Chapter 3:

Writing and creating the Technical

Report

By Areda Batu
 CHAPTER objectives

At the end of this chapter you will

➢Outline the structure of different technical Report
➢understand the overall structure and purpose of a report in chemical
engineering.

➢know what kind of information belongs in different sections of a report.

➢structure the information in each section in a logical way.
➢use technical language in an appropriate way.
➢better understand the concepts and systems behind the topic of investigation.
 Introduction

▪ Most technical writing in industry can

be categorized as either formal or
informal writing.

▪ Formal technical documents usually

have the following attributes:
➢Refer to work of others
➢Are written with a specific format
➢Contain information with long-term value

▪ Informal documents are essentially

documents of lesser importance,
significance, or long-term value.
Spectrum of technical documents in industry
Introduction
 Parts of the Technical Report and their layout

• Engineers write technical reports (also called engineering

reports) to communicate technical information and conclusions
about projects to customers, managers, legal authority figures,
and other engineers.

• A technical report follows a specific layout and format as

specified by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
 Parts of the Technical Report and their layout
▪ Parts of a Technical Report or a thesis
 Parts of the Technical Report and their layout
▪ Parts of a Technical Report or a thesis

Not all parts are necessary or required in all Technical Reports. It is the writer’s duty to
ask the supervisor or customer which rules and guidelines must be kept as long as they are
not available in written form.
 Front Cover

Text
Title Page

Back Matter
Abstract

Front Matter
Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures

Summary

Introduction

Methods, Assumptions, and

Procedures

Results and Discussion

Conclusion

References

Appendixes

List of Symbols, Abbreviations, and

Parts of the Technical Report and their layout

Acronyms

Back Cover
 Parts of the Technical Report and their layout

Front cover sheet and title leaf [1]

▪ The front cover sheet is the title visible when the Technical Report lies
on a table as a closed book.
▪ The title leaf is only visible after you opened the Technical Report and in
most cases after you turned a blank white sheet of paper.
▪ However, if the Technical Report is bound so that the (outer) front cover
sheet is a transparent sheet of plastics, then inner and outer title are
identical.
 Parts of the Technical Report and their layout

Front cover sheet and title leaf [2]

▪ The title leaf always contains more information than the front cover sheet. For instance, in
Technical Reports written during study courses it is unusual to list the supervisors on the
front cover sheet, whereas they definitely have to be listed on the title leaf.

▪ The faults occurring most frequently on front cover sheets are:

▪ The name of the institution is missing on the top of the page.
▪ The name of the university is correctly specified, but the name of the department and/or institute are
missing.

▪ The title (essential!) is layouted with a too small font size, while the type of report (not so important!) is
much larger than the title.
Parts of the Technical Report and their layout
Parts of the Technical Report and their layout
Parts of the Technical Report and their layout

Front cover sheet and title leaf of a diploma thesis

Parts of the Technical Report and their layout

Front cover sheet and title leaf of a diploma thesis

Parts of the Technical Report and their layout
Minimum information on front cover sheet and title leaf
Parts of a report
 Format
Basic elements of a formal technical report
The full format of a long report can be as follows:
▪ Title page
▪ „Acknowledgements
▪ Summary or Abstract
▪ „Table of Contents
▪ „Introduction/Terms of Reference/Scope
▪ Main Body of the Report
▪ Methodology/ „Procedure
▪ „Results or Findings (the evidence)
▪ Discussion
▪ „Conclusions
▪ „Recommendations
▪ „References/Bibliography
▪ „Appendices
 PARTS OF A REPORT

◼Title Page
◼Table of Contents
◼Abstract/ Executive Summary
◼Introduction
◼Methods
◼ Results / Findings
◼Discussion Body of report
◼Conclusions
◼Recommendations
◼Bibliography/References
◼Appendices
 PARTS OF A REPORT

◼Title Page
◼Table of Contents
◼Abstract/ Executive Summary
◼Introduction
◼Methods
◼ Results / Findings
Write this first before
◼Discussion the rest of the report
◼Conclusions
◼Recommendations
◼Bibliography/References
◼Appendices
Scientific Lab Report Writing in
Chemical Engineering
 PARTS OF Lab REPORT

