Dom est ic Wat er Treat m ent and Supply

M odu le 1 : M u n icipa l W a t e r Su pply: Sou r ce s a nd Qu a lit y

Lect ur e 1: Raw Wat er Source and Qualit y

M odu le 2 : W a t e r Qu a n t it y a n d I n t a k e D e t a ils
Lect ur e 2: Wat er Quant it y Est im at ion
Lect ur e 3: I nt ake, Pum ping and Conveyance

M odu le 3 : Un it Pr oce sse s in M u n icipa l W a t e r Tr e a t m e n t

Lect ur e 4: Wat er Tr eat m ent Philosophy
Lect ur e 5: Prelim inary Treat m ent : Silt Excluder Design
Lect ur e 6: Sedim ent at ion Tank Design
Lect ur e 7: Coagulat ion - Flocculat ion Theory
Lect ur e 8: Rapid Mixing, Coagulat ion - Flocculat ion
Lect ur e 9: Coagulat ion - Flocculat ion
Lect ur e 10: Filt rat ion Theory
Lect ur e 11: Rapid Sand Filt rat ion
Lect ur e 12: Disinfect ion

M odu le 4 : M u n icipa l W a t e r Tr e a t m e n t Pla n t D e sign D e t a ils

Lect ur e 13: Treat m ent Plant Sit ing and Hydraulics

M odu le 5 : W a t e r St or a ge Ta n k s a n d D ist r ibu t ion N e t w or k

Lect ur e 14: Wat er St orage Tanks and Wat er Supply Net work
Lect ur e 15: Wat er Supply Net work Design

M odu le 6 : Ru r a l W a t e r Su pply
Lect ur e 16: Wat er Tr eat m ent and Supply for Rural Areas

Dom est ic Wast ewat er Collect ion and Treat m ent

M odu le 7 : M u n icipa l W a st e w a t e r Qu a n t it y a n d Qu a lit y

Lect ure 17: Wast ewat er Qualit y and Quant it y Est im at ion

M odu le 8 : M u n icipa l W a st e w a t e r Colle ct ion a n d Tr e a t m e n t Ph ilosoph y

Lect ure 18: Layout and Design of Municipal Sewers
Lect ur e 19: Sewer Appurt enances, Sum p- well and Sewage Pum ping
Lect ur e 20: Wast ewat er Treat m ent Philosophy

M odu le 9 : Pr e lim in a r y a n d Pr im a r y W a st e w a t e r Tr e a t m e n t
Lect ur e 21: Bar Rack / Screens and Equalizat ion Tank Design
Lect ur e 22: Grit Cham ber and Prim ary Sedim ent at ion Tank Design

M odu le 1 0 : Se con da r y W a st e w a t e r Tr e a t m e n t
Lect ur e 23: Fundam ent als of Applied Microbiology
Lect ur e 24: Act ivat ed Sludge Process Descript ion
Lect ur e 25: Design of Act ivat ed Sludge Syst em s
Lect ur e 26: Design of Act ivat ed Sludge Syst em s
Lect ur e 27: Aerat or Design for Act ivat ed Sludge Process
Lect ur e 28: Trickling Filt er Fundam ent als and Design
Lect ur e 29: Ot her Aerobic Treat m ent Syst em s
Lect ur e 30: Anaerobic Treat m ent Fundam ent als
Lect ur e 31: Design of Anaerobic React ors
Lect ur e 32: Design of UASB React ors

M odu le 1 1 : Te r t ia r y a n d Adva n ce d Tr e a t m e n t
Lect ure 33: Nit rificat ion: Process Descript ion and Design
Lect ur e 34: Denit rificat ion: Process Descript ion and Design
Lect ur e 35: Phosphor us Rem oval and Ot her Advanced Treat m ent
M odu le 1 2 : Re sidu a ls M a n a ge m e n t
Lect ur e 36: Fundam ent als of Residual Managem ent
Lect ur e 37: Residual Managem ent Process Design

M odu le 1 3 : M u n icipa l W a st e w a t e r Tr e a t m e n t Pla n t D e sign D e t a ils

Lect ure 38: Sit ing and Hydraulics of Wast ewat er Treat m ent Plant s

M odu le 1 4 : Tr e a t e d Efflu e n t D isposa l

Lect ur e 39: Treat ed Effluent Discharge, Reuse and Recycling

M odu le 1 5 : N a t u r a l M e t h ods of W a st e w a t e r Tr e a t m e n t
Lect ur e 40: Oxidat ion, Facult at ive and Anaerobic Ponds
Lect ure 41: Phyt o- Rem ediat ion and Root - Zone Treat m ent

M odu le 1 6 : H ygie ne a n d Sa n it a t ion in Ru r a l/ Se m i- Ru r a l Ar e a s

Lect ure 42: Sept ic Tanks, Soak Pit s, Cesspools, Dry Lat rines

Ra w W a t e r Sou r ce

The various sources of wat er can be classified int o t wo cat egories:

1. Surface sources, such as

a. Ponds and lakes;
b. St ream s and rivers;
c. St orage reservoirs; and
d. Oceans, generally not used for wat er supplies, at present .
2. Sub- surface sources or underground sources, such as
a. Springs;
b. I nfilt rat ion wells ; and
c. Wells and Tube- wells.

W a t e r Qu a lit y

The raw or t reat ed wat er is analysed by t est ing t heir physical, chem ical and bact eriological charact erist ics:

Ph ysica l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics:

Turbidit y
Colour
Tast e and Odour
Tem per at ure

Ch e m ica l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics:

pH
Acidit y
Alkalinit y
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphat es
I ron
Solids
Nit rat es

Ba ct e r iologica l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics:

Bact erial exam inat ion of wat er is very im port ant , since it indicat es t he degree of pollut ion. Wat er pollut ed by sewage cont ain
one or m ore species of disease producing pat hogenic bact eria. Pat hogenic organism s cause wat er borne diseases, and m any
non pat hogenic bact eria such as E.Coli, a m em ber of coliform group, also live in t he int est inal t ract of hum an beings. Coliform
it self is not a harm ful group but it has m ore resist ance t o adverse condit ion t han any ot her group. So, if it is ensured t o
m inim ize t he num ber of coliform s, t he harm ful species will be very less. So, coliform group serves as indicat or of cont am inat ion
of wat er wit h sewage and presence of pat hogens.

The m et hods t o est im at e t he bact erial qualit y of wat er are:

St andard Plat e Count Test

Most Probable Num ber
Mem brane Filt er Technique

W a t e r Qu a n t it y Est im a t ion

The quant it y of wat er required for m unicipal uses for which t he wat er supply schem e has t o be designed requires following
dat a:

1. Wat er consum pt ion rat e ( Per Capit a Dem and in lit res per day per head)
2. Populat ion t o be served.

Qu a n t it y= Pe r ca pit a de m a n d x Popu la t ion

W a t e r Con su m pt ion Ra t e

I t is very difficult t o precisely assess t he quant it y of wat er dem anded by t he public, since t here are m any variable fact ors
affect ing wat er consum pt ion. The various t ypes of wat er dem ands, which a cit y m ay have, m ay be broken int o following
classes:

Wat er Consum pt ion for Various Purposes:

Types of Consum pt ion Norm al Range Average %

( lit / capit a/ day)
1 Dom est ic Consum pt ion 65- 300 160 35
2 I ndust rial and Com m ercial Dem and 45- 450 135 30
3 Public Uses including Fire Dem and 20- 90 45 10
4 Losses and Wast e 45- 150 62 25

Fire Fight ing Dem and:

The per capit a fire dem and is very less on an average basis but t he rat e at which t he wat er is required is very large. The rat e of
fire dem and is som et im es t raet ed as a funct ion of populat ion and is worked out from following em pirical form ulae:

Aut horit y Form ulae ( P in t housand) Q for 1 lakh

Populat ion)
Am erican Q ( L/ m in) = 4637 √P ( 1- 0.01 √P) 41760
1 I nsurance
Associat ion
Kuchling's Q ( L/ m in) = 3182 √P 31800
2
Form ula
Freem an's Q ( L/ m in) = 1136.5( P/ 5+ 10) 35050
3
Form ula
Minist ry of Urban Q ( kilo lit ers/ d) = 100 √P for P> 50000 31623
4 Developm ent
Manual Form ula

Fa ct or s a ffe ct in g pe r ca pit a de m a n d:

a. Size of t he cit y: Per capit a dem and for big cit ies is generally large as com pared t o t hat for sm aller t owns as big cit ies
have sewered houses.
 b. Presence of indust ries.
c. Clim at ic condit ions.
d. Habit s of people and t heir econom ic st at us.
e. Qualit y of wat er: I f wat er is aest het ically $ m edically safe, t he consum pt ion will increase as people will not resort t o
privat e wells, et c.
f. Pressure in t he dist ribut ion syst em .
g. Efficiency of wat er works adm inist rat ion: Leaks in wat er m ains and services; and unaut horised use of wat er can be kept
t o a m inim um by surveys.
h. Cost of wat er.
i. Policy of m et ering and charging m et hod: Wat er t ax is charged in t wo different ways: on t he basis of m et er reading and
on t he basis of cert ain fixed m ont hly rat e.

Flu ct u a t ion s in Ra t e of D e m a n d

Average Daily Per Capit a Dem and

= Quant it y Required in 12 Mont hs/ ( 365 x Populat ion)

I f t his average dem and is supplied at all t he t im es, it will not be sufficient t o m eet t he fluct uat ions.

• Se a son a l va r ia t ion : The dem and peak s during sum m er. Firebreak out s are generally m ore in sum m er, increasing

•
dem and. So, t here is seasonal variat ion .
D a ily va r ia t ion depends on t he act ivit y. People draw out m ore wat er on Sundays and Fest ival days, t hus increasing

•
dem and on t hese days.
H ou r ly va r ia t ion s are very im port ant as t hey have a wide range. During act ive household working hours i.e. from six
t o t en in t he m orning and four t o eight in t he evening, t he bulk of t he daily requirem ent is t aken. During ot her hours
t he requirem ent is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out , a huge quant it y of wat er is required t o be supplied during
short durat ion, necessit at ing t he need for a m axim um rat e of hourly supply.

So, an adequat e quant it y of wat er m ust be available t o m eet t he peak dem and. To m eet all t he fluct uat ions, t he supply pipes,
service reser voirs and dist ribut ion pipes m ust be pr operly propor t ioned. The wat er is supplied by pum ping direct ly and t he
pum ps and dist ribut ion syst em m ust be designed t o m eet t he peak dem and. The effect of m ont hly variat ion influences t he
design of st orage reservoirs and t he hourly variat ions influences t he design of pum ps and service reservoirs. As t he populat ion
decreases, t he fluct uat ion rat e increases.

Maxim um daily dem and = 1.8 x average daily dem and

Maxim um hourly dem and of m axim um day i.e. Peak dem and
= 1.5 x average hourly dem and
= 1.5 x Maxim um daily dem and/ 24
= 1.5 x ( 1.8 x average daily dem and) / 24
= 2.7 x average daily dem and/ 24
= 2.7 x annual average hour ly dem and

D e sign Pe r iods & Popu la t ion For e ca st

This quant it y should be worked out wit h due provision for t he est im at ed requirem ent s of t he fut ure . The fut ure period for which
a provision is m ade in t he wat er supply schem e is known as t he de sign pe r iod.

Design period is est im at ed based on t he following:

•
•
Useful life of t he com ponent , considering obsolescence, wear, t ear, et c.

•
Expandabilit y aspect .

•
Ant icipat ed rat e of growt h of populat ion, including indust rial, com m ercial developm ent s & m igrat ion- im m igrat ion.

•
Available resources.
Perform ance of t he syst em during init ial period.

Popu la t ion For e ca st in g M e t h ods

The various m et hods adopt ed for est im at ing fut ure populat ions are given below. The part icular m et hod t o be adopt ed for a
part icular case or for a part icular cit y depends largely on t he fact ors discussed in t he m et hods, and t he select ion is left t o t he
discrect ion and int elligence of t he designer.
 1. Arit hm et ic I ncrease Met hod
2. Geom et ric I ncrease Met hod
3. I ncrem ent al I ncrease Met hod
4. Decreasing Rat e of Growt h Met hod
5. Sim ple Graphical Met hod
6. Com parat ive Graphical Met hod
7. Rat io Met hod
8. Logist ic Curve Met hod

I n t a k e St r uct u r e

The basic funct ion of t he int ake st ruct ure is t o help in safely wit hdrawing wat er from t he source over predet erm ined pool levels
and t hen t o discharge t his wat er int o t he wit hdrawal conduit ( norm ally called int ake conduit ) , t hrough which it flows up t o water
t reat m ent plant .

