her notes
in an orderly form based on space indention.
•
•A fully developed outline that includes
numerous details should follow the pattern
•shown below:
15
• I.
• A.
• B.
• 1.
• 2.
• C.
• 1.
• 2.
• II.
• A.
• 1.
• a.
• b.
16
SOME GUIDELINES ON NOTE-TAKING
• Mundsack, J. Deese and E. Deese, (2003, p. 47) write on the 5 R's
of Note-Taking that are essential for students to know, they are:
• Record: During the lecture, write down, legibly, the main ideas as
much as you can.
• Reduce: Summarise these ideas in your own words.
• Recite: Repeat over the ideas of the lecture in your own words.
That can be done by telling someone else about the lecture.
• Reflect: Think about what you have learnt and how it relates to
other ideas in the course.
• Review: Spend some time to go through what they have learnt.
This has to be as frequently as possible.
17
Use Abbreviations and Symbols for note-taking:
• Abbreviations can be classified into common, discipline-

specific and personal abbreviations.
• Common Abbreviations
• Discipline-Specific Abbreviations
• Personal Abbreviations
18
END !
THANK YOU FOR LISTENING & NOTE-TAKING
19
School of General and Entrepreneurship studies
GSP1202/2202: Use of Library, Study Skills & ICT
Module 6: Reading, Writing & Speaking Skills
Course Facilitator: Sani Abubakar

Introduction
Reading, writing, speaking, and listening are vital aspects of
studies as well as language skills. The purpose of this
module is to introduce students to the techniques of reading,
writing and speaking to facilitate their academic tasks.
1
READING SKILLS
• Reading basically means interpretation or decoding.
• It enhances the acquisition of vocabulary, knowledge and skills in
every discipline.
• There are two types of reading:
1. Intensive reading 2. Extensive reading.
• INTENSIVE READING involves a significant amount of reading
(reading for details). It requires a substantial text or a whole book.
The strategies involved in this activity are- scanning/skimming.
• SCANNING/SEARCH READING involves identifying by quickly
surveying a reading material (with the eyes) to see its content while
SKIMMING is reading a book to get a general idea of its content
through the table of contents, chapter titles etc.
• EXTENSIVE READING is reading in large quantity for a general
information. It is done leisurely.
2
THE READING PROCESS
The reading process involves moving through different

levels of comprehension. Thus the reader should learn
the adoption of systematic but flexible reading
strategies.
The reading process could be divided into three: pre
reading activities, while reading and after reading.
This provides an approach to reading, phasing your
reading into different stages.
3
BEFORE READING
-Determine your purpose.
-Consider what you already know about the topic.
-Preview the text to make predictions.
WHILE READING
- Extracts the main ideas by taking note.
-Notice how the ideas are expressed (language, mood, etc.).
-Consider supporting ideas.
AFTER READING
-Evaluate the text to decide how accurate it is and its overall quality.
-Relate what you have read to the world around you by reading further
or applying new ideas.
-Reflect on what you have read. There are specific reading techniques
that are designed to facilitate/ease the reading task such as the SQ3R.
4
THE SQ3R METHOD
SQ3R is an acronym which stands for SURVEY, QUESTION,
and then the 3R (RRR) namely READ, RECITE and
REVIEW.
To SURVEY is a way of getting a general overview of
the reading material with a view to setting the goals for
reading.
The QUESTIONS are meant to guide the survey about
why you want to read, what information you need etc.
5
-R= READ means to read with the questions you
formulated in mind in order to guide your response to the
text.
- R = RECITE means reciting or mentally answering the
set questions to measure your understanding and
remembering what has been read.
- R = REVIEW, that is read what you have read and think
about the authors ideas and claims and other information
which you should recall.
6
SPEED READING
• Speed reading or faster reading means reading a text very

fast with understanding of its content and/or answering
the questions (in a comprehension passage).
• This kind of reading involves a great use of expanded eye
span with the aim of going over the reading material at a
great speed.
• Speed in reading counts only when it goes with efficient
extraction and assimilation of the required information.
7
Reading Problems
The typical problems of reading are:

• lack of comprehension
• students’ attitude to reading and
• slow reading.
The ways to tackle these problems have been
discussed under various sub-readings above.
8
Writing Skills
What is writing?
• Writing is the attempt to put your thoughts on a paper.
• Writing is a complex process of decision making of
selecting, deleting and rearranging materials.
The writing process
• Pre-writing stage: Brainstorm for ideas using whatever
method suits you best.
• The writing/drafting stage: A draft is a rough written
version of something that is not in its final form.
• Review/edit: At this stage, you read your writing with a
critical eye.
9
Speaking Skills
Speaking is the ability to communicate (using words) orally.
Spoken English requires learning correct pronunciation.

Thus in oral language teaching, consonants, vowels, and
diphthongs are among the necessary learning materials.
However skills in spoken English can be improved by

learning the voice dynamics required for the language;
intonation, stress and accent.
10
Improving Efficient Oral Skills
In order to express yourself effectively in intelligible speech
you need to articulate/discriminate the English sounds.
Students should also understand the difference between the
English alphabets and phonetic sounds and symbols. English
has 26 letters (A-Z), 44 sounds: 20 vowels sound and 24
consonants sound.
The alphabets represent the sounds we utter, for example,
the word: fine f-i-n-e /fain/
city c-i-t-y /siti/
home h-o-m-e /haum/
There is no one-to-one correlation between spelling and
pronunciation in English.
11
Other factors that pose challenges in effective
pronunciation are:
• English has silent letters
• Spelling pronunciation
• Mother-tongue interference
• British/American pronunciation
• Stress/intonation
• Take note of HOMOPHONES/HOMOGRAPHS
12
Silent letters
In English spelling, certain letters do not feature in the
pronunciation. Any attempt to engage them in
pronunciation could result to wrong pronunciation of the
word.
For example: sign, muscle, bomb, wrong, listen.
In these words the highlighted letters: g, c, b, w, t

respectively are silent and do not therefore feature in the
pronunciation of the words.
13
Spelling Pronunciation (SP)
This is an attempt to pronounce English words as they are spelt.

Below are some examples of words that are pronounced based on
spelling which produce undesirable linguistic forms:
Word Spelling P. Correct P.
Wednesday wenezde wenzdi
Education edukeshan ejukeshan
Receipt risipt risit
Debt debt det
14
British/American English
• These are variations of the same language. There are

differences of spelling/pronunciation, vocabulary and
stress.
• Spelling variations: for instance words ending in -our-
in British English are spelt with -or- in American thus
honour (Br) honor (Am)
organise (Br) organize (Am)
theatre (Br) theater (Am)
dialogue (Br) dialog (Am)
15
Word Stress
• Stress is the degree of force or loudness with which a

part/syllable (the units into which a word is divided) is
pronounced.
• Examples of words/syllable are: chair (chair), subject
(sub-ject), summary (sum-ma-ry), agriculture (ag-ri-cul-
ture), etc. Here ‘chair’ has one syllable, ‘subject’ two and
so on.
• Some words have their first syllable stressed thus:
SUBject. Some have theirs on the second thus:
maCHINE, conDUCtor, and some on the third as in en-
ter-TAIN.
16
Intonation
• Intonation is the rise and fall or tone of the voice in
speaking, especially as this affects meaning of what is
being said.
• Every kind of sentence (statement, question, command,
etc.) has its intonation pattern. A change of intonation
pattern can change a statement into a question and vice
versa.
• Usually declarative sentences end with a falling pitch
thus: John is the new chairman; questions requiring a yes
or no answer end with rising pitch- Are you sure you’ve
got the date right?; exclamations are characterised by a
high pitch throughout- What a lovely surprise!
17
Public Speaking
Public speaking is the verbal presentation of speech to an audience. In
addressing an audience (large/small), certain etiquettes should be
observed to achieve the desired objectives (positive response,
comprehension, etc.). Some of these etiquettes are:
- Know your topic and the personalities of your audience.
- Observe the cultural etiquettes.
- Voice control
- Tolerance
- In presenting a written speech, use some preparatory groundwork.
- Avoid the use of ambiguous expressions.
- Avoid the use of vernacular, slang and foul language.
18
Conclusion
What you have just listened to has been an attempt to

provide brief explanation on the three important aspects
of academic studies-reading, writing and speaking
skills. You are required to also read the lecture notes
provided for this module on this platform and ask
question through the appropriate channels available.
I wish you all the best.
19
Information and Communication Technology
(ICT)
By
M. I. Mukhtar
Faculty of Computer Science & Information Technology
mimukhtar.se@buk.edu.ng
 To acquaint students with the meaning of the term
“Information and Communications Technology (ICT)”
and its components.
 To familiarize students with different ICT devices.
 To discuss the positive and negative impact of ICT on

the society.
 What is ICT
 Component of ICT
 ICT Devices
 Positive and Negative impact of ICT
 We are living in an age that is often referred to as the
“Information Age”.
 The society around us is often called an “Information