◼Title Page
◼Abstract
◼Introduction
◼Methods
◼Results
◼Discussion
◼Conclusions
◼References
◼Appendices
 Match the function of each stage in the structure of the
report with the function of each part
S.N Structure of the report Answer Function of each part
TITLE A. to provide a summary of the whole report
1
SUMMARY (ABSTRACT) B to tell the reader what you found
2
INTRODUCTION C to summaries your findings and interpretations
3
METHODS D to give enough background information to readers so they will know the
4
context and purpose of your experiment
RESULTS E to tell the reader the topic of your report
5
DISCUSSION F To give more detailed information
6
CONCLUSION G to tell the reader what you did, the materials you used, the procedure you
7
followed
REFERENCES H to interpret and explain the significance of what you found
8
APPENDIX(-CES) I to tell the reader the origin of all the references you have cited in the text
9
 PARTS OF A REPORT
STRUCTURE FUNCTION OF EACH PART
TITLE to tell the reader the topic of your report
SUMMARY to provide a summary of the whole report
(ABSTRACT)
INTRODUCTION to give enough background information to readers so they will know the context
and purpose of your experiment
METHODS to tell the reader what you did, the materials you used, the procedure you followed
RESULTS to tell the reader what you found
DISCUSSION to interpret and explain the significance of what you found
CONCLUSION to summaries your findings and interpretations
REFERENCES to tell the reader the origin of all the references you have cited in the text
APPENDIX(-CES) to give more detailed information
 PARTS OF A REPORT - Title

▪A good title is short and to the point.

▪Its main function is to tell the reader clearly and concisely what the
experiment attempts to find out.

▪Titles should be detailed enough so that readers know:

❖the subject
❖the purpose
❖the major parameters of your experiment
 PARTS OF A REPORT - Title
▪Example Title: A comparison of the costs of buying a
new cooling tower with repacking an existing tower
with more efficient packing.

Purpose a comparison of the costs

Subject cooling tower
Major -buying a new cooling tower
parameters -repacking an existing tower with more efficient
packing
 PARTS OF A REPORT - Title
▪Titles should not be so general that they make impossible claims, or so
short that they are meaningless.
Aim Research Question Title
The aim of the experiment is to How do the costs of buying A comparison of the costs of buying a
compare the cost of buying a new a new cooling tower new cooling tower with repacking an
cooling tower with repacking and compare with repacking existing tower with more efficient
existing tower with more efficient and existing tower with packing
packing. more efficient packing?

❖ Compare: the verb compare in the aim or question changes to the noun comparison in the title.

❖ the cost: The noun phrase, the costs, in the aim or question changes to a prepositional phase, of the costs in the
title and this modifies the head noun comparison.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction

Read Read your laboratory notes, textbooks and, in some cases, other sources such as journal articles.
▪Tips about writing introduction
Draft Draft and re-draft your introduction a number of times. Leave the final draft until you have written
up the rest of your report and you have a clearer understanding of how your results and your
interpretation of your results relate to your aim and your introduction as a whole.

Write Two paragraphs is often enough - you don’t need to write everything that is known about the topic.
Your lecturer wants to see that you understand the topic, so try to use your own words combined with
the technical language of your field.

Avoid Be careful not to copy your laboratory notes and textbooks. Also avoid quotations.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction
▪ The different types of information typically found in the introduction are shown below.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction

▪Stage 1. The subject of the report

▪What is the subject of your report? What is your experiment
about? Why is the subject important?
▪Example: The basic principle of cooling towers is to allow contact
between air and water, usually counter-currently to maximize the
contact. Air that enters the unit is not saturated and the mass
transfer which occurs from the water to the air stream increases the
humidity of the air. The evaporative cooling effect reduces the
temperature of the water.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction

▪Stage 2. The theory on this subject

▪What is the theory on this subject? What models/formulae are
you using? What assumptions are you making?
▪Example: The enthalpy difference between the water and the
air stream is regarded as the driving force for the cooling
process. This is represented in enthalpy versus temperature
graphs, as shown in Figure 1.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction

▪Stage 3. The experimental approach

▪What have other researchers found out about this subject?
How does your experiment compare with previous experiments
done in that area? (Will it confirm a hypothesis already stated,
apply a methodology to other subjects, etc?)
▪Example: The costs were estimated by assuming that the
installation costs of the equipment would be 25% to 50% of the
capital costs (Brenner, 1996).
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction

▪Stage 4. The aim and/or hypothesis

▪What is the aim or objective of your experiment or what
hypothesis(es) is/are being tested? What are you trying to find
out?
▪Example: The aim of the laboratory experiment was to
determine if buying a new tower or using a more efficient
fill in the existing tower was more cost effective.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction
The aim and/or hypothesis
In your lab notes, you write your aim as a - to find the conditions favouring production of large uniform crystals of
phrase: ammonium sulfate in an elutriating evaporating rig.

When you write the introduction to your This experiment was carried out to find the conditions favouring production of
lab report, you need to change this to a large uniform crystals of ammonium sulfate in an elutriating evaporating rig.
sentence:

You can also write out your aim as a It was expected that large seed would produce a smaller yield of crystals with
hypothesis or set of hypotheses: larger size as growth would occur on the crystal seeds.

Notice that the hypothesis and aim are The hypothesis was that .....
typically (but not always) expressed in the The aim was to ....
PAST TENSE:
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction

Information Flow

▪As your introduction moves from general background

information to the specific aim or hypothesis, you need to pay
attention to how these ideas are linked together.

▪Doing this successfully depends on how you link sentences

and what information you put in sentence beginnings and
endings.
 BODY OF REPORT - Introduction
Information Flow
Introduction
Leaching can be defined as the process whereby a soluble constituent is extracted from a solid
by means of a solvent put into contact with the solid in a batchwise or a continuous fashion. This
process may be used to produce a concentrated solution of a valuable solid material or to
remove contaminating materials from it. In this experiment an extremely valuable chemical,
fluoroscein, which was present in a PVC slurry at a very low concentration (30-60 parts per
million), was extracted from one of the processing lines of a pharmaceutical plant. The main aim
of the experiment was to find the optimal operating conditions, namely, the optimum water flow
rate, for extracting the fluoroscein which would ensure the return of maximum profit on the
existing leaching facility within the practical and safe operating margins of the plant.
 Exercise
Below is an extract from a student introduction for the leaching plant experiment. Try to write
them into a logical order.
A. Each one of the three stages consists of a mixer and a settler assembly.
B. This experiment studies the extraction of an extremely valuable chemical present at a very low
concentration, 30-60 parts per millions, from one of the processing lines of a pharmaceutical plant.

C. A concentrated solution of the valuable chemical is produced after separating it from the valueless solid,
gangue, on which it was absorbed

D. The feed to the plant is a slurry of PVC containing a valuable dye fluorescein in a very low concentration.
E. The dye is separated by introducing water as a solvent.
F. To perform this, the feed was introduced to a three stage leaching plant with a fixed capacity.

Answer : 1. B 2. C 3. F 4. A 5. D 6.E
 BODY OF REPORT - Methods

▪The methods should give enough detail so that someone else can
duplicate your experiment.

▪Remember not to comment on your observations or measurements in

the methods stage. You should do this in the results stage.

▪The information you provide should typically answer the following

questions:
❖What materials did you use?
❖What methods did you use?
BODY OF REPORT - Methods
 BODY OF REPORT - Methods
Stages Examples
Describe apparatus using The experimental apparatus consisted of three mixer/settler units, connected in a cascade
a diagram (if necessary) fashion, as shown in Figure 2.1.

What you did and used The feed slurry was pumped into the system at stage 1 from a large mixing tank (agitated
second by a stirrer) using a peristaltic pump. Fresh water was introduced at stage 3 to act as a
solvent with its flowrate being measured and controlled by a rotameter-valve assembly.