Fa ct or s Gove r n in g Loca t ion of I n t a k e

1. As far as possible, t he sit e should be near t he t reat m ent plant so t hat t he cost of conveying wat er t o t he cit y is less.
2. The int ake m ust be locat ed in t he purer zone of t he source t o draw best qualit y wat er from t he source, t hereby reducing
load on t he t reat m ent plant .
3. The int ake m ust never be locat ed at t he downst ream or in t he vicinit y of t he point of disposal of wast ewat er.
4. The sit e should be such as t o perm it great er wit hdrawal of wat er, if required at a fut ure dat e.
5. The int ake m ust be locat ed at a place from where it can draw wat er even during t he driest period of t he year.
6. The int ake sit e should rem ain easily accessible during floods and should noy get flooded. Moreover, t he flood wat ers
should not be concent rat ed in t he vicinit y of t he int ake.

D e sign Con side r a t ion s

1. sufficient fact or of safet y against ext ernal forces such as heavy current s, float ing m at erials, subm erged bodies, ice
pressure, et c.
2. should have sufficient self weight so t hat it does not float by upt hrust of wat er.

Type s of I n t a k e

Depending on t he source of wat er, t he int ake works are classified as follows:

Pu m pin g

A pum p is a device which convert s m echanical energy int o hydraulic energy. I t lift s wat er from a lower t o a higher level and
delivers it at high pressure. Pum ps are em ployed in wat er supply proj ect s at various st ages for following purposes:

1. To lift raw wat er from wells.

2. To deliver t reat ed wat er t o t he consum er at desired pressure.
3. To supply pressured wat er for fire hydrant s.
4. To boost up pressure in wat er m ains.
5. To fill elevat ed overhead w at er t anks.
6. To back- wash filt ers.
7. To pum p chem ical solut ions, needed for wat er t reat m ent .

Cla ssifica t ion of Pu m ps

Based on principle of operat ion, pum ps m ay be classified as follows:

1. Displacem ent pum ps ( reciprocat ing, rot ary)

2. Velocit y pum ps ( cent rifugal, t urbine and j et pum ps)
3. Buoyancy pum ps ( air lift pum ps)
4. I m pulse pum ps ( hydraulic ram s)

Ca pa cit y of Pu m ps

Work done by t he pum p,

 H.P.= γQH/ 75

where, γ= specific weight of wat er kg/ m 3 , Q= discharge of pum p, m 3 / s; and H= t ot al head against which pum p has t o work.

H= Hs + Hd + Hf + ( losses due t o exit , ent rance, bends, valves, and so on)

where, Hs= suct ion head, Hd = delivery head, and Hf = frict ion loss.

Efficiency of pum p ( E) = γQH/ Brake H.P.

Tot al brake horse power r equired = γQH/ E

Provide even num ber of m ot ors say 2,4,... wit h t heir t ot al capacit y being equal t o t he t ot al BHP and provide half of t he m ot ors
required as st and- by.

Con ve ya n ce

There are t w o st ages in t he t ransport at ion of wat er:

1. Conveyance of wat er from t he source t o t he t reat m ent plant .

2. Conveyance of t reat ed wat er from t reat m ent plant t o t he dist ribut ion syst em .

I n t he first st age wat er is t ransport ed by gravit y or by pum ping or by t he com bined act ion of bot h, depending upon t he relat ive
elevat ions of t he t reat m ent plant and t he source of supply.
I n t he second st age wat er t ransm ission m ay be eit her by pum ping int o an overhead t ank and t hen supplying by gravit y or by
pum ping direct ly int o t he wat er- m ain for dist ribut ion.

Fr e e Flow Syst e m

I n t his syst em , t he surface of wat er in t he conveying sect ion flows freely due t o gravit y. I n such a conduit t he hydraulic
gradient line coincide wit h t he w at er surface and is parallel t o t he bed of t he conduit . I t is oft en necessary t o const ruct very
long conveying sect ions, t o suit t he slope of t he exist ing ground. The sect ions used for free- flow are: Canals, flum es, grade
aqueduct s and grade t unnels.

Pr e ssur e Syst e m

I n pressure conduit s, which are closed conduit s, t he wat er flows under pressure above t he at m ospheric pressure. The bed or
invert of t he conduit in pressure flows is t hus independant of t he grade of t he hydraulic gradient line and can, t herefore, follow
t he nat ural available ground surface t hus requiring lesser lengt h of conduit . The pressure aqueduct s m ay be in t he form of
closed pipes or closed aqueduct s and t unnels called pressure aqueduct s or pr essure t unnels designed for t he pressur e likely t o
com e on t hem . Due t o t heir circular shapes, every pressure conduit is generally t erm ed as a pressure pipe. When a pressure
pipe drops beneat h a valley, st ream , or som e ot her depression, it is called a depressed pipe or an invert ed siphon.
Depending upon t he const ruct ion m at erial, t he pressure pipes are of following t ypes: Cast iron, st eel, R.C.C, hum e st eel,
vit rified clay, asbest os cem ent , wrought iron, copper, brass and lead, plast ic, and glass reinforced plast ic pipes.

H ydr a u lic D e sign

The design of wat er supply conduit s depends on t he resist ance t o flow, available pressure or head, and allowable velocit ies of
flow. Generally, Hazen- William 's form ula for pressure conduit s and Manning's form ula for freeflow conduit s are used.

Hazen- William 's form ula

U= 0.85 C r H0.63 S0.54

Manning's form ula

U= 1 / n r H2/ 3 S1/ 2

where, U= velocit y, m / s; r H= hydraulic radius,m ; S= slope, C= Hazen- William 's coefficient , and n = Manning's coefficient .
Darcy- Weisbach form ula

h L= ( fLU2 ) / ( 2gd)

The available raw wat ers m ust be t reat ed and purified before t hey can be supplied t o t he public for
t heir dom est ic, indust rial or any ot her uses. The ext ent of t reat m ent required t o be given t o t he
part icular wat er depends upon t he charact erist ics and qualit y of t he available wat er, and also upon t he
q ualit y requirem ent s for t he int ended use..
The layout of convent ional wat er t reat m ent plant is as follows:

Depending upon t he m agnit ude of t reat m ent required, proper unit operat ions are select ed and arranged in t he
proper sequent ial order for t he purpose of m odifying t he qualit y of raw wat er t o m eet t he desired st andards. I ndian
St andards for drinking wat er are given in t he t able below.

I n dia n St a n da r ds for dr in k in g w a t e r

If no alternative source available,

Parameter Desirable-Tolerable
limit extended upto
Physical
Turbidity (NTU unit) < 10 25
Colour (Hazen scale) < 10 50
Taste and Odour Un-objectionable Un-objectionable
Chemical
pH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
Total Dissolved Solids mg/l 500-1500 3000
Total Hardness mg/l (as CaCO3) 200-300 600
Chlorides mg/l (as Cl) 200-250 1000
Sulphates mg/l (as SO4) 150-200 400
Fluorides mg/l (as F ) 0.6-1.2 1.5
Nitrates mg/l (as NO3) 45 45
Calcium mg/l (as Ca) 75 200
Iron mg/l (as Fe ) 0.1-0.3 1.0

The t ypical funct ions of each unit operat ions are given in t he following t able:

Funct ions of Wat er Treat m ent Unit s

 Unit treatment Function (removal)
Aeration, chemicals use Colour, Odour, Taste
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and Reducing substances

The t ypes of t reat m ent required for different sources are given in t he following t able:

Source Treatment required

1. Ground water and spring water fairly free from contamination No treatment or Chlorination
2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals and gases Aeration, coagulation (if necessary),
filtration and disinfection
3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less amount of pollution Disinfection
4. Other surface waters such as rivers, canals and impounded Complete treatment
reservoirs with a considerable amount of pollution

Ae r a t ion

• Aerat ion rem oves odour and t ast es due t o volat ile gases like hydrogen sulphide and due t o algae and relat ed

•
organism s.
Aerat ion also oxidise iron and m anganese, increases dissolved oxygen cont ent in wat er, rem oves CO2 and reduces

•
corrosion and rem oves m et hane and ot her flam m able gases.
Principle of t reat m ent underlines on t he fact t hat volat ile gases in wat er escape int o at m osphere from t he air- wat er
int erface and at m ospheric oxygen t akes t heir place in wat er, provided t he wat er body can expose it self over a vast
surface t o t he at m ospher e. This process cont inues unt il an equilibrium is reached depending on t he part ial pressure of
each specific gas in t he at m osphere.

Type s of Ae r a t or s

1. Gravit y aerat ors

2. Fount ain aerat ors
3. Diffused aerat ors
4. Mechanical aerat ors.

Gr a vit y Ae r a t or s ( Ca sca de s) : I n gravit y aerat ors, wat er is allowed t o fall by gravit y such t hat a large area of wat er is
exposed t o at m osphere, som et im es aided by t urbulence.

Fou n t a in Ae r a t or s : These are also known as spray aerat ors wit h special nozzles t o produce a fine spray. Each nozzle is 2.5 t o
4 cm diam et er discharging about 18 t o 36 l/ h. Nozzle spacing should be such t hat each m 3 of wat er has aerat or area of 0.03 t o
0.09 m 2 for one hour.

I n j e ct ion or D iffu se d Ae r a t or s : I t consist s of a t ank wit h perforat ed pipes, t ubes or diffuser plat es, fixed at t he bot t om t o
release fine air bubbles from com pressor unit . The t ank dept h is kept as 3 t o 4 m and t ank widt h is wit hin 1.5 t im es it s dept h. I f
dept h is m ore, t he diffusers m ust be placed at 3 t o 4 m dept h below wat er surface. Tim e of aerat ion is 10 t o 30 m in and 0.2 t o
0.4 lit res of air is required for 1 lit re of wat er.

M e ch a n ica l Ae r a t or s : Mixing paddles as in flocculat ion are used. Paddles m ay be eit her subm erged or at t he surface.

Se t t lin g
Solid liquid separat ion process in which a suspension is separat ed int o t wo phases –
 •
•
Clarified supernat ant leaving t he t op of t he sedim ent at ion t ank ( overflow) .
Concent rat ed sludge leaving t he bot t om of t he sedim ent at ion t ank ( underflow) .

Pu r pose of Se t t lin g

•
•
To rem ove coarse dispersed phase.

•
To rem ove coagulat ed and flocculat ed im purit ies.

•
To rem ove pr ecipit at ed im purit ies aft er chem ical t reat m ent .
To set t le t he sludge ( biom ass) aft er act ivat ed sludge process / t ricking filt ers.

Pr in ciple of Se t t lin g

• Suspended solids present in wat er having specific gravit y great er t han t hat of wat er t end t o set t le down by gravit y as

•
soon as t he t urbulence is ret arded by offering st orage.

•
Basin in which t he flow is ret arded is called se t t lin g t a n k .
Theoret ical average t im e for which t he wat er is det ained in t he set t ling t ank is called t he de t e n t ion pe r iod.

Type s of Se t t lin g

Type I : D iscr e t e pa r t icle se t t lin g - Part icles set t le individually w it hout int eract ion wit h neighboring part icles.
Type I I : Floccu le n t Pa r t icle s – Flocculat ion causes t he part icles t o increase in m ass and set t le at a fast er rat e.
Type I I I : H in de r e d or Zon e se t t lin g –The m ass of part icles t ends t o set t le as a unit wit h individual part icles rem aining in fixed
posit ions wit h respect t o each ot her.
Type I V: Com pr e ssion – The concent rat ion of part icles is so high t hat sedim ent at ion can only occur t hrough com pact ion of t he
st ruct ure.

Type I Se t t lin g

•
•
Size, shape and specific gravit y of t he part icles do not change wit h t im e.
Set t ling velocit y rem ains const ant .