Society.”
 We are surrounded, indeed imprisoned, by “Information

Technology” gadgets such as computers and
smartphones and without them we would likely find life
on Earth unbearable.
 Students coming into the university, unless they are

coming from another world, would undoubtedly have a
working knowledge of IT gadgets such phones, ATM
machines and computers.
 Imagine a world without Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs).
◦ there would be no smartphone, communication would have to
be physical and face-to-face.
◦ there would be no aero planes and cars, transportation has to
be on foot or animals.
◦ there would be no internet, we would have to resort to
libraries.
◦ there would no refrigerators, microwaves and air conditioners.
◦ there would be no mobile banking and ATMS.
◦ there would be no incredible medical innovations such as heart
pace makers and laser surgeries.
 Clearly, the world without ICTs will be dark and

unbearable.
◦ I: Information refers to the knowledge obtained from
reading, investigation, study or research.
 Information helps us to fulfil our daily tasks.
◦ C:Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It

is a process whereby information is exchanged between
individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions.
 Communication is important in order to gain knowledge.
◦ T:Technology is the use of scientific knowledge,

experience and resources to create processes that fulfil
human needs.
 Technology is vital in communication.
 The term “Information and Communications Technology
(ICT)” generally refers to the combination of
technologies used for the collection, analysis,
dissemination, transfer and storage of information.
 ICT covers all forms of Computer and Communications

equipment as well as the software used to create, store,
transmit, receive, interpret, and manipulate information
in its various formats.
 ICT is composed of technologies for collection, Analysis,
Dissemination, Storage and Transfer of Information.
◦ Computers: Used for the collection and analysis of
information.
◦ Broadcasting/Dissemination technologies: used for

disseminating information to human beings.
◦ Telecommunications equipment: used for the transfer of

information from one place to another.
◦ Storage devices: Used for storing the information.
◦ Education technologies: used to disseminate knowledge and

information to academicians and learners.
 Computers
◦ Desktop
◦ Laptop
◦ Tablet
 Dissemination Equipment and Devices
◦ Radios and TVs
◦ Internet
 Telecommunications Equipment and Devices
◦ Hub
◦ Modem
◦ Routers
◦ Mobile and Smart phones
 Storage Devices
◦ Hard disk
◦ Flash drive
◦ Memory Card
 Device and Equipment used for Educational Purposes
◦ EBooks reader, projector, smart boards, E-learning app
 Computers are the most important of all the different
types of ICTs.
 A computer is an electronic device, operating under the

control of instructions stored in its own memory, that can
accept data (input), process the data according to
specified rules, produce information (output), and store
the information for future use.
 One popular category of computer is the Personal

Computer(PC).
◦ PC is a computer that can perform all of its input, processing,
output, and storage activities by itself and is intended to be used by
one person at a time.
◦ Types of personal computers include laptops, tablets and desktop.
 A laptop, also called a notebook computer, is a thin,
lightweight mobile computer with a screen in its lid and
a keyboard in its base designed to fit on your lap and
for easy transport.
 A tablet is usually smaller than a laptop but larger than

a phone. A tablet is a thin, lighter-weight mobile
computer that has a touch screen.
 A desktop, or desktop computer, is a personal

computer designed to be in a stationary location, where
all of its components fit on or under a desk or table.
 ICTs are all about information and for any information
to be useful it ultimately needs to be disseminated.
 Broadcasting technologies are the main technologies

that are used to disseminate information to large
audiences.
 Dissemination equipment include radios, TVs and

internet.
 Radio technology began in 20th century and its the most
popular because of its extremely wide reach covering all
parts of the world, including very rural areas.
◦ They are very cheap.
◦ They require small-sized equipment
◦ They require low power.
 Television sets appeared about 30 years after radios

and are more captivating because of their fabulous
video capabilities.
◦ They are more expensive than radios.
◦ They require larger equipment and higher power compared to
radios.
 The Internet has brought new ways of disseminating
information.
◦ One of the major reasons business, home, and other users
purchase computers and mobile devices is for Internet
access.
◦ It is medium of receiving news and entertainment over and

above radio and television.
◦ Internet is used to download radio and TV content.
◦ Narrowcasting, podcasting.
 Telecommunications refers to the broad field of long
distance communications amongst human beings,
between human beings and machines, and amongst
machines.
 Telecommunication equipment refers to devices that are

used to transmit information such as sound, images
and files over long distances.
 Telecommunication devices include hub, routers,

modem, mobile phones.
 Hub is devices commonly used to connect segments of
a LAN. The Hub contains multiple ports.
 Router is hardware device used to receive, analyze and

move incoming packets to another network.
 Modem is a device that connects a computer to the

internet.
 A smartphone is an Internet-capable phone that usually
also includes a calendar, an address book, a calculator,
a notepad, games, and several other apps (which are
programs on the smartphone).
 Other apps are available through an app store that

typically is associated with the phone.
 A storage device records (writes) and/or retrieves
(reads) items to and from storage media.
 Storage devices often also function as a source of input

and output because they transfer items from storage to
memory and vice versa.
 Drives and readers/writers, which are types of storage

devices, accept a specific kind of storage media.
◦ For example, a DVD drive (storage device) accepts a DVD (storage
media).
 Devices for storing information are important

components of ICTs because of the increase
dependence on information.
 Technologies and their devices that are used in
education are also components of ICTs.
 Multimedia technologies are used for education

purposes to help teachers make their lessons more
interesting and to improve the retentive memory of
students.
 Examples include projectors, e-reader and smart boards.

 A projector is an output device that can take images
generated by a computer and reproduce them by
projection onto a screen, wall or another surface.
 A smart board is an interactive device that connects with

a computer to display its contents.
◦ It allows teachers and students to control the computer through
touching the screen.
 E-reader device is a mobile electronic device that is

primarily designed for the purpose of reading digital e-
books and periodicals.
◦ An e-book, or digital book, is an electronic version of a
printed book, readable on computers and other digital
devices.
 EDUCATION
◦ In education, teachers, students, researchers and school
administrators benefits from the usage of ICT.
 BANKING
◦ In the banking, customers, businessman & bank
administrator benefits from the usage of ICT.
 INDUSTRY
◦ Computers are used to facilitate production planning and
control systems, to support chain management and to help
in product design in the industrial sector. In the industrial
sector, workers, researchers and administrator benefits
from the usage of ICT.
 E-COMMERCE
◦ E-commerce helps in boosting the economy. It makes
buying and selling activities easier, more efficient and
faster. For this application, computers, Internet and shared
software are needed. In the e-commerce sector, customers,
suppliers and employees benefits from the usage of ICT.
 BUSINESS
◦ Business organizations are probably the greatest users of
ICTs because of the great gains that are achieved in
efficiency and productivity when ICTs are effectively
deployed.
 Communication- Faster and at lower cost
 Effective Sharing of Information
 Daily route management
 Social relationship
 Self Employment
 Developing Health Literacy
 Usage of free time
 Paperless Environment
 Education
 Threat to human health
 Isolation
 Lack of privacy
 Increased bullying
 Job loss
 The Internet-1990  Flat Screen Display – 1997
 Photoshop-1990  MP3Players- 1997
 Portable GSP-1990  Google Search - 1997
 International Space Station-
 Caller ID -1990
1998
 Cloning -1996  DVDs – 1998
 Email and Text Message  Facebook – 2004
-1992  YouTube – 2005
 Netflix -1997  iPhone- 2007
 Drones -1994  Bitcoin-2009
 Mobile Broadband-1991  Self-driving Cars – 2012
 Hybrid Cars- 1997
QUESTIONS !!!!
GSP1202/2202: ICT – Module 9
Hassan A. Bashir
Electrical Engineering Dept.
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, students shall be able to:
• Define and explain the basic concept of computer and its structure
• Explicate various computer generations
• Explain basic computer organization
• Give an overview of the various components of computer system
• Appreciate different types of computer software
• Elucidate the functionalities of different application software packages
Contents
Part 1: Introduction to Computer Systems
Part 2: Computer Hardware
Part 3: Computer Software
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Part 1: Introduction to Computer System
1.1 What is a Computer?
A Computer is an electronic device that works under the control of a stored program, automatically accepts
and processes data to provide information. Computer operates
• Automatic: it carries out instructions with minimum human intervention

• Re-programmable: it stores instruction (the program)
• A data processor: it carries out operations on data (numbers or words) made up of a combination of
digits to produce information.
Data is the name given to facts. Information is the meaningful data that is relevant, accurate, up to date and
can be used to make decisions. A processed data refers to information in a formalized manner suitable for
communication, interpretation and processing. However, row data refers to un-processed information.
1.2 Evolution of Computer Technology