What you did and used Initially, the process constraints were estimated by measuring the highest PVC
third concentration in the underflow stream that could be handled safely without clogging the
pumps or rupturing the pipes. This value was found to be around 40% wet v/v for the
tachometer reading varying from 100 to 107 rpm and a feed concentration of dye
approximately equal to 45ppm and 18% v/v PVC....
BODY OF REPORT - Methods
 BODY OF REPORT -Results

▪In your results section you will present your findings in tables and
figures and comment on them briefly in a summary.

▪You can make more extensive comments in the discussion section.

▪Getting the correct balance in terms of writing the results and the
discussion sections of a report is both difficult and important.

▪The results and discussion sections are the heart of the report and
are central to obtaining the maximum benefit (for both reader and
writer) from the experience.
 BODY OF REPORT -Results

Do refer to your tables and figures and introduce Don’t simply repeat the content of the figures
their content. and tables.

Do highlight the most important result(s). Don’t generalize or interpret your results.

Do summarize and compare results. Don’t just list the results.

Do write with certainty about your results.

Do identify unexpected results.

Do state the (statistical) significance of your results.

 BODY OF REPORT -Results

▪Structuring the Results

Stage 1: Introduce Results

Sub-stage 1a: gives the reader any information

INFORM required to understand the results
Sub-stage 1b:
tells the reader where to find the results
LOCATE

Stage 2: Present Tables and Figures

 BODY OF REPORT -Results
Present Tables and Figures
▪ Characteristics table: Tables should be:
❖ Tables should be centered on the page so that there is a clear boundary between text and table.
❖ Tables should be presented in close proximity to their accompanying caption (title) and legend.
Clearly presented
❖ Tables should be presented as soon as possible after they are first referred to in the text.

• Tables are numbered consecutively as they appear in the report using Arabic numerals (i.e. 1,2,3
• Tables should be numbered separately from figures, tables following one sequence, figures another sequence.
clearly numbered • Sometimes there are two numbers: the first number representing the section of the report and the second number
representing the sequence of tables/figures within the section (Table 3.1 would be the first table in the third section of the
report).
• Captions should be simple, but informative.
clearly captioned
• Table numbers and titles (captions) should be placed above the table.
• Tables should have clearly identified row and column headings, axes, legends etc.
• Like material is usually placed in columns (i.e. vertically, read down) rather than in rows (i.e. horizontally).
Easily interpreted
• The units, values, ratios, etc represented should also be identified.
 BODY OF REPORT -Results

Present Tables and Figures

 BODY OF REPORT -Results
Present Tables and Figures
 BODY OF REPORT -Results
Present Tables and Figures
 BODY OF REPORT -Results
Present Tables and Figures
 BODY OF REPORT -Results
Present Tables and Figures
 BODY OF REPORT -Discussion

▪The discussion section is probably the most

difficult and challenging to write because you
have to think carefully about the specific results
you obtained in your experiment, relate them to
the aim, interpret them and generalize from
them.
BODY OF REPORT -Discussion
BODY OF REPORT -Conclusion
BODY OF REPORT -Conclusion

1. What was the main outcome or result of

your experiment?
2. What are the implications of this
outcome?

1. What were the main issues addressed in

your discussion?
2. What are their implications?

What are your recommendations?

 BODY OF REPORT -Conclusion

❖The conclusion summarizes the major inferences that

can be drawn from the information presented in the report.
❖It answers the questions raised by the original
research problem or stated purpose of the report and
states the conclusions reached;
❖it also attempts to show ‘what it all means’: the
significance of the findings reported and their impact
 BODY OF REPORT -Conclusion

❖Recommendations should emerge from the conclusions of the

report.
❖Recommendations tell the reader what to do: what decision to
make, what course of action to take, what alternative solution is
superior or what further work needs to be undertaken.
❖Although subjective, that is the recommendations arise from your
opinion and judgements, the recommendation section should and
should arise from the information presented in the body and
conclusion sections. Never contain any new evidence.
 BODY OF REPORT -Summary

▪The abstract or executive summary provides a summary of

the report’s essential information.

▪Although the summary or abstract is the first section of the

report, it is usually the last section that is written.