( 1) for ce of gr a vit y: Fg = ρp gVp

I f a part icle is suspended in wat er, it init ially has t wo forces act ing upon it :

( 2) t he bu oya n t for ce quant ified by Archim edes as: Fb = ρgVp

I f t he densit y of t he part icle differs from t hat of t he wat er, a net force is exert ed and t he part icle is accelarat d in t he direct ion of

Fnet = ( ρp - ρ) gVp
t he force:

This net force becom es t he driving force.

Once t he m ot ion has been init iat ed, a t hird force is creat ed due t o viscous frict ion. This force, called t he dr a g for ce , is

Fd = CD Ap ρv 2 / 2
quant ified by:

CD = drag coefficient .
Ap = proj ect ed area of t he part icle.
Because t he drag force act s in t he opposit e direct ion t o t he driving force and increases as t he square of t he velocit y,
accelarat ion occurs at a decreasing rat e unt il a st eady velocit y is reached at a point where t he drag force equals t he driving

( ρp - ρ) gVp = CD Ap ρv 2 / 2
force:

Vp = πd 3 / 6 and Ap = πd 2 / 4
For spherical part icles,

Thus, v 2 = 4g( ρp - ρ) d
3 CD ρ
Expressions for CD change wit h charact erist ics of different flow regim es. For lam inar, t ransit ion, and t urbulent flow, t he values
of CD are:
CD = 24 ( lam inar)
Re
CD = 24 + 3 + 0.34 ( t ransit ion)
Re Re1/ 2
CD = 0.4 ( t urbulent )

Re= ρvd
where Re is t he Reynolds num ber:

μ
Reynolds num ber less t han 1.0 indicat e lam inar flow, while values great er t han 10 indicat e t urbulent flow. I nt erm ediat e values
indicat e t ransit ional flow.

St ok e s Flow

v= ( ρp - ρ) gd 2
For lam inar flow, t erm inal set t ling velocit y equat ion becom es:

18 μ
which is known as t he st ok e s e qu a t ion .

Tr a n sit ion Flow

Need t o solve non- linear equat ions:

v 2 = 4g( ρp - ρ) d
3 CD ρ
CD = 24 + 3 + 0.34

Re= ρvd
Re Re1/ 2

•
•
Calculat e velocit y using St okes law or t urbulent expression.

•
Calculat e and check Reynolds num ber.

•
Calculat e CD .

•
Use general form ula.
Repeat from st ep 2 unt il convergence.

Type s of Se t t lin g Ta n k s

• Sedim ent at ion t anks m ay funct ion eit her int erm it t ent ly or cont inuously.The int erm it t ent t anks also called quiescent
t ype t anks are t hose which st ore wat er for a cert ain period and keep it in com plet e rest . I n a cont inuous flow t ype t ank,

•
t he flow velocit y is only reduced and t he wat er is not brought t o com plet e rest as is done in an int erm it t ent t ype.
Set t ling basins m ay be eit her long rect angular or circular in plan. Long narrow rect angular t anks wit h horizont al flow are
generally preferred t o t he circular t anks wit h radial or spiral flow.

Lon g Re ct a n gu la r Se t t lin g Ba sin

• Long rect angular basins are hydraulically m ore st able, and flow cont rol for large volum es is easier wit h t his

•
configurat ion.
A t ypical long rect angular t ank have lengt h ranging from 2 t o 4 t im es t heir widt h. The bot t om is slight ly sloped t o
facilit at e sludge scraping. A slow m oving m echanical sludge scraper cont inuously pulls t he set t led m at er ial int o a sludge
hopper from where it is pum ped out periodically.

A long rect angular set t ling t ank can be divided int o four different funct ional zones:
I n le t zon e : Region in which t he flow is uniform ly dist ribut ed over t he cross sect ion such t hat t he flow t hrough set t ling zone
follows horizont al pat h.
Se t t lin g z on e : Set t ling occurs under quiescent condit ions.
Ou t le t zon e : Clarified effluent is collect ed and discharge t hrough out let weir.
Slu dge zone : For collect ion of sludge below set t ling zone.

I n le t a n d Ou t le t Ar r a n ge m e n t

I n le t de vice s: I nlet s shall be designed t o dist ribut e t he wat er equally and at uniform velocit ies. A baffle should be const ruct ed
across t he basin close t o t he inlet and should proj ect several feet below t he wat er surface t o dissipat e inlet velocit ies and
provide uniform flow;

Ou t le t D e vice s: Out let weirs or subm erged orifices shall be designed t o m aint ain velocit ies suit able for set t ling in t he basin and
t o m inim ize short - circuit ing. Weirs shall be adj ust able, and at least equivalent in lengt h t o t he perim et er of t he t ank. However,
peripheral weirs are not accept able as t hey t end t o cause excessive short - circuit ing.
W e ir Ove r flow Ra t e s

Large weir overflow rat es result in excessive velocit ies at t he out let . These velocit ies ext end backward int o t he set t ling zone,
causing part icles and flocs t o be drawn int o t he out let . Weir loadings are gener ally used upt o 300 m 3 / d/ m . I t m ay be necessary
t o provide special inboard weir designs as shown t o lower t he weir overflow rat es.

I n boa r d W e ir Ar r a n ge m e n t t o I n cr e a se W e ir Le n gt h

Cir cu la r Ba sin s

• Circular set t ling basins have t he sam e funct ional zones as t he long rect angular basin, but t he flow regim e is different .
When t he flow ent ers at t he cent er and is baffled t o flow radially t owards t he perim et er, t he horizont al velocit y of t he
wat er is cont inuously decreasing as t he dist ance from t he cent er increases. Thus, t he part icle pat h in a circular basin is

•
a parabola as opposed t o t he st raight line pat h in t he long rect angular t ank.
Sludge rem oval m echanism s in circular t anks are sim pler and require less m aint enance.

Se t t lin g Ope r a t ion s

•
1) Vert ical com ponent : v t = ( ρp - ρ) gd 2
Part icles falling t hrough t he set t ling basin have t wo com ponent s of velocit y:

18μ

2) Horizont al com ponent : v h = Q/A

•
The pat h of t he part icle is given by t he vect or sum of horizont al velocit y v h and vert ical set t ling velocit y v t .
Assum e t hat a set t ling colum n is suspended in t he flow of t he set t ling zone and t hat t he colum n t ravels wit h t he flow
across t he set t ling zone. Consider t he part icle in t he bat ch analysis for t ype- 1 set t ling which was init ially at t he surface
and set t led t hrough t he dept h of t he colum n Z 0 , in t he t im e t 0 . I f t 0 also corresponds t o t he t im e required for t he colum n
t o be carried horizont ally across t he set t ling zone, t hen t he part icle will fall int o t he sludge zone and be r em oved from
t he suspension at t he point at which t he colum n reaches t he end of t he set t ling zone.

•
All part icles w it h v t > v 0 will be rem oved from suspension at som e point along t he set t ling zone.
Now consider t he part icle wit h set t ling velocit y < v 0 . I f t he init ial dept h of t his part icle w as such t hat Z p / v t = t 0 , t his
part icle will also be rem oved. Therefore, t he rem oval of suspended part icles passing t hrough t he set t ling zone will be in
proport ion t o t he rat io of t he individual set t ling velocit ies t o t he set t ling velocit y v 0 .
The t im e t 0 corresponds t o t he ret ent ion t im e in t he set t ling zone. t = V = LZ 0 W
Q Q

Also, t 0= Z 0
v0
Therefore, Z 0 = LZ 0 W and v 0 = Q
v0 Q LW
or v 0 = Q
AS
Thus, t he dept h of t he basin is not a fact or in det erm ining t he size part icle t hat can be rem oved com plet ely in t he set t ling zone.
The det erm ining fact or is t he quant it y Q/ As, which has t he unit s of velocit y and is referred t o as t he overflow rat e q 0 . This
overflow rat e is t he design fact or for set t ling basins and corresponds t o t he t erm inal set t ing velocit y of t he part icle t hat is 100%
rem oved.

D e sign D e t a ils

1. Det ent ion period: for plain sedim ent at ion: 3 t o 4 h, and for coagulat ed sedim ent at ion: 2 t o 2.5 h.
2. Velocit y of flow: Not great er t han 30 cm / m in ( horizont al flow) .
3. Tank dim ensions: L: B = 3 t o 5: 1. Gener ally L= 30 m ( com m on) m axim um 100 m . Breadt h= 6 m t o 10 m . Circular:
Diam et er not great er t han 60 m . generally 20 t o 40 m .
4. Dept h 2.5 t o 5.0 m ( 3 m ) .
5. Surface Overflow Rat e: For plain sedim ent at ion 12000 t o 18000 L/ d/ m 2 t ank area; for t horoughly flocculat ed wat er
24000 t o 30000 L/ d/ m 2 t ank area.
6. Slopes: Rect angular 1% t ow ards inlet and circular 8% .

Ge n e r a l Pr ope r t ie s of Colloids

1. Colloidal part icles are so sm all t hat t heir su r fa ce a r e a in relat ion t o m ass is very large.
2. Ele ct r ica l pr ope r t ie s: All colloidal part icles are elect rically charged. I f elect rodes from a D.C. source are placed in a
colloidal dispersion, t he part icles m igrat e t owards t he pole of opposit e charge.
3. Colloidal part icles are in const ant m ot ion because of bom bardm ent by m olecules of dispersion m edium . This m ot ion is
called Br ow n ia n m ot ion ( nam ed aft er Robert Brown who first not iced it ) .
4. Tynda ll e ffe ct : Colloidal part icles have dim ensioThese are reversible upon heat ing. e.g. organics in w at er.
5. Adsor pt ion : Colloids have high surface area and hence have a lot of act ive surface for adsorpt ion t o occur. The st abilit y
of colloids is m ainly due t o preferent ial adsorpt ion of ions. There are t wo t ypes of colloids:
i. Lyophobic colloids: t hat are solvent hat ing. These ar e irreversible upon heat ing. e.g. inorganic colloids, m et al
halides.
ii. Lyophilic colloids: t hat are solvent loving. These ar e reversible upon heat ing. e.g. organics in wat er.

Coa gu la t ion a n d Floccu la t ion

• Colloidal part icles are difficult t o separat e from wat er because t hey do not set t le by gravit y and are so sm all t hat t hey

•
pass t hrough t he pores of filt rat ion m edia.

•
To be rem ov ed, t he individual colloids m ust aggregat e and grow in size.
The aggr egat ion of colloidal part icles can be considered as involving t wo separat e and dist inct st eps:
1. Part icle t ransport t o effect int erpart icle collision.
2. Part icle dest abilizat ion t o perm it at t achm ent when cont act occurs.

Transport st ep is known as floccula t ion whereas coa gu la t ion is t he overall process involving dest abilizat ion and
t ransport .

Ele ct r ica l D ou ble La ye r

Alt hough individual hydrophobic colloids have an elect rical charge, a colloidal dispersion does not have a net elect rical charge.
The diffuse layer in a colloidal dispersion cont ains a quant it y of count er ions sufficient t o balance t he elect rical charge on t he
part icle. The charge dist ribut ion in t he diffuse layer of a negat ively charged colloid can be represent ed by t he curve ABCD in t he
figure. The ions involved in t his elect roneut ralit y are arranged in such a way as t o const it ut e what is called e le ct r ica l dou ble
la ye r .
Net repulsion force, which m ay be considered as energy barrier m ust be overcom e before aggregat ion occurs. The m agnit ude of
energy barrier depends on ( 1) charge on t he part icle, and ( 2) ionic com posit ion of wat er.

D e st a biliz a t ion of Colloida l D ispe r sion

Part icle dest abilizat ion can be achieved by four m echanism s:

•
•
Change charact erist ics of m edium - Com pression of double layer.

•
Change charact erist ics of colloid part icles- Adsorpt ion and charge neut ralizat ion.
Provide bridges-
1. Enm eshm ent in a precipit at e.
2. Adsorpt ion and int erpart icle bridging.