The origin of computer technology started far ahead of the 19th century evolution. People desired to have a
machine that would carry out mathematical calculations for them. The ABACUS is considered to have been
the first computer and was used to perform simple measurements and calculations.
In the 17th century, a scientist named Pascal developed a machine that could perform mathematical
calculations. This machine comprised of a number of gears. The movement of gear mechanism was used to
perform some calculations. He named the machine PASCALINE. Thus the Pascaline system is a mechanical
computational device.
Over the last centuries, many scientists contributed towards the development of the computing technologies:
- Charles Babbage worked on the use of logic and loops in process execution. Based on the concept
of logic and loops, Babbage envisaged two models for performing computations- Analytical Engine
and Difference Engine. In those days, electronics was not developed. Therefore, the models proposed
by Babbage existed only on paper.
- George Boolean developed the famous Boolean Algebra (Logic theorems) based on binary numbers.
The computer system is a logical based on its hardware and software components.
- De Morgan put forward important fundamental Set theorems. These theorems are known as De
Morgan’s Theorems and form the foundation of the logical analysis.
- Lady Ada was said to have wrote the first working computer program.
The real application of computers began in the late 50s. During that time computers were used for various
applications such as Census, Defense, R&D, Universities etc.
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1.3 Types of Computer
Computers can broadly be classified as either Analog or Digital. An analog computer is built from the
fundamental component known as the “Vacuum Tube”. Vacuum tube is both bulky and less efficient. Thus,
while the Abacus computer was nearly the size of a room, its performance is far below today’s standards.
Following the invention of the digital electronics technologies, which use the “transistor” as a basic building-
block, analog computers are rarely used today. Hence, today’s digital computers are by far more efficient and
portable compared to the analog types.
Today, computers are generally classified as either Single-user or Multi-user systems.
Single-user computers:
These are computer systems that can provide services to only one user at a point in time. They are generally
employed as personal computers. Examples include:
i. Desktop computers
ii. Workstations
iii. Notebook (or laptop) computers
iv. Tablet computers
v. Handheld computers
vi. Smart phones
(a) Desktop PC (b) Smart Phone

Figure 1: Single User Computer Systems
Although single-user machines are limited to servicing one user at a time, they generally support both multi-
user account and Multi-tasking capabilities.
Multi-user computers
These are computer systems that can provide services to many users concurrently. Examples include:
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i. Network servers – Typically used for dedicated services such a Library services, Students
Registration/Record systems, Internet services etc. they can provide services to tens of thousands of
users at the same time.
ii. Mainframe computers – These are higher level systems capable of responding to concurrent request
from hundreds of thousands of users. Mainframes are typically used for online services such as for
emails, search engines etc.
iii. Supercomputers – These are the highest performing computer systems. Their applications are
mainly for advanced tasks in spaces exploration, defense systems, analysis of metrological data for
weather predictions, etc. A single supercomputer is commonly run as a shared infrastructure by a
group of large organizations. It is highly expensive to run due its high energy demand; its typical size
is that of a farm land. The world’s Top 500 Supercomputers annual rating gives a detail profile of the
best performing computers on the planet.
(a) Network Server (b) Mainframe
(c) Super Computer – Jaguar

Figure 2: Multi-user Computer
1.4 Basic Architecture of a Computer System

To understand the basic rudiments of the functioning of the computer refer to the basic block diagram of a
computer as shown in Figure 1. This flow of information holds true for all types of computers such as
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Personal Computers, Laptops, Palmtops etc. In other words, the fundamental principle of working is the
same.
Figure 2: Computer Organizational Structure
There are four main building blocks in a computer system (see Figure 2):
i. Input: The data is entered through input devices like the keyboard, disks or mouse. These input
devices help convert data and programs into the language that the computer can process.
ii. Processor: The data received from the keyboard is processed by the CPU, i.e. the Central Processing
Unit. The CPU controls and manipulates the data that produce information.
iii. Memory: The processed data is either stored in the memory or sent to the output device, as per the
command given by the user. The memory unit holds data and program instructions for processing
data.
iv. Output: Output devices translate the processed information from the computer into a form that we
can understand, such a display via a monitor or a print out through a printer.
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Part 2: Computer Hardware
2.1 Components of a Computer System
In general, a computer system comprises of two main parts: Hardware and Software.
Hardware: This refers to the physical parts of the computer. Hardware is any part of the computer you can
touch. Input and output devices, the system case, cables, and networking devices are all examples of
hardware.
Software: This refers to the code that runs on the computer. A software is a set of instructions called
program which enables the computer to perform some specific tasks.
“The piano is the hardware, the music is the software.”
Figure 3: Example Computer Hardware
2.2 Key Hardware Components

All computers require the following hardware components:
Central Processing Unit (CPU): This is the central electronic component (chip) at the heart of a computer
that enables it to process data. It is also known as a processor.
Memory: This is an area within a computer system that holds data waiting to be processed.
Storage Device: The place where a computer keeps all its data.
Input Devices: These are devices that can send data and/or instructions into a computer system. In other
words, while the computer understands only logical (binary) language, input devices allow the computer to
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understand the physical world by serving as interpreters. Examples include keyboard, mouse, scanner, mic,
camera, etc.
Input: This refers to any resource required to for the functioning of a process, in the course of which
it will be transformed into one or more inputs.
Output Devices: These are devices that allow information from a computer system to be represented in a
form humans can understand. Examples include the visual display units such as Monitors and Projectors,
printers, speakers, etc.
Output: This refers to the product of the transformation of inputs by a process.
Primary and Peripheral Devices: Besides the primary input/output devices which must be there for a
computer to be operational, others such as printers, scanners, external disk drives, web cam, biometric
scanners, etc. are regarded as peripheral devices.
Peripherals: Any piece of equipment in a computer system that is not actually inside the computer
itself.
2.3 The Motherboard

Motherboard is the largest circuit board in a personal computer. It contains connectors and ports for
hooking up all the other parts of a computer, from the CPU to the webcam on top of the monitor.
Figure 4: A Typical Desktop Computer Motherboard
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1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
The CPU is the brain of the computer system. It is at the center of all operations run by the computer. It is
capable to surmount simple to complex operations with high efficiency. Its speed of operations is rated in
running billions of instructions per second.
Figure 5: The Central Processing Unit (Processor) – Desktop Socket Processors
2. Memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a temporary working area directly accessed by the computer’s brain
(processor). RAM is volatile – state is gone when power goes out. In fact, the traditional suggestion for
saving any new changes to a document periodically is to avoid data loss due to volatility of the RAM. None
the less, the memory is electronic in nature and as such it has a very fast speed of response. Interactions
between CPU and RAM are carried out via direct addressing of memory locations as illustrated in the
following Figure.
Figure 6: Random Access Memory (RAM) and its Addressing mode Analogy
3. Storage:
Computer storage is generally a persistent storage system used for keeping data permanently on computer. It
is non-volatile in characteristics as such it preserved information even when not powered. Typical examples
involve:
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- Hard Drive: This stores bytes as a magnetic pattern on a spinning disk. When running (writing or
reading) a high pitch spinning sound is produced.
- Flash Drive: This stores data in form of electrons in a chip. Examples are Flash memory, Solid State
Disk (SSD), etc. Flash storage are characterized with no moving parts.
Flash storage forms include USB key, SD cards in camera, flash storage built into phones, tablets, PCs, etc.
Flash used to be very expensive, so most computers tend to ship with Hard disks.
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Part 3: Computer Software
3.1 Software
The set of instructions that enable a computer to perform specific tasks is generically called a program or
software. These instructions tell the machine’s hardware components what to do; without a program, a
computer could not do anything at all. When a computer uses a particular program, it is said to be running or
executing that program.
Programming Language: An artificial set of rules, vocabulary and syntax used to instruct the computer to
execute certain tasks.
Computer Program: A sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to carry out a process.
3.2 Types of Software

i. System Software
a. Firmware is used to directly control hardware devices, such as keyboards, hard drives, and
memory cards.
b. Operating system tells the computer how to use its own components. An operating system is
essential for any computer, because it acts as an interpreter between the hardware, application
programs, and the user. Three of the most common operating systems are Microsoft’s
Windows, Apple Computer’s Mac OS X, and Linux.
c. Network operating system allows computers to communicate and share files and device
resources across a network.
d. Utility is a program that makes the computer system easier to use or performs highly
specialized functions. Utilities are used to manage disks, troubleshoot hardware problems, and
perform other tasks.
Operating System: This refers to a collection of software that allows a computer to function, understand
itself and coordinate all operations.
ii. Application Software