▪This is because it is a summary or an overview of the whole

report and it is easier to write after you have finished the
whole report.
 BODY OF REPORT -Summary

▪The abstract / executive summary should summaries:

▪ the background to the problem
▪ the purpose of the report
▪ the goal of the work
▪ brief details of the approach, procedure and/or methods
▪ important results and/or findings
▪ Conclusion(s)
▪ Recommendations
 BODY OF REPORT -Summary

Introduction
1. What is the experiment about The aim of this experiment was to find the optimum water flowrate giving the maximum profit for a three-stage counter-current
and why was k done? leaching apparatus with a given slurry feed flowrate and composition. This took into account the practical constraints associated with
the operation of the rig as well as economic critena corresponding to the revenue and costs involved.

2. How was the experiment The rig was run with a slurry feed of 0.54 *0.O1L/min, This value was set as it represented the safest feed flowrate that ensured the minimum
done? expenditure of slurry while maintaining a continuous flow in the pipes without blockage or leakage problems. The feed composition was 45
Methods ±3ppm of fluoroscein dye mixed with a PVC slurry of 18.7% by volume. A mathematical model was derived, based on the mass and volume
balances around the whole rig as well as the individual stages. This model was then used to predict the optimal water flowrate and the profit
associated with operating the rig. Three runs were made, with water flowrates varying between the theoretical optimum and 30% higher and
lower.
Resul

3. What were the main results? A maximum profit of $37.90/hr was found experimentally with an uncertainty of 25%.
ts

4. What were the main This was lower than the model prediction of 45O/hr. The deviation from the prediction of the theoretical model can partly be explained by
Discussion And Conclusion

outcomes? measurement errors, particularly the measurement of the dye concentration due to the spectrophotometer reading drifting from its baseline. The
results could be improved by modifying the apparatus used. Specifically, more efficient underflow pumps and settlers with more effective
separation capabilities should be used. The latter may be achieved by providing more surface area for the solid to settle, either by changing the
number and arrangement of straws or the geometry of the settler or both. A more sensitive spectrophotometer should be used to eliminate the
errors associated with it. Finally, more data should be collected to compensate for possible errors in measuring variables while the flow is
discontinuous.
 BODY OF REPORT -Summary

▪Examples of abstracts
 BODY OF REPORT -References

Why use A properly prepared reference to the literature shows

references? that you have done your background research and
enables another person to locate your source of
information.
How do you refer to You can use an author/date system or a numbering
other sources? system. Choose one and be consistent.
How do you make a Provide bibliographic details of all the references you
reference list? mentioned (cited) in your report at the end of the report
(not the ones you may have read but didn't mention).

(Ramshaw, 1995). chemical plant so as to reach a given production objective [12].

 BODY OF REPORT -References

• A bibliography is a list of all the reference

material you consulted during your research for the
report
• A reference list is a list of all the references cited
in the text of your report.
• Each reference in the reference list needs to contain
all of the bibliographic information from a source.
 BODY OF REPORT -References
63. 96-99. Chemical Engineering
Education
63, 96-99. Chemical Engineering
Education
1989 Davies, W.A. A three-stage counter current Education
leaching rig for the senior laboratory
(1989) WA Davis A three-stage counter current Education leaching
rig for the senior laboratory.

Answer: Davies, W.A. (1989) A three-stage counter current leaching rig for the senior laboratory. Chemical Engineering
Education, 63, 96-99.

Reactor Design and Operation. 1984 Western, K. and Beenackers, A.A. John Wiley, Chichester.

Reactor Design and Operation. (1984) K. Western and A.A. Beenackers Chichester, UK.: John Wiley

Answer: Western, K., and Beenackers, A.A. (1984) Reactor Design and Operation. John Wiley, Chichester.
 BODY OF REPORT -Appendix

▪Appendices are only used for specific details of your experiment

which are not necessary for understanding the main purpose and
outcomes of your experiment, e.g.:
❖ raw data
❖ more detailed descriptions of your methods or equipment
❖ Formulae
❖ Calculations
❖ more detailed results
Thank You