Flocculat ion is st im ulat ion by m echanical m eans t o agglom erat e dest abilised part icles int o com pact , fast set t leable part icles ( or
flocs) . Flocculat ion or gent le agit at ion result s from velocit y differences or gradient s in t he coagulat ed wat er, which causes t he
fine m oving, dest abilized part icles t o com e int o cont act and becom e large, readily set t leable flocs. I t is a com m on pract ice t o
provide an init ial rapid ( or) flash m ix for t he dispersal of t he coagulant or ot her chem icals int o t he wat er. Slow m ixing is t hen
done, during which t he growt h of t he floc t akes place.

Ra pid or Fla sh m ix in g is t he process by which a coagulant is rapidly and uniform ly dispersed t hrough t he m ass of wat er. This
process usually occurs in a sm all basin im m ediat ely preceding or at t he head of t he coagulat ion basin. Generally, t he det ent ion
period is 30 t o 60 seconds and t he head loss is 20 t o 60 cm s of wat er. Here colloids are dest abilised and t he nucleus for t he floc
is form ed.

Slow m ix in g brings t he cont act s bet ween t he finely divided dest abilised m at t er form ed during rapid m ixing.

Pe r ik in e t ic a n d Or t h ok in e t ic Floccu la t ion

The flocculat ion process can be broadly classified int o t wo t ypes, perikinet ic and ort hokinet ic.

Perikinet ic flocculat ion refers t o flocculat ion ( cont act or collisions of colloidal part icles) due t o Brownian m ot ion of colloidal
part icles. The random m ot ion of colloidal part icles result s from t heir rapid and random bom bardm ent by t he m olecules of t he
fluid.
Ort hokinet ic flocculat ion refers t o cont act s or collisions of colloidal part icles result ing from bulk fluid m ot ion, such as st irring. I n

spat ial changes in velocit y are ident ified by a velocit y gradient , G. G is est im at ed as G= ( P/ ηV) 1/ 2 , where P= Power, V= channel
syst em s of st irring, t he velocit y of t he fluid varies bot h spat ially ( from point t o point ) and t em porally ( from t im e t o t im e) . The

volum e, and η= Absolut e viscosit y.

M e ch a n ism of Floccu la t ion

Gravit at ional flocculat ion: Baffle t ype m ixing basins are exam ples of gravit at ional flocculat ion. Wat er flows by gravit y and
baffles are provided in t he basins which induce t he required velocit y gradient s for achieving floc form at ion.

Mechanical flocculat ion: Mechanical flocculat ors consist s of revolving paddles wit h horizont al or vert ical shaft s or paddles
suspended fr om horizont al oscillat ing beam s, m oving up and down.

Coa gu la t ion in W a t e r Tr e a t m e n t

•
•
Salt s of Al( I I I ) and Fe( I I I ) are com m only used as coagulant s in wat er and wast ewat er t reat m ent .
When a salt of Al( I I I ) and Fe( I I I ) is added t o wat er, it dissociat es t o yield t rivalent ions, which hydrat e t o form
aquom et al com plexes Al( H2 O) 6 3+ and Fe( H2 O) 6 3+ . These com plexes t hen pass t hrough a series of hydrolyt ic react ions in
which H2 O m olecules in t he hydrat ion shell are replaced by OH- ions t o form a variet y of soluble species such as
Al( OH) 2+ and Al( OH) 2+ . These product s are quit e effect ive as coagulant s as t hey adsorb very st rongly ont o t he surface
of m ost negat ive colloids.

D e st a biliza t ion u sin g Al( I I I ) a n d Fe ( I I I ) Sa lt s

• Al( I I I ) and Fe( I I I ) accom plish dest abilizat ion by t wo m echanism s:

( 1) Adsorpt ion and charge neut ralizat ion.

•
( 2) Enm eshm ent in a sweep floc.
I nt errelat ions bet ween pH, coagulant dosage, and colloid concent rat ion det erm ine m echanism responsible for

•
coagulat ion.
Charge on hydrolysis product s and precipit at ion of m et al hydroxides are bot h cont rolled by pH. The hydrolysis product s
possess a posit ive charge at pH values below iso- elect ric point of t he m et al hydroxide. Negat ively charged species which

•
predom inat e above iso- elect ric point , are ineffect ive for t he dest abilizat ion of negat ively charged colloids.

•
Precipit at ion of am orphous m et al hydroxide is necessary for sweep- floc coagulat ion.
The solubilit y of Al( OH) 3 ( s) and Fe( OH) 3 ( s) is m inim al at a part icular pH and increases as t he pH increases or decreases

•
from t hat value. Thus, pH m ust be cont rolled t o est ablish opt im um condit ions for coagulat ion.
Alum and Ferric Chloride react s wit h nat ural alkalinit y in wat er as follows:
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 6 HCO3- 2 Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 +14 H2O + 3 SO42-
FeCl3 + 3 HCO3- Fe(OH)3(S) +3 CO2 + 3 Cl-

Ja r Te st

The j ar t est is a com m on laborat ory pr ocedure used t o det erm ine t he opt im um operat ing condit ions for wat er or wast ewat er
t reat m ent . This m et hod allows adj ust m ent s in pH, variat ions in coagulant or polym er dose, alt ernat ing m ixing speeds, or t est ing
of different coagulant or polym er t ypes, on a sm all scale in order t o predict t he funct ioning of a large scale t reat m ent operation.

Ja r Te st in g Appa r a t u s

The j ar t est ing apparat us consist s of six paddles which st ir t he cont ent s of six 1 lit er cont ainers. One cont ainer act s as a cont rol
while t he operat ing condit ions can be varied am ong t he rem aining five cont ainers. A rpm gage at t he t op- cent er of t he device
allows for t he uniform cont rol of t he m ixing speed in all of t he cont ainers.
 Ja r Te st Pr oce du r e

• The j ar t est procedures involves t he following st eps:

Fill t he j ar t est ing apparat us cont ainers wit h sam ple wat er. One cont ainer will be used as a cont rol while t he ot her 5
cont ainers can be adj ust ed depending on what condit ions are being t est ed. For exam ple, t he pH of t he j ars can be

• Add t he coagulant t o each cont ainer and st ir at approxim at ely 100 rpm for 1 m inut e. The rapid m ix st age helps t o
adj ust ed or variat ions of coagulant dosages can be added t o det erm ine opt im um operat ing condit ions.

• Turn off t he m ixers and allow t he cont ainers t o set t le for 30 t o 45 m inut es. Then m easure t he final t urbidit y in each
disperse t he coagulant t hroughout each cont ainer.

• Reduce t he st irring speed t o 25 t o 35 r pm and cont inue m ixing for 15 t o 20 m inut es. This slower m ixing speed helps
cont ainer.

• Residual t urbidit y vs. coagulant dose is t hen plot t ed and opt im al condit ions are det erm ined. The values t hat are
prom ot e floc form at ion by enhancing part icle collisions which lead t o larger flocs.

obt ained t hrough t he experim ent are correlat ed and adj ust ed in order t o account for t he act ual t reat m ent syst em .

Filt r a t ion

The result ant wat er aft er sedim ent at ion will not be pure, and m ay cont ain som e very fine suspended part icles and bact eria in it.
To rem ove or t o reduce t he rem aining im purit ies st ill furt her, t he wat er is filt ered t hrough t he beds of fine granular m at erial,
such as sand, et c. The process of passing t he wat er t hrough t he beds of such granular m at erials is known as Filt rat ion.

H ow Filt e r s W or k : Filt r a t ion M e ch a n ism s

There are four basic filt rat ion m echanism s:

SED I M EN TATI ON : The m echanism of sedim ent at ion is due t o force of gravit y and t he associat e set t ling velocit y of t he
part icle, which causes it t o cross t he st ream lines and reach t he collect or.
I N TERCEPTI ON : I nt ercept ion of part icles is com m on for large part icles. I f a large enough part icle follows t he st ream line, t hat
lies very close t o t he m edia surface it will hit t he m edia grain and be capt ured.
BROW N I AN D I FFUSI ON : Diffusion t owards m edia granules occurs for very sm all part icles, such as viruses. Part icles m ove
random ly about wit hin t he fluid, due t o t herm al gradient s. This m echanism is only im port ant for part icles wit h diam et ers < 1
m icron.
I N ERTI A : At t achm ent by inert ia occurs when larger part icles m ove fast enough t o t ravel off t heir st ream lines and bum p int o
m edia grains.

Filt e r M a t e r ia ls

Sa n d: Sand, eit her fine or coarse, is generally used as filt er m edia. The size of t he sand is m easured and expressed by t he
t erm called effect ive size. The effect ive size, i.e. D 10 m ay be defined as t he size of t he sieve in m m t hrough which t en percent of
t he sam ple of sand by weight will pass. The uniform it y in size or degr ee of variat ions in sizes of part icles is m easured and
expressed by t he t erm called uniform it y coefficient . The uniform it y coefficient , i.e. ( D 60 / D 10 ) m ay be defined as t he rat io of t he
 sieve size in m m t hrough which 60 percent of t he sam ple of sand will pass, t o t he effect ive size of t he sand.

Gr a ve l: The layers of sand m ay be support ed on gravel, which perm it s t he filt ered wat er t o m ove freely t o t he under drains,
and allows t he wash wat er t o m ove uniform ly upwards.

Ot h e r m a t e r ia ls: I nst ead of using sand, som et im es, ant hrafilt is used as filt er m edia. Ant hrafilt is m ade from ant hracit e, which
is a t ype of coal- st one t hat burns wit hout sm oke or flam es. I t is cheaper and has been able t o give a high rat e of filt rat ion.

Type s of Filt e r

Slow sa n d filt e r : They consist of fine sand, suppor t ed by gravel. They capt ure part icles near t he surface of t he bed and are
usually cleaned by scraping away t he t op layer of sand t hat cont ains t he part icles.
Ra pid- sa n d filt e r : They consist of larger sand grains support ed by gravel and capt ure par t icles t hroughout t he bed. They are
cleaned by backwashing wat er t hrough t he bed t o 'lift out ' t he part icles.
M u lt im e dia filt e r s: They consist of t wo or m ore layers of different granular m at erials, wit h different densit ies. Usually,
ant hracit e coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers com bined m ay provide m ore versat ile collect ion t han a single
sand layer. Because of t he differences in densit ies, t he layers st ay neat ly separat ed, even aft er backwashing.

Pr in ciple s of Slow Sa n d Filt r a t ion

•I n a slow sand filt er im purit ies in t he wat er are rem oved by a com binat ion of processes: sedim ent at ion, st raining,

• During t he first few days, wat er is purified m ainly by m echanical and physical- chem ical processes. The result ing
adsorpt ion, and chem ical and bact eriological act ion.

accum ulat ion of sedim ent and organic m at t er form s a t hin layer on t he sand surface, which rem ains perm eable and

• As t his layer ( referred t o as “ Schm ut zdecke” ) develops, it becom es living quart ers of vast num bers of m icro- organism s
ret ains part icles even sm aller t han t he spaces bet ween t he sand grains.

• Most im purit ies, including bact eria and viruses, are rem oved from t he raw wat er as it passes t hrough t he filt er skin and
which break down organic m at erial ret ained from t he wat er, convert ing it int o wat er, carbon dioxide and ot her oxides.

t he layer of filt er bed sand j ust below. The purificat ion m echanism s ext end from t he filt er skin t o approx. 0.3- 0.4 m
below t he surface of t he filt er bed, gradually decreasing in act ivit y at lower levels as t he wat er becom es purified and

• When t he m icro- organism s becom e well est ablished, t he filt er will work efficient ly and produce high qualit y effluent
cont ains less organic m at erial.

which is virt ually free of disease carrying organism s and biodegradable organic m at t er.
They are suit able for t reat ing w at ers wit h low colors, low t urbidit ies and low bact erial cont ent s.

Sa n d Filt e r s vs. Ra pid Sa n d Filt e r s

• Ba se m a t e r ia l: I n SSF it varies from 3 t o 65 m m in size and 30 t o 75 cm in dept h while in RSF it varies from 3 t o 40

• Filt e r sa n d: I n SSF t he effect ive size ranges bet ween 0.2 t o 0.4 m m and uniform it y coefficient bet ween 1.8 t o 2.5 or
m m in size and it s dept h is slight ly m ore, i.e. about 60 t o 90 cm .

• Ra t e of filt r a t ion: I n SSF it is sm all, such as 100 t o 200 L/ h/ sq.m . of filt er area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000
3.0. I n RSF t he effect ive size ranges bet ween 0.35 t o 0.55 and uniform it y coefficient bet ween 1.2 t o 1.8.