This tells the computer how to accomplish specific tasks, such as word processing or drawing, for the
user. Thousands of applications are available for many purposes and for people of all ages.
Type Purpose
Document Creating text-based documents such as newsletters, reports,
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Publishing articles, and brochures.
Spreadsheets Creating numeric-based documents such as budgets or balance
sheets and typically used in analysis of a research data.
Presentation Creating and presenting electronic slides for interactive
presentation.
Graphics Designing illustrations or manipulating photographs, movies, or
animations.
Multimedia Composing music and building digital movies that incorporate
authoring sound, video, animation and interactive features.
Business Managing inventories, client contacts, sales databases and
software accounting.
Education Teaching subjects to children and adults, groups or individual
software learners.
Internet Designing Websites, surfing the Web, e-mailing, Chatting, and
applications much more.
Games Playing single-player, or multi-player games ranging from the
simple to dazzlingly complex strategic games hosted on the
Internet.
Note: Software programs are continually being written or upgraded to undertake certain tasks. As a result
software can become obsolete quickly.
3.3 Word Processing Software

Word processing software is used for creating documents. Drafts, letters, reports, essays, write-ups etc can be
created using word processing software. Earlier, Word Star was being used widely for this purpose. Sidekick
and Word Perfect are also used for drafting letters. However, the most commonly used word processing
package in the world is Microsoft Word.
Microsoft Word is Microsoft's word processing software. It was first released in 1983 bearing the name
Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Later, Versions for several other platforms including IBM PCs running
DOS (1983), the Apple Macintosh (1984), SCO UNIX, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows (1989) were written. It
is a component of the Microsoft Office system; however, it is also sold as a standalone product and included
in Microsoft Works Suite.
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3.3.1 MS Word Key Features
1. User Friendly: It is an easy and simple package for a general user.
2. Features and Functionalities: The features such as paragraph, font, symbols, spell check, table, drawing,
bullets and numbering, page numbering provided by this package enable a user to develop a document in an
error free format.
3. Compatibility: The text file generated by MS Word is .doc. This file can be used in other applications
such as MS Excel, MS Visual Studio 6.0, MS Visual Studio.net, Web browser, pdf format etc.
4. Key Features: Some of the commonly used crucial features in MS Word include:
• Toolbar support
• Find and Replace
• Paste special
• Insert Objects
• Themes
• Multi-Column text
• Referencing and Citation
• Mailing
• Spelling and Grammar Checks, Thesaurus and Translators
• Review - Track Changes
• Flexible viewing capabilities, etc.
3.4 Spreadsheet Software

Spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper worksheet. It displays multiple cells that
together, make up a grid consisting of rows and columns, each cell containing either alphanumeric text or
numeric values. Spreadsheets are frequently used for financial information because of their ability to re-
calculate the entire sheet automatically after a change to a single cell is made.
Starting in the mid 1990s and continuing through the present, Microsoft Excel has dominated the commercial
electronic spreadsheet market.
3.4.1 Microsoft Excel Basics

The intersection of a column and a row is known as a cell. Each cell has a name or a cell address. The cell
address consists of the column letter and row number. For example, the first cell is in the first column and
first row. First column name is A and first row number is 1. Therefore, the first cell address is A1. Similarly,
the address of last cell is IV65536 i.e. column IV and row number is 65536.
The total cells in a worksheet are 256 × 65536.
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Figure 3.1 A Microsoft Excel Window
Key Features:
• Title Bar
• Menu Bar
• Standard Tool bar
• Formatting Toolbar: Allows the user to give commands related to formatting cells and cell contents
such as Bold, Underline, Font Style, Font Size, Colour etc.
• Name box
• Formula bar
• Colum and Row headers
• Current Cell
• Scroll Bars
• Sheet Tab
• Status Bar
• Auto Fill function
3.4.2 Formulae in MS Excel

The following snapshots show simple data processing in Excel using the formula function. Basic arithmetic
operations, multiplication and addition, are presented.
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3.4.3 Charts in MS Excel
Charts are used to display series of numeric data in a graphical format to make it easier to understand large
quantities of data and the relationship between different series of data.
“A simple chart in Excel can say more than a sheet full of numbers...”
Creating an Excel Chart

To create the line chart above, execute the following steps.
i. Select the range A1:D7.

ii. On the Insert tab, in the Charts group, choose Line, and select Line with Markers.
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3.5 Presentations Software
PowerPoint is widely used by business people, educators, students and trainers and is among the most
prevalent forms of persuasive technology.
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation program developed by Microsoft. It is part of the Microsoft Office
suite and runs on Microsoft Windows and Apple's Mac OS X computer operating systems.
Microsoft PowerPoint is a type of business software that enables users to create highly stylized images for
slide shows and reports. The software includes functions for creating various types of charts and graphs and
for inserting text in a variety of fonts. Most systems enable you to import data from a spreadsheet application
to create the charts and graphs.
Similar to Excel, the PowerPoint screen has many elements as shown in the following.
3.5.1 Standard and Formatting Toolbars

PowerPoint has several toolbars. Toolbars provide shortcuts to menu commands. The most commonly used
toolbars are the Standard and Formatting toolbars.
1. Standard toolbar provides functions such as open a file; save a file; print a file; check spelling; cut,
copy, and paste; undo and redo; or insert a chart or table.
2. Formatting toolbar is used to change the font, font size or font color; bold, underline, or italicize
text; left align, right align, center, or justify; bullet or number lists; highlight; or decrease or increase
the indent.
3.5.2 Slide Show

Use the Slide Show view when you want to view your slides, as they will look in your final presentation.
When in Slide Show view:
Esc Returns you to the view you were using previously.

Left Moves you to the next slide or animation effect.
Clicking On reaching the last slide, you automatically return to the last view.
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Right Opens a pop-up menu.
Clicking You can use this menu to navigate the slides;
add speaker notes;
select a pointer; and
mark your presentation.
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INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET AND SEARCH ENGINE
Objectives
After completing this module, you will be able to
1. Define internet and discuss its evolution
2. Identify the internet’s audience and briefly explain how it affects them
3. Identify and briefly explain the advantages and disadvantages of an internet
4. Explain the value of internet to educational institutions
5. Discuss the history of search engine, define directories and search engines, and identify
some popular search engines with figures.
6. Describe metasearch engines and explain the difference between white and yellow pages.
7. Identify some of the differences between a search engine and a directory.
8. Identify forms of queries: Pattern matching queries, Boolean queries, Using wildcards.
9. Explain search fundamentals and terminologies
10. Discuss search strategies, generalization, specialization and samples
11. Briefly explain the differences between a user interface, searcher, evaluator, gatherer and
indexer
12. Identify several searching tips: be natural, do not always capitalize words, use uncommon
words, spell words correctly and use wildcards
13. Identify factors affecting a site’s ranking.
EVOLUTION OF THE INTERNET

The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s.
Initial concepts of wide area networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the
United States, United Kingdom, and France. The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as
early as the 1960s, including for the development of ARPANET, which was then a networking
project started by the Pentagon’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). ARPA’s goal was
to build a network for two main reasons, the first was to use the network to allow scientists at
different physical locations to share information and work together on military and scientific
projects, the second reason was for the network to be so strong to function even if part of it were
disabled or destroyed by a disaster such as a nuclear attack, earthquakes and so on.
The original ARPANET consisted of four main computers, one each located at the University of
California at Los Angeles, the University of California at Santa Barbara, the Stanford Research
Institute, and the University of Utah. The first message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969 from
computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los
Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
Each of these computers served as a host on the network which is defined as any computer that
provides services and connections to other computers on a network. As researchers and others
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realized the great benefit of using ARPANET to share data and information, ARPANET
underwent phenomenal growth. By 1984, ARPANET had more than 1,000 individual computers
linked as hosts.
In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) connected its huge network of five super
computer centers, called NSFnet, to ARPANET, this configuration of complex networks and hosts
became known as the Internet. Until 1995, NSFnet handled the bulk of the communications
activity, or traffic, on the Internet. In 1995, NSFnet terminated its network on the Internet and
resumed its status as a research network. Today, more than 3 billion hosts are connected to the
internet.
WHAT IS INTERNET
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by
a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a
vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and
applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.
It allows people to send and receive data wherever they are in the world, provided they have
internet access. Everyone will find that they use the internet in one way or another, whether it is
to research some information or simply talk to family and friends. Today, the Web and the Internet
allow connectivity from literally everywhere on earth—even ships at sea and in outer space.
ADVENTAGES OF INTERNET
The Internet provides many facilities to the people. The main advantages of Internet are discussed
below.
1. Sharing Information: You can share information with other people around the world. The
scientist or researchers can interact with each other to share knowledge and to get guidance
etc. Sharing information through Internet is very easy, cheap and fast method.
2. Collection of Information: There is a huge amount of information available on the

internet for just about every subject known to man, ranging from government law and
services, trade fairs and conferences, market information, new ideas and technical support
3. News: You can get latest news of the world on the Internet. Most of the newspapers of the
world are also available on the Internet. They have their websites from where you can get
the latest news about the events happening in the world. These websites are periodically
updated or they are immediately updated with latest news when any event happens around
the world.
4. Searching Jobs: You can search different types of jobs all over the world, most of the
organizations/departments around the world, advertise their vacant vacancies on the
Internet. The search engines are also used to search the jobs on Internet. You can apply for
the required job through Internet.
2
5. Advertisement: Today, most of the commercial organizations advertise their product
through Internet. It is very cheap and efficient way for the advertising of products. The
products can be presented with attractive and beautiful way to the people around the world.
6. Communication: You can communicate with other through Internet around the world.
You can talk by watching to one another; just you are talking with your friends in your
drawing room. For this purpose, different services are provided on the Internet such as;
Chatting, Video conferencing, E-mail and internet telephony etc.
7. Entertainment: Internet also provides different type of entertainments to the people. You
can play games with other people in any part of the world. Similarly, you can see movies,
listen music etc. You can also make new friends on the Internet for enjoyment.
8. Online Education: Internet provides the facility to get online education. Many websites
of different universities provide lectures and tutorials on different subjects or topics. You
can also download these lectures or tutorials into your own computer. You can listen to
these lectures repeatedly and get a lot of knowledge.
9. Online Results: Today, most of the universities and education boards provide results on
the Internet. The students can watch their results from any part of country or world.
10. Online Airlines and Railway Schedules: Many Airline companies provide their
schedules of flights and trains respectively on the Internet.
11. Online Medical Advice: Many websites are also available on the Internet to get
information about different diseases. You can consult a panel of online doctors to get
advice about any medical problem. In addition, a lot of material is also available on the
Internet for research in medical field.
12. Email: Email is now an essential communication tools in business. It is also excellent for
keeping in touch with family and friends. The advantages to email is that it is free (no
charge per use) when compared to telephone, fax and postal services.
13. Services: Many services are now provided on the internet such as online banking, job
seeking and applications, and hotel reservations. Often these services are not available off-
line or cost more.
14. Buy or sell products: The internet is a very effective way to buy and sell products all over
the world.
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DISADVANTAGES OF INTERNET
Although Internet has many advantages but it also has some disadvantages. The main
disadvantages are:
1. Viruses: Today, internet is the most popular source of spreading viruses, most of these
viruses are being transfered from one computer to another through e-mail or when information
is downloaded on the Internet. These viruses create different problems in your computer. For
example, they can affect the performance of your computer and damage valuable data and
software stored in your computer.
2. Security Problems: The valuable websites can be damaged by hackers and your valuable
data may be deleted. Similarly, confidential data may be accessed by unauthorized persons.
3. Theft of Personal Information: If you use the Internet, you may be facing grave danger as
your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. can be accessed by
other culprits to make your problems worse.
4. Spamming: Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no

purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very
frustrating for you, and so instead of just ignoring it, you should make an effort to try and stop
these activities so that using the Internet can become that much safer.
5. Immorality: Some websites contain immoral materials in the form of text, pictures or movies
etc. These websites damage the character of new generation.
6. Negative effects on family communication: Although there are conflicting research findings
on this topic, an article published by Science Daily reported that time spent on the Internet
was associated with later declines in within house family communication and a decrease in
the number of friends and acquaintances with which they keep ties.
7. Wastage of times: A lot of time is wasted to collect the information on the Internet. Some
people waste a lot of time in chatting or to play games. At home and offices, most of the
people use Internet without any positive purpose.
8. English language problems: Most of the information on the Internet is available in English
language. So, some people cannot avail the facility of Internet.
9. Filtration of Information: When a keyword is given to a search engine to search information

of a specific topic, a large number of related links are displayed. In this case, it becomes
difficult to filter out the required information.
10. Accuracy of Information: A lot of information about a particular topic is stored on the
websites. Some information may be incorrect or not authentic. So, it becomes difficult to
select the correct information. Sometimes you may be confused.
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WHY IS INTERNET USED
Below are some of the aspect where internet is being used.
1. Information – The Internet is arguably one of the most successful and useful tools
mankind has ever created. It is, in fact, the largest library ever created, and is growing daily.
Although you need to always be careful of your sources, the Internet is the modern source
of information, delivered in multiple media: written word, visual graphics and images,
video, and audio have changed the way that we humans look for and find information.
2. Communication – People use the Internet to communicate with one another. Software has
made it possible to stream voice and video across the world with minimal delay, and email
has become the main means of communicating for many a modern person. Without the
Internet, it would be both more expensive and slower to maintain personal and professional
relationships.
3. Entertainment – Many people use the Internet to enjoy themselves and to engage in
personal interests. In recent years, multiple player games and virtual worlds have engaged
the time and money of many. Plus, video and music are easy to find, stream and
download…plus, the medium encourages feedback! Indeed, Internet use can go too far.
4. Work – The Internet provides an alternative to 9-5 workdays, as more and more people
can work from home, or “telecommute”. Plus, a growing number of people are making a
living from the Internet itself, whether becoming experts in how people search the Internet,
providing IT or web development services, or specializing in Internet marketing.
5. School – More and more elementary, high school and university curricula require use of
the Internet for school work.
6. Relationships – People use the Internet to find, maintain, or end relationships. But people
can get addicted to social networks, too.
7. Market – People use the Internet to research, find and buy services and products. They
also use it to target and sell to the ultimate consumer. In effect, the Internet has become the
best way to buy and sell merchandise, as online “stores” are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week.
8. Self-expression – People not only consume information on the Internet, they create it, and
in doing so, people are able to express themselves politically, artistically, vocally, socially,
etc. and give voice to what is important to them. The Internet is the ultimate forum on
which you can discuss or monologue as you like.
9. Ask for help – The protocol for Internet use is one of private consumption without need
for naming yourself. By virtue of the privacy and anonymity factor of cyber space, some
people use the Internet to ask for help. People ask for help in the form of emotional support,
medical advice, or even simply listening.
AUDIENCE OF THE INTERNET AND HOW IT AFFECTS THEM
There are several audience of the internet, some of which are:

1. Researchers- Needing to share findings
2. Marketers- Advertising products and services
3. Educators/Student- Teaching
Presently
• Every object can be on the Internet (Internet-of-Things)
5
• It affects the audience in a good way because it makes their lives easier and less
problematic.
• It enables them to do well in school and in work as they can access information and advice
easily
• However, it can also change people in the way they think and their lives in general, as the
internet allows them to access anything from anywhere in the world and this isn’t always
a good thing as extreme violence might be promoted.
• The audience use the internet for many different reasons, in which are explained on the
next page. The internet is used in places such as schools, at home and at work and etc.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SEARCH ENGINES
Archie (1990) was the first tool created by Alan Emtage and L. Peter Deutsch for indexing and is
considered the first basic search engine. What began as school project at McGill University in
Montreal, was an index that predated the world wide web. Gopher, released in 1991 by students
from the University of Minnesota, was a protocol used to index and search for documents online
as a form of anonymous FTP. Archie, Gopher and similar counterparts lost traction in the late 90's.
Lycos (1993) was created as a university project but was the first to attain commercial search
engine success. In 1999 Lycos was the most visited search engine in the world and was available
in 40 countries. Now currently comprised of a social network with email, webhosting and media
entertainment pages.
In 1994 there were Yahoo, WebCrawler and Infoseek. Yahoo started at Stanford University by
Jerry Yang and David Filo (both electrical engineering graduate students) that became a web portal
and search engine. WebCrawler was created by Brian Pinkerton and it was the first crawler which
indexed complete pages online. AOL purchased WebCrawler, using the technology for their
network, and when Excite purchased WebCrawler, AOL used Excite to run their program NetFind.
WebCrawler was one of the foundational search engines. Infoseek (1994) was a search engine
begun by Steve Kirsch, and was bought by the Walt Disney Company in 1998, merging with
Starwave to become go.com. Eventually it was replaced by Yahoo, and no longer exists
By the year 1995, there were several search engines such as AltaVista which was the most popular
search engine of its time. It differed from its contemporaries because of two factors: Alta Vista
used a multi-threaded crawler (Scooter) that covered more webpages than people knew existed at
the time. It also had a well-organized search-running back-end advanced hardware. By 1996
AltaVista had become the sole search results provider for Yahoo. In 2003 Alta Vista was bought
by Overture Services, Inc., which only months later was acquired by Yahoo. Looksmart was
another search engine at that year that competed with Yahoo directory, the search engine had an
initial goal of creating a substantial directory of websites. When it went public in 1999, it lost a
fair number of customers. By 2002 Looksmart became a pay-per-click provider, and after being
dropped by Microsoft, bought a search engine called WiseNut. Sadly, it never gained serious
traction, and Looksmart lost its momentum. Additionally, there was also Excite, a search engine
that was founded originally as "Architext" by Stanford University students, excite was launched
6
officially having purchased two search engines (Magellan and WebCrawler), and signed exclusive
agreements with Microsoft and Apple. Excite is now used as a personal portal called My Excite.
Hotbot, Dogpile, Google and Ask were among the search engines to appear by 1996. Hotbot was
launched by Wired Magazine and is now owned by Lycos. Dogpile was developed by Aaron Flin
and shortly thereafter sold to Go2net. Now Dogpile fetches results from Google, Yahoo, and
Yandex. Google as a search engine started for a research project by Stanford students Larry Page
and Sergey Brin. They created a search engine that would rank websites based on the number of
other websites that linked to that page. Prior to this, other engines have ranked sites based on the
number of times the search term appeared on the webpage. This strategy developed the world's
most successful search engine today. ASK (1996) was originally titled "AskJeeves.com" and was
designed by Garret Gruener and David Warthen in Berkeley, CA. The goal was to provide users
with answers to queries typed with normal every-day language and colloquialisms. It was acquired
in 2005 by IAC and continues to grow with over 100 million users.
MSN Search (1998) was the engine used by Microsoft, sourcing search results from Inktomi, and
later Looksmart. By 2006 Micosoft started performing their own image searches, and MSN
became branded as Windows Live Search, then Live Search, and finally to Bing (2009) which was
set to replace the Yahoo search engine. Overture (1998) was originally named "GoTo," where top
listings were sold on a cost-per-click or pay-per-click basis. In 2000, they began driving traffic by
placing its paid listings on another search engines and was eventually bought by Yahoo in 2003.
Alltheweb (1999) began in 1994 out of FTP Search, from Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, when then turned into Fast Search & Transfer, or FAST. Alltheweb (1999) was said
to have once rivaled Google, but the number of users declined when Overture bought the company
in 2003. AOL Search (1999) bought Web Crawler (one of the major crawler-based engines of its
time) in 1995, and after a number of deals, purchases and exchanges, AOL relaunched their search
engine, calling it AOL Search. Teaming with Google, the search engine relaunched in 2006 with
newer features including video, search marketplace, etc.
Teoma (2000) meaning "expert" in Gaelic, was a search engine created by professor Apostolos
Gerasoulis and Tao Yang at Rutgers University. Teoma's subject-specific technology centered on
a link popularity algorithm which allowed pages to rank higher if other pages with a similar content
and subject matter linked back to the page. Teoma was acquired by Ask Jeeves in 2001 and
rebranded as Ask.com. WiseNut (2001) was a crawler-based search engine that was introduced as
a beta and was owned by Looksmart. Initially the site was well reputed with an unsullied database,
and an automatic clustering of search results by using a technology called WiseGuide. Looksmart
bought WiseNut in 2002 and was eventually closed in 2007.
DIRECTORY
A Web directory is a listing of Web sites organized in a hierarchy or interconnected list of

categories. In other words, it is a hierarchical representation of hyperlinks where the top level is
typically a wide range of very general topics with each topic containing hyperlinks of more
specialized sub-topics.
7
Figure 1. Hierarchical representation of directories
Popular Directories
Below are some popular directories with their respective website addresses
1. Google – www.google.com
2. CNET Search.com – www.search.com
3. Excite – www.excite.com
4. E-Wild life – www.ewildlife.com
5. Lycos – www.lycos.com
6. Yahoo! – www.yahoo.com
7. AOL anywhere – search.aol.com
SEARCH ENGINES
A search engine is a computer program that is designed to search for information on the World
Wide Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search
engine results pages (SERPs). Search engine does the following: -
1. Allows user to submit a query that consists of a word / phrase
2. Searches the database
3. Returns a list of suitable URLs which match your query.
4. Allows user to revise and resubmit
Popular Search Engines

Below are some popular search engines with their respective website addresses
1. AOL anywhere – search.aol.com
2. AltaVista – altavista.digital.com
8
3. Excite – www.excite.com
4. HotBot – www.hotBot.com
5. Magellan – www.mckinley.com
6. Google – www.google.com
Comparison between a search engine and a directory

Directory Search Engine
1. A directory allows you to explore A search engine brings you to the exact page on the
and get what you want eventually. words or phrases you are looking for.
2. Use a directory to find cooking-related Use a search engine to find a specific recipe, by
websites. providing the name of the ingredients.
3. Use a directory to find travel guides Use a search engine to find the transportations
in a country. schedule in South Africa.
METASEARCH ENGINES
This is a type of a search engine that performs a search by returning results from more than one
other search engine. In metasearch engine, duplicates retrievals are eliminated and the results are
ranked according to how well they match with the query. It has an advantage that a single search
query can access lot of search engines, even though this sometimes leads to a disadvantage of
having a high noise-to-signal ratio, especially in situations where the matches were not the suitable
ones.
Popular Metasearch Engines
Below are some popular metasearch engines with their respective website addresses
1. Metasearch – www.metasearch.com
2. Metacrawler – www.metacrawler.com
3. MetaFind – www.metafind.com
4. Dogpile – www.dogpile.com
9
Figure 2 Examples of Metasearch engines
WHITE PAGES AND YELLOW PAGES
White pages allow user to lookup information about individuals, these pages are used to track
down the telephone numbers, email address of people.
Yellow pages on the other hand enables a user to look up information about business. Examples
of some white and yellow pages together with their addresses are;
White pages Yellow pages
Bigfoot – www.bigfoot.com Yahoo! Yellow Page – yp.yahoo.co

Yahoo! People Search – people.yahoo.com SuperPages – www.superpages.com
WhoWhere – www.whowhere.com
PATTERN MATCHING QUERIES

Pattern matching allows user to search for patterns in data, if you don't know the exact word or
phrase you are seeking. This kind of query uses wildcard characters to match a pattern, rather than
specifying it exactly. It is called a fuzzy query, when a user enters an ungrammatical sentence,
incomplete sentence fragments, or disjoint phrases, the search engine gets a collection of
keywords. A “+ “sign is used before a keyword that is required to appear in the search results,
while “- “sign is used before a keyword that is required not to appear in the search results.
10
Figure 3: Example of pattern matching queries
BOOLEAN QUERIES
Boolean search is a type of search allowing users to combine keywords with operators (or
modifiers) such as AND, NOT and OR to further produce more relevant results. For example, a
Boolean search could be "hotel" AND "New York". This would limit the search results to only
those documents containing the two keywords.
For instance, X AND Y will return URLs that contain both X and Y, X OR Y will return URLs
that contain either X or Y. X AND NOT Y – will return URLs that contain X and not contain Y.
AND is used for narrowing a query, if you know that your target documents will contain a group
of keywords, list them using the AND operator. OR is used for broadening a query, if you can
think of related words for a topic, list them using the OR operator. NOT is used to redirect a query,
if you find that a keyword or phrase is leading irrelevant hits, then represent it in your query as
AND NOT keyword
11
Figure 4: Example of Boolean queries
USING WILDCARDS
Wildcards are useful for retrieving variations of a word, for example, art* will search for art,
artwork, artist, artistry, and so forth. It is an excellent way to broaden a search. Different wildcard
characters are used by different search engines, the most common characters are: *, #, and?
SEARCH STRATEGIES
A search strategy is an organized structure of key terms used to search a database. The search
strategy combines the key concepts of your search question in order to retrieve accurate results.
As a good search strategy, a user should find a search engine that meets the following conditions:
– A user-friendly interface
– Easy-to-understand documentation
– Convenient to access
– A large indexed database
– Assigning good relevancy scores.
SEARCH GENERALIZATION
A generalization is the formulation of general concepts from specific instances by abstracting
common properties, when you are having too few hits or results, you need to generalize your search
query by trying the following:
1. Pattern matching query: eliminate one of the more specific keywords of the query.
2. Boolean query: remove the keywords with AND operator, or delete the NOT item, or use
the OR operator.
12
3. Use a directory or metasearch engine if you still cannot locate the matched URL
When you are having too many hits, the following can be tried to specialize the query:
1. Pattern matching query: add more keywords.
2. Boolean query: use AND with other keyword or add NOT operator to exclude some
unwanted pages.
3. Try capitalizing proper nouns or names.
4. Use a directory to locate your information
HOW DOES A SEARCH ENGINE WORKS?