• Fle x ibilit y: SSF are not flexible for m eet ing variat ion in dem and whereas RSF are quit e flexible for m eet ing reasonable
t o 6000 L/ h/ sq.m . of filt er area.

• Post t r e a t m e n t r e qu ir e d: Alm ost pure wat er is obt ained from SSF. However, wat er m ay be disinfect ed slight ly t o
variat ions in dem and.

• M e t h od of cle a n in g: Scrapping and rem oving of t he t op 1.5 t o 3 cm t hick layer is done t o clean SSF. To clean RSF,
m ake it com plet ely safe. Disinfect ion is a m ust aft er RSF.

• Loss of h e a d: I n case of SSF approx. 10 cm is t he init ial loss, and 0.8 t o 1.2m is t he final lim it when cleaning is
sand is agit at ed and back washed wit h or wit hout com pressed air.

required. For RSF 0.3m is t he init ial loss, and 2.5 t o 3.5m is t he final lim it w hen cleaning is required.

Typica l Ra pid Gr a vit y Filt e r Flow Ope r a t ion

I som e t r ic vie w of Ra pid Sa n d Filt e r

Cle a n W a t e r H e a dloss

Several equat ions have been developed t o describe t he flow of clean wat er t hrough a porous m edium . Carm an- Kozeny equat ion
used t o calculat e head loss is as follows:

h= f ( 1- α) Lv s2
φα3 dg
h= f p( 1- α) Lv s2
φα3 d g g
f = 150 ( 1- α) + 1.75

Ng = φdv sρ
Ng

μ
where, h = headloss, m

α = porosit y
f = frict ion fact or

φ = par t icle shape fact or ( 1.0 for spheres, 0.82 for rounded sand, 0.75 for average sand,0.73 for crushed coal
and angular sand)
L = dept h of filt er bed or layer, m
d = grain size diam et er, m
v s = superficial ( approach) filt rat ion velocit y, m / s
g = accelarat ion due t o gravit y, 9.81 m / s2
p = fract ion of part icles ( based on m ass) wit hin adj acent sieve sizes
d g = geom et ric m ean diam et er bet ween sieve sizes d 1 and d2

μ = viscosit y, N- s/ m 2
Ng = Reynolds num ber

Ba ck w a sh in g of Ra pid Sa n d Filt e r

• For a filt er t o operat e efficient ly, it m ust be cleaned before t he next filt er run. I f t he wat er applied t o a filt er is of very
good qualit y, t he filt er runs can be very long. Som e filt ers can operat e longer t han one week before needing t o be
backwashed. However, t his is not recom m ended as long filt er runs can cause t he filt er m edia t o pack down so t hat it is

•
difficult t o expand t he bed during t he backwash.
Treat ed wat er from st orage is used for t he backwash cycle. This t reat ed wat er is generally t aken from elevat ed st orage

•
t anks or pum ped in from t he clear well.
The filt er backwash rat e has t o be great enough t o expand and agit at e t he filt er m edia and suspend t he floc in t he
wat er for rem oval. However, if t he filt er backwash rat e is too high, m edia will be washed from t he filt er int o t he t roughs
and out of t he filt er.

W h e n is Ba ck w a sh in g N e e de d

The filt er should be backwashed when t he following condit ions have been m et :

•
•
The head loss is so high t hat t he filt er no longer produces wat er at t he desired rat e; and/ or

•
Floc st art s t o break t hrough t he filt er and t he t urbidit y in t he filt er effluent increases; and/ or
A filt er run reaches a given hour of operat ion.

Ope r a t ion a l Tr ou ble s in Ra pid Gr a vit y Filt e r s

Air Bin din g :

• When t he filt er is newly com m issioned, t he loss of head of wat er percolat ing t hrough t he filt er is generally very sm all.

•
However, t he loss of head goes on increasing as m ore and m ore im purit ies get t rapped int o it .
A st age is finally reached when t he frict ional resist ance offered by t he filt er m edia exceeds t he st at ic head of wat er
above t he and bed. Most of t his resist ance is offered by t he t op 10 t o 15 cm sand layer. The bot t om sand act s like a

•
vacuum , and wat er is sucked t hrough t he filt er m edia rat her t han get t ing filt ered t hrough it .
The negat ive pressure so developed, t ends t o release t he dissolved air and ot her gases pr esent in wat er. The form at ion
of bubbles t akes place which st ick t o t he sand grains. This phenom enon is known as Air Binding as t he air binds t he

•
filt er and st ops it s funct ioning.
To avoid such t roubles, t he filt ers are cleaned as soon as t he head loss exceeds t he opt im um allowable value.
For m a t ion of M u d Ba lls :

• The m ud from t he at m osphere usually accum ulat es on t he sand surface t o form a dense m at . During inadequat e
washing t his m ud m ay sink down int o t he sand bed and st ick t o t he sand grains and ot her arrest ed im purit ies, t hereby
form ing m ud balls.

Cr a ck in g of Filt e r s :

• The fine sand cont ained in t he t op layers of t he filt er bed shrinks and causes t he developm ent of shrinkage cracks in t he
sand bed. Wit h t he use of filt er, t he loss of head and, t herefore, pressure on t hesand bed goes on increasing, which
furt her goes on widening t hese cracks.

Re m e dia l M e a su r e s t o Pr e ve n t Cr a ck in g of Filt e r s a n d For m a t ion of M u d Ba lls

•
•
Breaking t he t op fine m ud layer wit h rakes and washing off t he part icles.

•
Washing t he filt er wit h a solut ion of caust ic soda.
Rem oving, cleaning and replacing t he dam aged filt er sand.

St a n da r d de sign pr a ct ice of Ra pid Sa n d filt e r : Maxim um lengt h of lat eral = not less t han 60 t im es it s diam et er. Spacing of
holes = 6 m m holes at 7.5 cm c/ c or 13 at 15 c/ c. C.S area of lat eral = not less t han 2 t im es area of perforat ions. C.S area of
m anifold = 2 t im es t ot al area of lat erals. Maxim um loss of head = 2 t o 5 m . Spacing of lat erals = 15 t o 30 cm c/ c. Pressure of
wash wat er at perforat ions = not great er t han 1.05 kg/ cm 2 . Velocit y of flow in lat eral = 2 m / s. Velocit y of flow in m anifold =
2.25 m / s. Velocit y of flow in m anifold for washwat er= 1.8 t o 2.5 m / s. Velocit y of rising washwat er= 0.5 t o 1.0 m / m in. Am ount
of washwat er = 0.2 t o 0.4% of t ot al filt ered wat er. Tim e of backwashing = 10 t o 15 m in. Head of wat er over t he filt er = 1.5 t o
2.5 m . Free board = 60 cm . Bot t om slope = 1 t o 60 t owards m anifold.

Q = ( 1.71 x b x h 3/ 2 )

where Q is in m 3 / s, b is in m , h is in m . L: B = 1.25 t o 1.33: 1 .

D isin fe ct ion

The filt ered wat er m ay norm ally cont ain som e harm ful disease producing bact eria in it . These bact eria m ust be killed in order t o
m ake t he wat er safe for drinking. The process of killing t hese bact eria is known as Disinfect ion or St erilizat ion.

D isin fe ct ion Kin e t ics

When a single unit of m icroorganism s is exposed t o a single unit of disinfect ant , t he reduct ion in m icroorganism s follows a first -
order react ion.
dN/ dt = - kN N= N0 e - kt

This equat ion is known as Chick’s Law: -

N = num ber of m icroorganism ( N0 is init ial num ber)
k = disinfect ion const ant
t = cont act t im e

M e t h ods of D isin fe ct ion

1. Boilin g: The bact eria present in wat er can be dest r oyed by boiling it for a long t im e. However it is not pract ically
possible t o boil huge am ount s of wat er. Moreover it cannot t ake care of fut ure possible cont am inat ions.
2. Tr e a t m e n t w it h Ex ce ss Lim e : Lim e is used in wat er t reat m ent plant for soft ening. But if excess lim e is added t o t he
wat er, it can in addit ion, kill t he bact eria also. Lim e when added raises t he pH value o wat er m aking it ext rem ely
alkaline. This ext rem e alkalinit y has been found det r im ent al t o t he survival of bact eria. This m et hod needs t he rem oval
of excess lim e from t he wat er before it can be supplied t o t he general public. Treat m ent like recarbonat ion for lim e
rem oval should be used aft er disinfect ion.
3. Tr e a m e n t w it h Ozon e : Ozone readily breaks down int o norm al oxygen, and releases nascent oxygen. The nascent
oxygen is a powerful oxidising agent and rem oves t he organic m at t er as well as t he bact er ia from t he wat er.
4. Ch lor in a t ion : The germ icidal act ion of chlorine is explained by t he recent t heory of Enzym at ic hypot hesis, according t o
which t he chlorine ent ers t he cell walls of bact eria and kill t he enzym es which are essent ial for t he m et abolic processes
of living organism s.
Ch lor in e Ch e m ist r y

Chlorine is added t o t he wat er supply in t wo ways. I t is m ost oft en added as a gas, Cl 2 ( g) . However, it also can be added as a
salt , such as sodium hypochlorit e ( NaOCl) or bleach. Chlorine gas dissolves in wat er following Henry's Law.
Cl2(g) Cl 2( aq) KH = 6.2 x 10 - 2

Once dissolved, t he following react ion occurs form ing hypochlorous acid ( HOCl) :
Cl 2( aq) + H 2 O HOCl + H+ + Cl -

Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid t hat dissociat es t o form hypochlorit e ion ( OCl- ) .

HOCl OCl - + H+ Ka = 3.2 x 10 - 8

All form s of chlorine are m easured as m g/ L of Cl 2 ( MW = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/ m ol)

Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorit e ion com pose what is called t he free chlorine residual. These free chlorine com pounds can
react wit h m any organic and inorganic com pounds t o form chlorinat ed com pounds. I f t he product s of t hese react ions posses
oxidizing pot ent ial, t hey are considered t he com bined chlorine residual. A com m on com pound in drinking wat er syst em s t hat
react s wit h chlorine t o form com bined residual is am m onia. React ions bet ween am m onia and chlorine form chloram ines, which
is m ainly m onochloram ine ( NH 2 Cl) , alt hough som e dichloram ine ( NHCl 2 ) and t r ichloram ine ( NCl 3 ) also can form . Many drinking
wat er ut ilit ies use m onochloram ine as a disinfect ant . I f excess free chlorine exit s once all am m onia nit rogen has been convert ed
t o m onochloram ine, chloram ine species are oxidized t hrough what is t erm ed t he breakpoint react ions. The overall react ions of
free chlorine and nit rogen can be repr esent ed by t wo sim plified react ions as follows:

Monochloram ine Form at ion React ion. This react ion occurs rapidly when am m onia nit rogen is com bined wit h free chlorine up t o a
m olar rat io of 1: 1.

HOCl + NH3 NH 2 Cl + HOCl

Br e a k poin t Re a ct ion : When excess free chlorine is added beyond t he 1: 1 init ial m olar rat io, m onochloram ine is rem oved as
follows:

2NH2 Cl + HOCl N2( g) + 3H + + 3Cl - + H2 O

The form at ion of chloram ines and t he breakpoint react ion creat e a unique relat ionship bet ween chlorine dose and t he am ount
and form of chlorine as illust rat ed below.