A search engine normally consists of five components e.g. search interface, searcher, evaluator,
gatherer, and indexer. A search interface is a user-friendly mechanism which make use of forms
to allow users to submit queries to the search engine. A user interface displays the search in a
convenient way showing the summary of each matched page.
A searcher is a program that uses the search engine’s database to locate the matches for a specific
query. An evaluator looks at the hits returned by searcher to determine whether they match the
user’s query or not. An evaluator ranks pages depending on the references made to those pages.
Even though it varies from one engine to another, below are some of variables considered when
calculating a relevance score by an evaluator: returns a set of URLs that match your query.
1. The number of times a word in your page appears in queries.
2. Do these query words appear in the title of your page?
3. Do these query words appear in the META tag?
A gatherer is a program that traverses the web and gathers information about the web documents.
It runs at short and regular intervals, where it returns information which will be indexed to the
database. Alternative names for a gatherer includes Bot, Crawler, Robot, Spider or Worm. Lastly,
an indexer organizes the data gathered by the gatherer through the creating a set of keys or an
index. These indexes need to be rebuilt frequently as new data are being gathered, in order to
ensure that the returned URLs are not out of date. E.g. Libraries – Author, Title, ISBN, etc
LINK POPULARITY
This is a total number of websites that links to your site, it is important because it can dramatically
increase traffic to a website. Well placed links are an excellent source of consistent and targeted
traffic
SEARCHING TIPS
1. Be natural: Try to be as natural as possible, for instance when you want to find whether a
cell phone is harmful, you will be expected to ask the search engine something like Cell
phone” AND harmful.
2. Always use lowercase: Use lowercase characters when searching for a website, unless if
you really want to search for that term in its uppercase format. For instance, a search on a
term “star “will search for “Star, STAR, stAr…...”
3. Use uncommon keywords: Always use more valid and uncommon keywords, the more
this is done, the more specific the results that will be returned.
4. Require words: As pointed out above, use “+” before a keyword when you want that
keyword to be in every match that is returned by the search.
13
5. Exclude words: Similarly, use “– “ before a keyword when you do not want it to appear
in every match that is returned by the search.
6. Correct Spelling: Beware of the differences between English and American spellings, for
instance Color and Colour.
7. Stop words: Ignore the most common words such as “the, is, …” for instance, type
“searching the web” and the search engine will ignore “the web”.
8. Use wildcards: A wildcard is a symbol used to replace or represent one or more characters.
Wildcards are typically either an asterisk (*), which represents one or more characters or
question mark (?), which represents a single character. The asterisk in a wildcard matches
any character zero or more times. For example, "comp*" matches anything beginning with
"comp" which means "comp", "complete", and "computer" are all matched.
FACTORS AFFECT YOUR SITE’S RANKING
There are quite a number of factors that affects site’s ranking, some of which are explained
below:
Keyword Prominence
In search engine optimization (SEO), this refers to the prominent placement of keywords or
phrases within a Web page. Prominent placement may be in the page header, meta tags,
opening paragraph, or start of a sentence
Keyword Frequency
Keyword frequency refers to the number of times a keyword or keyword phrase appears within
a web page. The theory is that the more times a keyword or keyword phrase appears within a
web page, the more relevance a search engine is likely to give the page for a search with those
keywords.
Keyword Density
Keyword density, also a called a keyword weight, refers to the ratio (percentage) of keywords
contained within the total number of indexable words within a web page. The preferred
keyword density ratio varies from search engine to search engine, in most cases a keyword
density should not exceed 3 – 10 percent
Keyword Proximity
Keyword proximity refers to the closeness between two or more keywords. In general, the
closer the keywords are, the better. For example: these two searches, “How Keyword Density
Affects Search Engine Rankings” and “How Keyword Density Affects Rankings in Search
Engine”. The first sentence is more likely to rank higher than the second, the reason is because
the keywords are placed closer together. This is assuming that everything else is equal, of
course.
14
Click popularity and Stickiness
Click popularity is a measure of the number of clicks received by each site in a search engine's
results page. Stickiness is a measure of the amount of time a user spends at a site. It's calculated
according to the time that elapses between each of the user's clicks on the search engine's
results page.
References
Marckini, F. (2001, March 7). Search engine positioning. Boston: Wordware Publishing Inc.
Retrieved from www.searchenginepos
Misty E. Vermaat, Susan L. Sebok, & Steven M. Freund. (2014). Discovering Computers.
United States of America: Course Technology.
Moore, J. (2018, March 5). 12 SEO tips for large ecommerce websites. Retrieved from search
engine watch : http://www.searchenginewatch.com
15
GSP1202/2202
Use of Library, Study Skills and ICT
MODULE 10 LECTURE 1
Sagir M Tanimu
Department of Computer Science,
Bayero University, Kano.
Internet and Search Engine
INTERNET
The Internet
• The Internet is a worldwide collection of
networks that connects millions of
businesses, government agencies,
educational institutions, and individuals
• It allows people to send and receive data
wherever they are in the world provided
they have internet access
• Everyone will find that they use the
internet in one way or another, whether it
is to research some information or simply
talk to family and friends
5
• Pages 56 - 57
The Internet
• The Internet originated as ARPANET in September 1969 and had two main
goals:
Allow scientists at
Function even if part
different physical
of the network were
locations to share
disabled or destroyed
information and work
by a disaster
together
• Page 56
The Internet
1969 ARPANET Today Billions
becomes of hosts connect
functional to the Internet
1984 ARPANET
has more than
1,000 individual
computers
linked as hosts
Page 56 7
Connecting to the Internet
• With wired connections, a computer or device physically attaches via a cable
or wire to a communications device
• Computers without a communications device can use a wireless modem or
other communications device that enables wireless connectivity
• A hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to
mobile computers and devices
• An Internet service provider (ISP) is a business that provides individuals
and organizations access to the Internet free or for a fee
8
• Page 58
Audience
• Researchers- Needing to share findings
• Marketers- Advertising products and services
• Educators/Student- Teaching
Presently
• Every object can be on the Internet (Internet-of-Things)
Why is it used?
• Talking to friends
• Online shopping
• Watching Videos
• Research
• Downloading/listening to music
Advantages
The internet has many more advantages than it does have disadvantages according to research.
✓ Allows easy and quick access to information

✓ Enables user to access files and information from any computer anywhere in the world
✓ People can check financial information, purchase products, talk to people and much more
online
✓ Downloading audio and video clips quick and easy
✓ Used for keeping records which gives security and safety e.g googledrive, dropbox etc.
Disadvantages:
✓It promotes violence and bad behaviour within society, as it
contains violent videos and other disturbing images
✓It can encourage negative activities such as pornography and
paedophilia, these things can now be explored more openly due to
the internet
✓It sometimes distract students from concentrating, as they wish to
stay home and use the internet to talk to friends etc
The value of the Internet for Educational
institutions
The Internet is a great advantage to different institutions around the world. Particularly in the
academia:
• It allows prospective students to learn about an institution without having to go there
personally.
• It allows prospecting student to be able to apply to a school remotely.
• It allows students to be able to register online without having to come to the school in person
• Allows easy and seamless collaboration and conversation between students, lecturers and the
school management.
• It makes access to tools and learning materials very easy and cheap.
Implications for the future
• It will become cheaper for people to use
• It will become much faster and information will be able to be accessed more
quickly
• Beyond being a pool of information, everything(Humans, Animals, things etc)
will be connected- IOT
• It will change the way we live completely.
• Overall, the internet will become as important as water to the world.
Next
• Search Engine
GSP1202/2202
Use of Library, Study Skills and ICT
MODULE 10 LECTURE 2
Sagir M Tanimu
Department of Computer Science,
Bayero University, Kano.
Internet and Search Engine
Search Engine
Introduction
◼ You have probably been using search engines, but perhaps may
not be as effectively as possible.
◼ A lot of information are available on-line, but not all of them are
completely accurate.
◼ The web-page addresses are constantly changing, it may be only
available for a short time.
Search Engine History
◼ In 1990, before the WWW, Alan Emtage created Archie, the first
search tool for finding files on FTP sites.
◼ In 1993, lycos is developed. Followed by Jughead, Wandex, …
◼ In 1994, Galaxy, WebCrawler, Yahoo! and infoseek debuted.
◼ In 1995 and afterwards, Excite, Infoseek, Alta Vista, MetaCrawler,
…
◼ Next generation: specialized hybrids
Directories
◼ A Web Directory or Web Guide is a hierarchical

representation of hyperlinks.
◼ The top level is typically a wide range of very general
topics.
◼ Each topic contains hyperlinks of more specialized sub-
topics.
◼ Very easy to use.
Hierarchical Representation
7
Popular Directories
◼ Google – www.google.com
◼ CNET Search.com – www.search.com
◼ Excite – www.excite.com
◼ E-Wild life – www.ewildlife.com
◼ Lycos – www.lycos.com
◼ Yahoo! – www.yahoo.com
◼ AOL anywhere – search.aol.com
Search Engines
◼ A search engine is a computer program that does

the following:
– Allows user to submit a query that consists of a word /
phrase
– Searches the database
– Returns a list of suitable URLs which match your query.
– Allows user to revise and resubmit.
Where to submit Query?
Submit your Query
10
Popular Search Engines
◼ AOL anywhere – search.aol.com

◼ AltaVista – altavista.digital.com
◼ Excite – www.excite.com
◼ HotBot – www.hotBot.com
◼ Magellan – www.mckinley.com
◼ Google – www.google.com
Metasearch Engines
◼ A metasearch or all-in-one search engine performs a search by the
use of more than one other search engine to complete the search
job.
◼ The duplicate retrievals are eliminated.
◼ The results are ranked according to how well they match with the
query.
◼ Advantage:
– A single query can access lot of search engines.
◼ Disadvantage:
– A high noise-to-signal ratio, lot of matches will not be suitable for you.
Popular Metasearch
Engines
◼ Metasearch – www.metasearch.com
◼ Metacrawler – www.metacrawler.com
◼ MetaFind – www.metafind.com
◼ Dogpile – www.dogpile.com
Some Figures
14
White Pages / Yellow Pages
◼ White pages allows user to lookup
information about individuals.
◼ We can use white page to track down the
telephone numbers, email address.
◼ People can abuse white pages
◼ Some people think that white pages are an
invasion of their privacy.
◼ Yellow pages contain information about
businesses.
Popular White Pages & Yellow Pages
◼ Bigfoot – www.bigfoot.com
◼ Yahoo! People Search – people.yahoo.com
◼ WhoWhere – www.whowhere.com
◼ Yahoo! Yellow Page – yp.yahoo.com

◼ SuperPages – www.superpages.com
Comparison
Directory Search Engine
A directory allows you to explore and get A search engine brings you to the exact
what you want eventually. page on the words or phrases you are
looking for.
Use a directory to find cooking-related Use a search engine to find a specific

websites. recipe, by providing the name of the
ingredients.
Use a directory to find travel guides in a Use a search engine to find the
country. transportations schedule in South Africa.
Search Fundamentals
◼ Example: www.yahoo.com
◼ Header: Yahoo Logo and some advertisement.
◼ Information bar: contains other hyperlinks.
◼ Search form area: consists a form which allows you
to type a query.
◼ Directory area: a large number of categories,
channels.
◼ Yahoo Links: Link to other yahoo sites.
◼ Footer: contains information about yahoo, copyright
and a disclaimer.
Search Fundamentals
Search Terminologies
◼ Search Tool: Any mean to locating information on
the Internet.
◼ Query: Information typed into the form on the
search engine.
◼ Query syntax: Rules for constructing a valid query.
◼ Query semantics: Rules for defining the meaning of
a query.
◼ Hit/Match: A URL that the search engine returns for
a specific query.
◼ Relevancy score: A value that indicates the quality
of the URL (match close to the query 1 to 100).
Pattern Matching Queries
◼ It is also called Fuzzy Query.

◼ You can enter “ungrammatical sentences”,
“incomplete sentence fragments”, “disjoint
phrases”, “nonsense words”.
◼ The search engine gets a collection of
keywords.
◼ Required keyword: Mark with “+” before the
keyword.
◼ Prohibited keyword: Mark with “-” before
the keyword.
Boolean Queries
◼ A Boolean Query is a query that consists keywords but
with logical operators (AND, OR, NOT).
◼ X AND Y – will return URLs that contain both X and Y.
◼ X OR Y – will return URLs that contain either X or Y.
◼ X AND NOT Y – will return URLs that contain X and not
contain Y.
◼ Symbol: AND - &, OR - |, NOT - !, NEAR - ~
Boolean Queries
◼ AND is used for narrowing a query
– If you know that your target documents will
contain a group of keywords, list them using the
AND operator
◼ OR is used for broadening a query
– If you can think of related words for a topic, list
them using the OR operator
◼ NOT is used to redirect a query
– If you find that a keyword or phrase is leading
irrelevant hits, then represent it in your query as
AND NOT keyword
Boolean Queries
24
Using Wildcards
◼ Wildcards are useful for retrieving variations
of a word
◼ For example, art* will search for art,
artwork, artist, artistry, and so forth
◼ An excellent way to broaden a search
◼ Different wildcard characters are used by
different search engines
◼ The most common characters are: *, #, and
?
Advanced Search Options
Search Strategies
◼ You should find a search engine that meets the following

conditions:
– A user-friendly interface
– Easy-to-understand documentation
– Convenient to access
– A large indexed database
– Assigning good relevancy scores.
◼ Learn the syntax of this particular search engine, but not
several different engines.
Search Specialization
◼ Too many hits?
– Needs to specialize your search query.
◼ Pattern matching query: add more
keywords.
◼ Boolean query: use AND with other
keyword, or add NOT operator to exclude
some unwanted pages.
◼ Try capitalizing proper nouns or names.
◼ Use a directory to locate your information.
Search Generalization
◼ Too few hits?
– Needs to generalize your search query.
◼ Pattern matching query: eliminate one of
the more specific keywords of the query.
◼ Boolean query: remove the keywords with
AND operator, or delete the NOT item, or
use the OR operator.
◼ Use a directory or metasearch engine if you
still cannot locate the matched URL.
How does it work?
◼ User Interface – Allows you to type a query
and displays the results.
◼ Searcher – The engine searches the
database for matching your query.
◼ Evaluator – The engine assigns scores to the
retrieved information.
◼ Gatherer – The component that travels the
WEB, and collects information.
◼ Indexer – The engine that categorizes the
data collected by the gatherer.
Link Popularity
reference
Searching Tips
◼ Be natural
◼ Capitalize (always lower case)
◼ Use uncommon keywords
◼ Require words
◼ Exclude words
◼ Correct Spelling
◼ Stop words
◼ Use wildcards
Factors affect your site’s
Ranking
◼ Keyword prominence
◼ Keyword frequency
◼ Keyword weight
◼ Keyword proximity
◼ Keyword placement
◼ Click popularity & Stickiness
Summary
◼ Use different resources to find/search different kinds of
information.
◼ Use successive query refinement to achieve effective
search queries.
◼ Think carefully for the keywords typed in the search
engine.
◼ Use Boolean queries when you need combinations of
keywords.
◼ Think carefully when you create your own homepage, can
it be easily indexed by search engines?
Thank you

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MODULE ONE

HISTORY, OBJECTIVES, FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF LIBRARIES

hadamu.lis@buk.edu.ng and princehayatu@gmail.com

for reading, study, or reference (Halsey, et. al; 2008).

library resources to gain information about personal interests or to obtain recreational

culture that can be passed down to succeeding generations. A library therefore is an

influence students’ overall academic achievement. Thus, the effective utilization of

information resources in the library is critical to students’ overall academic achievement. A

library is involved in the business of information management through the effective

an organized collection of information resources made accessible to a defined community for

reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital (electronic) access to material, and

books to several million items.

1.2 Historical Development of Libraries:

a. The First Libraries

depth into damp clay tablets.

b. Libraries in Greece and Alexandria

professional class established private libraries, as well as specialized libraries in medicine,

significant personal libraries (Kent, et. al. 1968)

c. The Libraries of Pergamum

established libraries (also known as maktabat, madrassas, or schools) of sacred writings in

 To provide information resources

 To provide information services

 To provide conducive environment for reading and research

i. Identification and Selection of Information Resources:

2.0 Types of Libraries in the Nigerian Society

from one generation to another through the word of mouth.

 The pattern of services rendered

 The nature of their collections

3.0 University Library System

Departments found in an academic library:-

care without subjecting them to mutilation and theft.

3. What is the contribution of Islam towards the development of libraries?

6. Cataloguing and Classification forms a part of the function of library organization.

a. What is an academic library?

b. Identify and discuss the function of section/departments found in academic

GSP1202/2202 - USE OF LIBRARY,

Module 2: Information Resources and Services

MANIR ABDULLAHI KAMBA Ph. D

• The library exists to support the parent organization (the

• Therefore, the quality of education depends on the use of the 3

• Thus, this module will expose students to the various types of

• It is the means by which a person is informed about

• There are basically two types of information

• Print Information Resources

• Other examples are information on CD-ROMs, DVDs, Flash

• Examples of e-resources are electronic journals (e-journal),

Research/Technical Reports Web and Internet resources

• Librarians select books, magazines, journals databases and

• Information resources organization is done in libraries through 11

• Libraries have collections with in-depth information that has

• They assist users in sorting through the maze of information in

• The clothes in our wardrobes can also be classified according

• Aid information retrieval through systematic arrangement,

• Classification systems and schemes are, therefore, systematic

• Classification schemes map out fields of knowledge in ways

• Library classification systems, group related materials

• There are several types of classification systems used in libraries all

• Special classification schemes are meant for organizing specific