Fr e e Ch lor in e , Chlor a m in e , a n d Am m on ia N it r oge n Re a ct ion s

Ch lor in e D e m a n d

Free chlorine and chloram ines readily react wit h a variet y com pounds, including organic subst ances, and inorganic subst ances
like iron and m anganese. The st oichiom et ry of chlorine react ions wit h organics can be represent ed as shown below:
H OCl:
1/10C5H7O2N + HOCl 4/10CO2 + 1/10HCO3- + 1/10NH4++ H+ + Cl- + 1/10H2O

OCl - :
1/10C5H7O2N + OCl- 4/10CO2 + 1/10HCO3- + 1/10NH4++ Cl- + 1/10H2O

N H 2 Cl:
1/10C5H7O2N + NH2Cl + 9/10H2O 4/10CO2 + 1/10HCO3- + 11/10NH4++ Cl-

Chlorine dem and can be increased by oxidat ion react ions wit h inorganics, such as reduced iron at corrosion sit es at t he pipe
wall. Possible react ions wit h all form s of chlorine and iron are as follows:

Tr e a t m e n t Pla n t La you t a n d Sit in g

Pla n t la you t is t he arrangem ent of designed t reat m ent unit s on t he select ed sit e. Sit in g is t he select ion of sit e for t reat m ent
plant based on feat ures as charact er, t opography, and shoreline. Sit e developm ent should t ake t he advant age of t he exist ing
sit e t opography. The following principles are im port ant t o consider:

1. A sit e on a side- hill can facilit at e gravit y flow t hat will reduce pum ping requirem ent s and locat e norm al sequence of
unit s wit hout excessive excavat ion or fill.
2. When landscaping is ut ilized it should reflect t he charact er of t he surrounding area. Sit e developm ent should alt er
exist ing nat urally st abilized sit e cont ours and drainage as lit t le as possible.
3. The developed sit e should be com pat ible wit h t he exist ing land uses and t he com prehensive developm ent plan.

Tr e a t m e n t Pla n t H ydr a u lics

H ydr a u lic pr ofile is t he graphical represent at ion of t he hydraulic grade line t hrough t he t reat m ent plant . The head loss
com put at ions are st art ed in t he direct ion of flow using wat er surface in t he influent of first t reat m ent unit as t he reference level.
The t ot a l a va ila ble h e a d at t he t reat m ent plant is t he difference in wat er surface elevat ions in t he influent of first t reat m ent
unit and t hat in t he effluent of last t reat m ent unit . I f t he t ot al available head is less t han t he head loss t hrough t he plant , flow
by gravit y cannot be achieved. I n such cases pum ping is needed t o raise t he head so t hat flow by gravit y can occur.

There are m any basic principles t hat m ust be considered when pr eparing t he hydraulic profile t hrough t he plant . Som e are
list ed below:

1. The hydraulic profiles are prepar ed at peak and average design flows and at m inim um init ial flow.
2. The hydraulic profile is generally prepared for all m ain pat hs of flow t hrough t he plant .
3. The head loss t hrough t he t reat m ent plant is t he sum of head losses in t he t reat m ent unit s and t he connect ing piping
and appurt enances.
4. The head losses t hrough t he t reat m ent unit include t he following:
a. Head losses at t he influent st ruct ure.
b. Head losses at t he effluent st ruct ure.
c. Head losses t hrough t he unit .
d. Miscellaneous and free fall surface allowance.
5. The t ot al loss t hrough t he connect ing pipings, channels and appurt enances is t he sum of following:
a. Head loss due t o ent rance.
b. Head loss due t o exit .
c. Head loss due t o cont ract ion and enlargem ent .
d. Head loss due t o frict ion.
e. Head loss due t o bends, fit t ings, gat es, valves, and m et ers.
f. Head required over weir and ot her hydraulic cont rols.
g. Free- fall surface allowance.

W a t e r D ist r ibu t ion Syst e m s

The purpose of dist ribut ion syst em is t o deliver wat er t o consum er wit h appropriat e qualit y, quant it y and pressur e. Dist ribut ion
syst em is used t o describe collect ively t he facilit ies used t o supply wat er from it s source t o t he point of usage.

Re qu ir e m e nt s of Good D ist r ibu t ion Syst e m

 1. Wat er qualit y should not get det eriorat ed in t he dist ribut ion pipes.
2. I t should be capable of supplying wat er at all t he int ended places wit h sufficient pressure head.
3. I t should be capable of supplying t he requisit e am ount of wat er during fire fight ing.
4. The layout should be such t hat no consum er would be wit hout wat er supply, during t he repair of any sect ion of t he
syst em .
5. All t he dist ribut ion pipes should be preferably laid one m et re away or above t he sewer lines.
6. I t should be fairly wat er- t ight as t o keep losses due t o leakage t o t he m inim um .

La you t s of D ist r ibu t ion N e t w or k

The dist ribut ion pipes are generally laid below t he road pavem ent s, and as such t heir layout s generally follow t he layout s of
roads. There are, in general, four different t ypes of pipe net works; any one of which eit her singly or in com binat ions, can be
used for a part icular place. They are:

Dead End Syst em

Grid I ron Syst em
Ring Syst em
Radial Syst em

D ist r ibu t ion Re se r voir s

Dist ribut ion reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are t he st orage reservoirs, which st ore t he t reat ed wat er for supplying
wat er during em ergencies ( such as during fires, repairs, et c.) and also t o help in absorbing t he hourly fluct uat ions in t he norm al
wat er dem and.

Fu n ct ion s of D ist r ibu t ion Re se r voir s:

•
•
t o absorb t he hourly variat ions in dem and.

•
t o m aint ain const ant pressure in t he dist ribut ion m ains.
wat er st ored can be supplied during em ergencies.

Loca t ion a n d H e igh t of D ist r ibu t ion Re se r voir s:

•
•
should be locat ed as close as possible t o t he cent er of dem and.
wat er level in t he reservoir m ust be at a sufficient elevat ion t o perm it gravit y flow at an adequat e pressure.

Type s of Re se r voir s

1. Underground reservoirs.
2. Sm all ground level reservoirs.
3. Large ground level reservoirs.
4. Overhead t anks.

St or a ge Ca pa cit y of D ist r ibu t ion Re se r voir s

The t ot al st orage capacit y of a dist ribut ion reservoir is t he sum m at ion of:

1. Ba la n cin g St or a ge : The quant it y of wat er required t o be st ored in t he reservoir for equalising or balancing fluct uat ing
dem and against const ant supply is known as t he balancing st orage ( or equalising or operat ing st orage) . The balance
st orage can be worked out by m ass curve m et hod.
2. Br e a k dow n St or a ge : The breakdown st orage or oft en called em ergency st or age is t he st orage preserv ed in order t o
t ide over t he em ergencies posed by t he failure of pum ps, elect ricit y, or any ot he m echanism driving t he pum ps. A value
of about 25% of t he t ot al st orage capacit y of reservoirs, or 1.5 t o 2 t im es of t he average hourly supply, m ay be
considered as enough provision for account ing t his st orage.
3. Fir e St or a ge : The t hird com ponent of t he t ot al reservoir st orage is t he fire st orage. This provision t akes care of t he
requirem ent s of wat er for ext inguishing fires. A provision of 1 t o 4 per person per day is sufficient t o m eet t he
requirem ent .

The t ot al reservoir st orage can finally be worked out by adding all t he t hree st orages.
Pipe N e t w or k An a lysis

Analysis of wat er dist ribut ion syst em includes det er m ining quant it ies of flow and head losses in t he various pipe lines, and
result ing residual pressures. I n any pipe net work, t he following t wo condit ions m ust be sat isfied:

1. The algebraic sum of pressure drops ar ound a closed loop m ust be zero, i.e. t here can be no discont inuit y in pressure.
2. The flow ent ering a j unct ion m ust be equal t o t he flow leaving t hat j unct ion; i.e. t he law of cont inuit y m ust be sat isfied.

Based on t hese t wo basic principles, t he pipe net works are gener ally solved by t he m et hods of successive approxim at ion. The
widely used m et hod of pipe net work analysis is t he Hardy- Cross m et hod.

H a r dy- Cr oss M e t h od

This m et hod consist s of assum ing a dist ribut ion of flow in t he net work in such a way t hat t he principle of cont inuit y is sat isfied
at each j unct ion. A correct ion t o t hese assum ed flows is t hen com put ed successively for each pipe loop in t he net work, unt il t he
correct ion is reduced t o an accept able m agnit ude.

I f Qa is t he assum ed flow and Q is t he act ual flow in t he pipe, t hen t he correct ion δ is given by

δ= Q- Qa; or Q= Qa+ δ

Now, expressing t he head loss ( HL) as

H L= K.Qx

we have, t he head loss in a pipe

= K.( Qa+ δ) x

= K.[ Qax + x.Qax- 1 δ + .........negligible t erm s]

= K.[ Qax + x.Qax- 1 δ]

Now, around a closed loop, t he sum m at ion of head losses m ust be zero.

฀฀฀฀ ∴฀฀฀฀ ΣK.[ Qax + x.Qax- 1 δ] = 0

or ฀฀฀฀฀ΣK.Qax = - ΣKx Qax- 1 δ

Since, δ is t he sam e for all t he pipes of t he considered loop, it can be t aken out of t he sum m at ion.

∴฀฀฀฀ ΣK.Qax = - δ. ΣKx Qax- 1

or฀฀฀฀ δ = - ΣK.Qax / Σx.KQax- 1

Since δ is given t he sam e sign ( direct ion) in all pipes of t he loop, t he denom inat or of t he above equat ion is t aken as t he
absolut e sum of t he individual it em s in t he sum m at ion. Hence,

or฀฀฀฀ δ = - ΣK.Qax / Σ l x.KQax- 1 l

or฀฀฀฀ δ = - ΣHL / x.Σ lH L/ Qal

where HL is t he head loss for assum ed flow Qa.

The num erat or in t he above equat ion is t he algebraic sum of t he head losses in t he various pipes of t he closed loop com put ed
wit h assum ed flow. Since t he direct ion and m agnit ude of flow in t hese pipes is already assum ed, t heir respect ive head losses
wit h due regard t o sign can be easily calculat ed aft er assum ing t heir diam et ers. The absolut e sum of respect ive KQax- 1 or HL/ Qa
is t hen calculat ed. Finally t he value of δ is found out for each loop, and t he assum ed flows are correct ed. Repeat ed adj ust m ent s
are m ade unt il t he desired accuracy is obt ained.

The value of x in Hardy- Cross m et hod is assum ed t o be const ant ( i.e. 1.85 for Hazen- William 's form ula, and 2 for Darcy-
Weisbach form ula)

Ra w W a t e r Sou r ce

The various sources of wat er can be classified int o t wo cat egories:

1. Surface sources, such as

a. Ponds and lakes;
b. St ream s and rivers;
c. St orage reservoirs; and
d. Oceans, generally not used for wat er supplies, at present .
2. Sub- surface sources or underground sources, such as
a. Springs;
b. I nfilt rat ion wells ; and
c. Wells and Tube- wells.

W a t e r Qu a lit y

The raw or t reat ed wat er is analysed by t est ing t heir physical, chem ical and bact eriological charact erist ics:

Ph ysica l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics:

Turbidit y
Colour
Tast e and Odour
Tem per at ure

Ch e m ica l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics:

pH
Acidit y
Alkalinit y
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphat es
I ron
Solids
Nit rat es

Ba ct e r iologica l Ch a r a ct e r ist ics:

Bact erial exam inat ion of wat er is very im port ant , since it indicat es t he degree of pollut ion. Wat er pollut ed by sewage cont ain
one or m ore species of disease producing pat hogenic bact eria. Pat hogenic organism s cause wat er borne diseases, and m any
non pat hogenic bact eria such as E.Coli, a m em ber of coliform group, also live in t he int est inal t ract of hum an beings. Coliform
it self is not a harm ful group but it has m ore resist ance t o adverse condit ion t han any ot her group. So, if it is ensured t o
m inim ize t he num ber of coliform s, t he harm ful species will be very less. So, coliform group serves as indicat or of cont am inat ion
of wat er wit h sewage and presence of pat hogens.

The m et hods t o est im at e t he bact erial qualit y of wat er are:

St andard Plat e Count Test

Most Probable Num ber
Mem brane Filt er Technique

W a st e w a t e r Qu a n t it y Est im a t ion

The flow of sanit ary sewage alone in t he absence of storm s in dry season is known as dry weat her flow ( DWF) .
Qu a n t it y= Pe r ca pit a se w a ge con t r ibu t e d pe r da y x Popula t ion

Sanit ary sewage is m ost ly t he spent wat er of t he com m unit y draining int o t he sewer syst em . I t has been observed t hat a sm all
port ion of spent wat er is lost in evaporat ion, seepage in ground, leakage, et c. Usually 80% of t he wat er supply m ay be
expect ed t o r each t he sew ers.

Flu ct u a t ion s in D r y W e a t h e r Flow

Since dry weat her flow depends on t he quant it y of wat er used, and as t here are fluct uat ions in rat e of wat er consum pt ion, t here
will be fluct uat ions in dry weat her flow also. I n general, it can be assum ed t hat ( i) Maxim um daily flow = 2 x average daily flow
and ( ii) Minim um daily flow = 2/ 3 x ( average daily flow) .

Popu la t ion Equ iva le n t

Populat ion equivalent is a param et er used in t he conversion of cont ribut ion of wast es from indust rial est ablishm ent s for
accept ing int o sanit ary sewer syst em s. The st rengt h of indust rial sewage is, t hus, writ t en as

St d. BOD 5 = ( St d. BOD 5 of dom est ic sewage per per son per day) x
( populat ion equivalent )

D e sign Pe r iods & Popu la t ion For e ca st

This quant it y should be worked out wit h due provision for t he est im at ed requirem ent s of t he fut ure . The fut ure period for which
a provision is m ade in t he wat er supply schem e is known as t he de sign pe r iod. I t is suggest ed t hat t he const ruct ion of sewage
t reat m ent plant m ay be carried out in phases wit h an init ial design period ranging from 5 t o 10 years excluding t he const ruct ion
period.

Design period is est im at ed based on t he following:

•
•
Useful life of t he com ponent , considering obsolescence, wear, t ear, et c.

•
Expandabilit y aspect .

•
Ant icipat ed rat e of growt h of populat ion, including indust rial, com m ercial developm ent s & m igrat ion- im m igrat ion.

•
Available resources.
Perform ance of t he syst em during init ial period.

Popu la t ion for e ca st in g m e t h ods:

The various m et hods adopt ed for est im at ing fut ure populat ions are given below. The part icular m et hod t o be adopt ed for a
part icular case or for a part icular cit y depends largely on t he fact ors discussed in t he m et hods, and t he select ion is left t o t he
discrect ion and int elligence of t he designer.

1. Arit hm et ic I ncrease Met hod

2. Geom et ric I ncrease Met hod
3. I ncrem ent al I ncrease Met hod
4. Decreasing Rat e of Growt h Met hod
5. Sim ple Graphical Met hod
6. Com parat ive Graphical Met hod
7. Rat io Met hod
8. Logist ic Curve Met hod

W a st e w a t e r Ch a r a ct e r iza t ion

To design a t reat m ent process properly, charact erizat ion of wast ewat er is perhaps t he m ost crit ical st ep. Wast ewat er
charact erist ics of im port ance in t he design of t he act ivat ed sludge process can be grouped int o t he following cat egories:

Tem per at ure

pH
Colour and Odour
Carbonaceous subst rat es
Nit rogen
Phosphorous
Chlorides
Tot al and volat ile suspended solids ( TSS and VSS)
Toxic m et als and com pounds

D e sign of Se w e r s

The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, which m eans finding out t heir sect ions and gradient s, is generally carried out on t he
sam e lines as t hat of t he wat er supply pipes. However, t here are t wo m aj or differences bet ween charact erist ics of flows in
sewers and wat er supply pipes. They are:

• The sewage cont ain part icles in suspension, t he heavier of which m ay set t le down at t he bot t om of t he sewers, as and
when t he flow velocit y reduces, result ing in t he clogging of sewers. To avoid silt ing of sewers, it is necessary t hat t he

•
sewer pipes be laid at such a gradient , as t o generat e self cleansing velocit ies at different possible discharges.
The sewer pipes carry sewage as grav it y conduit s, and are t her efore laid at a cont inuous gradient in t he downward
direct ion upt o t he out fall point , from where it will be lift ed up, t reat ed and disposed of.

Hazen- William 's form ula

U= 0.85 C r H0.63 S0.54

Manning's form ula

U= 1 / n r H2/ 3 S1/ 2

where, U= velocit y, m / s; r H= hydraulic radius,m ; S= slope, C= Hazen- William 's coefficient , and n = Manning's coefficient .

Darcy- Weisbach form ula

h L= ( fLU2 ) / ( 2gd)

M in im u m Ve locit y

The flow velocit y in t he sewers should be such t hat t he suspended m at erials in sewage do not get silt ed up; i.e. t he velocit y
should be such as t o cause aut om at ic self- cleansing effect . The generat ion of such a m inim um self cleansing velocit y in t he
sewer, at least once a day, is im port ant , because if cert ain deposit ion t akes place and is not rem oved, it will obst ruct free flow,
causing furt her deposit ion and finally leading t o t he com plet e blocking of t he sewer.

M a x im u m Ve locit y

The sm oot h int erior surface of a sewer pipe get s scoured due t o cont inuous abrasion caused by t he suspended solids present in
sewage. I t is, t herefore, necessary t o lim it t he m axim um velocit y in t he sewer pipe. This lim it ing or non- scouring velocit y will
m ainly depend upon t he m at erial of t he sewer.

Effe ct s of Flow Va r ia t ion on Ve locit y in a Se w e r

Due t o variat ion in discharge, t he dept h of flow varies, and hence t he hydraulic m ean dept h ( r) varies. Due t o t he change in t he
hydraulic m ean dept h, t he flow velocit y ( which depends direct ly on r 2/ 3 ) get s affect ed from t im e t o t im e. I t is necessary t o check
t he sewer for m aint aining a m inim um velocit y of about 0.45 m / s at t he t im e of m inim um flow ( assum ed t o be 1/ 3 rd of average
flow) . The designer should also ensure t hat a velocit y of 0.9 m / s is developed at least at t he t im e of m axim um flow and
preferably during t he average flow periods also. Moreover, care should be t aken t o see t hat at t he t im e of m axim um flow, t he
velocit y generat ed does not exceed t he scouring value.

Se w e r Appu r t e n a n ce s

Sewer appurt enances are t he various accessories on t he sewerage syst em and are necessar y for t he efficient operat ion of t he
syst em . They include m an holes, lam p holes, st reet inlet s, cat ch basins, invert ed siphons, and so on.
M a n - h ole s: Man holes are t he openings of eit her circular or rect angular in shape const ruct ed on t he alignm ent of a sewer line
t o enable a person t o ent er t he sewer for inspect ion, cleaning and flushing. They serve as vent ilat ors for sewers, by t he
provisions of perforat ed m an- hole covers. Also t hey facilit at e t he laying of sewer lines in convenient lengt h.

Man- holes are provided at all j unct ions of t wo or m ore sewers, whenever diam et er of sewer changes, whenever direct ion of
sewer line changes and w hen sewers of different elevat ions j oin t oget her.

Spe cia l M a n - h ole s:

Junct ion cham bers: Man- hole const ruct ed at t he int ersect ion of t wo large sewers.

Drop m an- hole: When t he difference in elevat ion of t he invert levels of t he incom ing and out going sewers of t he m an- hole is
m ore t han 60 cm , t he int ercept ion is m ade by dropping t he incom ing sewer vert ically out side and t hen it is j oint ed t o t he m an-
hole cham ber.

Flushing m an- holes: They are locat ed at t he head of a sewer t o flush out t he deposit s in t he sewer wit h wat er.

La m p- h ole s: Lam p holes are t he openings const ruct ed on t he st raight sewer lines bet ween t wo m an- holes which are far apart
and perm it t he insert ion of a lam p int o t he sewer t o find out obst ruct ions if any inside t he sewers from t he next m an- hole.

St r e e t in le t s: St reet inlet s are t he openings t hrough which st orm wat er is adm it t ed and conveyed t o t he st orm sewer or
com bined sewer. The inlet s are locat ed by t he sides of pavem ent wit h m axim um spacing of 30 m .

Ca t ch Ba sin s: Cat ch basins are sm all set t ling cham bers of diam et er 60 - 90 cm and 60 - 75 cm deep, which are const ruct ed
below t he st reet inlet s. They int errupt t he velocit y of st orm wat er ent ering t hrough t he inlet s and allow grit , sand, debris and so
on t o set t le in t he basin, inst ead of allowing t hem t o ent er int o t he sewers.

I n ve r t e d siph on s: These are depressed port ions of sewers, which flow full under pressure m ore t han t he at m ospheric pressure
due t o flow line being below t he hydraulic grade line. They are const ruct ed when a sewer crosses a st ream or deep cut or road
or railway line. To clean t he siphon pipe sluice valve is opened, t hus increasing t he head causing flow. Due t o increased velocit y
deposit s of siphon pipe are washed int o t he sum p, from where t hey are rem oved.

Pu m pin g of Se w a ge

Pum ping of sewage is required when it is not possible t o have a gravit at ional flow for t he ent ire sewerage proj ect .

Sufficient pum ping capacit y has t o be provided t o m eet t he peak flow, at least 50% as st and by.

Type s of pu m ps :

1. Cent rifugal pum ps eit her axial, m ixed and radial flow.
2. Pneum at ic ej ect or pum ps.

Wat er Treat m ent

The raw sewage m ust be t reat ed befor e it is discharged int o t he river st ream . The ext ent of
t reat m ent required t o be given depends not only upon t he charact erist ics and qualit y of t he
sewage but also upon t he source of disposal, it s qualit y and capacit y t o t olerat e t he im purit ies

The layout of convent ional wast ewat er t reat m ent plant is as follows:
 I ndian St andards for discharge of sewage in surface wat ers are given in t he t able below.

I n dia n St a n da r ds for D isch a r ge of Se w a ge in Su r fa ce W a t e r s

Characteristic of the Effluent Tolerance limit for Discharge of Sewage in Suface Water Sources
BOD5 20 mg/L
TSS 30 mg/L

The unit operat ions and processes com m only em ployed in dom est ic wast ewat er t reat m ent , t heir funct ions and unit s
used t o achieve t hese funct ions are given in t he following t able:

Un it Ope r a t ion s/ Pr oce sse s, Th e ir Fu n ct ion s a n d Un it s Use d for D om e st ic W a st e w a t e r Tr e a t m e n t

Unit Operations/Processes Functions Treatment Devices

Screening
Grit Removal
Primary Sedimentation
Aerobic Biological
Suspended Growth Process
Aerobic Biological Attached
Growth Process
Anaerobic biological growth
processes
Anaerobic Stabilization of
Organic Sludges
Scr e e n in g
Removal of large floating, suspended and Bar racks and screens of various description
settleable solids
Removal of inorganic suspended solids Grit chamber
Removal of organic/inorganic settleable solids Primary sedimentation tank
Conversion of colloidal, dissolved and residual Activated sludge process units and its modifications,
suspended organic matter into settleable biofloc Waste stabilisation ponds, Aerated lagoons
and stable inorganics
same as above Trickling filter, Rotating biological contactor
Conversion of organic matter into CH4 & CO2 Anaerobic filter, Fluid bed submerged media anaerobic
and relatively stable organic residue reactor, Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor,
Anaerobic rotating biological contactor
same as above Anaerobic digestor

A screen is a device wit h openings for rem oving bigger suspended or float ing m at t er in sewage which would ot herwise dam age
equipm ent or int erfere wit h sat isfact ory operat ion of t reat m ent unit s.

Type s of Scr e e n s

Coa r se Scr e e n s: Coarse screens also called racks, are usually bar screens, com posed of vert ical or inclined bars spaced at
equal int ervals across a channel t hrough which sewage flows. Bar screens wit h relat ively large openings of 75 t o 150 m m are
provided ahead of pum ps, while t hose ahead of sedim ent at ion t anks have sm aller openings of 50 m m .

Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and som et im es provided wit h m echanical devices. These cleaning devices are rakes which
periodically sweep t he ent ire screen rem oving t he solids for further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually
at an angle of 45° t o t he horizont al t o increase t h e effect ive cleaning surface and also facilit at e t he raking operat ions.
Mechanical cleaned racks are generally erect ed alm ost vert ically. Such bar screens have openings 25% in excess of t he cross
sect ion of t he sewage channel.

M e diu m Scr e e n s: Medium screens have clear openings of 20 t o 50 m m .Bar are usually 10 m m t hick on t he upst ream side and
t aper slight ly t o t he downst ream side. The bars used for screens are rect angular in cross sect ion usually about 10 x 50 m m ,
placed wit h larger dim ension parallel t o t he flow.

Fin e Scr e e ns: Fine screens are m echanically cleaned devices using perforat ed plat es, woven wire clot h or very closely spaced
bars wit h clear openings of less t han 20 m m . Fine screens are not norm ally suit able for sewage because of clogging possibilit ies.

The m ost com m only used bar t ype scr een is shown in figure:

Ve locit y

The velocit y of flow ahead of and t hrough t he screen varies and affect s it s operat ion. The lower t he velocit y t hrough t he
screen, t he great er is t he am ount of screenings t hat would be rem oved from sewage. However, t he lower t he velocit y, t he
great er would be t he am ount of solids deposit ed in t he channel. Hence, t he design velocit y should be such as t o perm it 100%
rem oval of m at erial of cert ain size wit hout undue deposit ions. Velocit ies of 0 .6 t o 1 .2 m ps t h r ou gh t h e ope n a r e a for t h e
pe a k flow s have been used sat isfact orily. Furt her, t he velocit y at low flows in t he approach channel should n ot be le ss t h a n
0 .3 m ps t o avoid deposit ion of solids.

H e a d loss

Head loss varies wit h t he quant it y and nat ure of screenings allowed t o accum ulat e bet ween cleanings. The head loss creat ed
by a clean screen m ay be calculat ed by considering t he flow and t he effect ive areas of screen openings, t he lat t er being t he
sum of t he vert ical proj ect ions of t he openings. The head loss t hrough clean flat bar screens is calculat ed from t he following
form ula:

h = 0.0729 ( V2 - v 2 )

where, h = head loss in m

V = velocit y t hrough t he screen in m ps

v = velocit y before t he screen in m ps

Anot her form ula oft en used t o det erm ine t he head loss t hrough a bar rack is Kirschm er's equat ion:

h = β ( W/ b) 4/ 3 h v sin θ

where h = head loss,m

β = bar shape fact or ( 2.42 for sharp edge rect angular bar, 1.83 for rect angular bar wit h sem icircle upst ream , 1.79 for circular
bar and 1.67 for rect angular bar wit h bot h u/ s and d/ s face as sem icircular) .

W = m axim um widt h of bar u/ s of flow, m

b = m inim um clear spacing bet ween bars, m

h v = velocit y head of flow approaching rack, m = v 2 /2g

θ = angle of inclinat ion of rack wit h horizont al

The head loss t hrough fine screen is given by

h = ( 1/ 2g) ( Q/ CA)

where, h = head loss, m

Q = discharge, m 3 / s
 C = coefficient of discharge ( t ypical value 0.6)
A = effect ive subm erged open area, m 2

The quant it y of screenings depends on t he nat ure of t he wast ewat er and t he screen openings.

Equ a liza t ion Ta n k s

The equalizat ion t anks are provided ( i) t o balance fluct uat ing flows or concent rat ions, ( ii) t o assist self neut ralizat ion, or ( iii) t o
even out t he effect of a periodic " slug" discharge from a bat ch process.

Type s of Equ a liz a t ion Ta n k s

Equalizat ion t anks are generally of t hree t ypes:

1. Flow t hrough t ype

2. I nt erm it t ent flow t ype
3. Variable inflow/ const ant discharge t ype

The sim ple flow t h r ou gh t ype equalizat ion t ank is m ainly useful in assist ing self neut ralizat ion or evening out of fluct uat ing
concent rat ions, not for balancing of flows since a flow t hrough t ype t ank once filled, gives out put equal t o input .

Flow balancing and self- neut ralizat ion are bot h achieved by using t wo t anks, int erm it t ent ly one aft er anot her. One t ank is
allowed t o fill up aft er which it is checked for pH ( or any ot her param et er) and t hen allowed t o em pt y out . The second t ank
goes t hrough a sim ilar rout ine. I n t e r m it t e n t flow t ype t anks are econom ic for sm all flows from indust ries.

When flows are large an equalizat ion t ank of such a size m ay have t o be provided t hat in flow ca n be va r ia ble w h ile
ou t flow is a t a con st a n t r a t e , generally by a pum p.The capacit y required is det erm ined from a plot of t he cum ulat ive inflow
and a plot of t he const ant rat e out flow and m easuring t he gaps bet ween t he t wo plot s. A fact or of safet y m ay be applied if
desired.

Generally, de t e n t ion t im e vary from 2 t o 8 hours but m ay be even 12 hours or m ore in som e cases. When larger det ent ion
t im es are required, t he equalizat ion unit is som et im es provided in t he form of facult at ive aerat ed lagoon.

Gr it Ch a m be r s

Grit cham bers are basin t o rem ove t he inorganic part icles t o prevent dam age t o t he pum ps, and t o prevent t heir accum ulat ion
in sludge digest ors.

Type s of Gr it Ch a m be r s

Grit cham bers are of t wo t ypes: m echanically cleaned and m anually cleaned. I n m e ch a n ica lly cle a n e d grit cham ber, scraper
blades collect t he grit set t led on t he floor of t he grit cham ber. The grit so collect ed is elevat ed t o t he ground level by several
m echanism s such as bucket elevat ors, j et pum p and air lift . The grit washing m echanism s are also of several designs m ost of
which are agit at ion devices using eit her wat er or air t o produce washing act ion. M a n u a lly cle a n e d grit cham bers should be
cleaned at least once a week. The sim plest m et hod of cleaning is by m eans of shovel.

Ae r a t e d Gr it Ch a m be r

An aerat ed grit cham ber consist s of a st andard spiral flow aerat ion t ank provided wit h air diffusion t ubes placed on one side of
t he t ank. The grit part icles t end t o set t le down t o t he bot t om of t he t ank at rat es dependant upon t he part icle size and t he
bot t om velocit y of roll of t he spiral flow, which in t urn depends on t he rat e of air diffusion t hrough diffuser t ubes and shape of
aerat ion t ank. The heavier part icles set t le down whereas t he lighter organic part icles are carried wit h roll of t he spiral m ot ion.

Pr in ciple of W or k in g of Gr it Ch a m be r

Grit cham bers are not hing but like sedim ent at ion t anks, designed t o separat e t he int ended heavier inorganic m at erials ( specific
gravit y about 2.65) and t o pass forward t he light er organic m at erials. Hence, t he flow velocit y should neit her be t oo low as t o
cause t he set t ling of light er organic m at t er, nor should it be t oo high as not t o cause t he set t lem ent of t he silt and grit present
in t he sewage. This velocit y is called " different ial sedim ent at ion and different ial scouring velocit y". The scouring velocit y
det erm ines t he opt im um flow t h r ou gh ve locit y. This m ay be explained by t he fact t hat t he crit ical velocit y of flow 'v c' beyond
which part icles of a cert ain size and densit y once set t led, m ay be again int roduced int o t he st ream of flow. I t should always be
less t han t he scouring velocit y of grit part icles. The crit ical velocit y of scour is given by Schield's form ula:

V = 3 t o 4.5 ( g( Ss - 1) d) 1/ 2

A horizont al velocit y of flow of 15 t o 30 cm / sec is used at peak flows. This sam e velocit y is t o be m aint ained at all fluct uat ion of
flow t o ensure t hat only organic solids and not t he grit is scoured from t he bot t om .

Type s of Ve locit y Con t r ol D e vice s

1. A sut ro weir in a channel of rect angular cross sect ion, wit h free fall downst ream of t he channel.
2. A parabolic shaped channel wit h a rect angular w eir.
3. A rect angular shaped channel wit h a parshall flum e at t he end which would also help easy flow m easurem ent .

D e sign of Gr it Ch a m be r s

Se t t lin g Ve locit y

The set t ling velocit y of discret e part icles can be det erm ined using appropriat e equat ion depending upon Reynolds num ber.

•
18 υ
St oke's law: v= g( Ss- 1) d 2

St oke's law holds good for Reynolds num ber,Re below 1.

υ
Re= vd

For grit part icles of specific gravit y 2.65 and liquid t em perat ur e at 10°C, υ= 1.01 x 10 - 6 m 2 / s. This corresponds t o part icles of
size less t han 0.1 m m .

• Transit ion law: The design of grit cham ber is based on rem oval of grit part icles wit h m inim um size of 0.15 m m and
t herefore St oke's law is not applicable t o det erm ine t he set t ling velocit y of grit part icles for design purposes.

v 2 = 4g( ρp - ρ) d
3 CD ρ

where, CD = drag coefficient Transit ion flow condit ions hold good for Reynolds num ber,Re bet ween 1 and 1000. I n t his range CD
can be approxim at ed by

Re0.6 ( v d/ υ) 0.6
CD = 18.5 = 18.5

Subst it ut ing t he value of CD in set t ling velocit y equat ion and sim plifying, we get

v = [ 0.707( Ss- 1) d
1.6
υ- 0.6 ]0.714

Pr im a r y Se dim e n t a t ion

Prim ary sedim ent at ion in a m unicipal wast ewat er t reat m ent plant is generally plain sedim ent at ion wit hout t he use of chem icals.
I n t reat ing cert ain indust rial wast es chem ically aided sedim ent at ion m ay be involved. I n eit her case, it const it ut es floccu le n t
se t t lin g, and t he part icles do not rem ain discret e as in t he case of grit , but t end t o agglom erat e or coagulat e during set t ling.
Thus, t heir diam et er keeps increasing and set t lem ent proceeds at an over increasing velocit y. Consequent ly, t hey t race a
curved profile.

The set t ling t ank design in such cases depends on bot h su r fa ce loa din g and de t e n t ion t im e .
Long t ube set t ling t est s can be perfor m ed in order t o est im at e specific value of surface loading and det ent ion t im e for desired
efficiency of clarificat ion for a given indust rial wast ewat er using recom m ended m et hods of t est ing. Scale- up fact ors used in t his
case range fr om 1.25 t o 1.75 for t he overflow rat e, and from 1.5 t o 2.0 for det ent ion t im e when convert ing laborat ory result s t o
t he prot ot ype design.

For prim ary set t ling t anks t reat ing m unicipal or dom est ic sewage, laborat ory t est s are generally not necessary, and
recom m ended design values given in t able m ay be used. Using an appropriat e value of surface loading from t able, t he required
t ank area is com put ed. Knowing t he average dept h, t he det ention t im e is t hen com put ed. Excessively high det ent ion t im e
( longer t han 2.5 h) m ust be avoided especially in warm clim at es where anaerobicit y can be quickly induced.

D e sign pa r a m e t e r s for se t t lin g t a n k

Overflow rate Solids loading Detention

Types of settling Depth
m3 m2 /day kg/m2 /day time
Average Peak Average Peak
Primary settling only 25-30 50-60 - - 2.5-3.5 2.0-2.5
Primary settling followed by secondary
35-50 60-120 - - 2.5-3.5
treatment
Primary settling with activated sludge return 25-35 50-60 - - 3.5-4.5 -
Secondary settling for trickling filters 15-25 40-50 70-120 190 2.5-3.5 1.5-2.0
Secondary settling for activated sludge
15-35 40-50 70-140 210 3.5-4.5 -
(excluding extended aeration)
Secondary settling for extended aeration 8-15 25-35 25-120 170 3.5-4.5 -

Cla ssifica t ion of M icr o or ga n ism s

1. N u t r it ion a l Re qu ir e m e n t s: On t he basis of chem ical form of carbon required, m icroorganism s are classified as
a. Aut ot rophic: organism s t hat use CO2 or HCO3 - as t heir sole source of carbon.
b. Het erot rophic: organism s t hat use carbon from organic com pounds.
2. En e r gy Re qu ir e m e n t s: On t he basis of energy source required, m icroorganism s are classified as
. Phot ot rophs: organism s t hat use light as t heir energy source.
a. Chem ot rophs: organism s t hat em ploy oxidat ion- reduct ion react ions t o provide energy. They are furt her
classified on t he basis of chem ical com pounds oxidized ( i.e., elect ron donor)
i. Chem oorganot rophs: Organism s t hat use com plex organic m olecules as t heir elect ron donor.
ii. Chem oaut ot rophs: Organism s t hat use sim ple inorganic m olecules such as hydrogen sulfide or am m onia
as t heir elect ron donor.
3. Te m pe r a t u r e Ra n ge : On t he basis of t em perat ur e range wit hin which t hey can proliferat e, m icroorganism s are
classified as
. Psychrophilic: organism s whose growt h is opt im um wit hin 15 t o 30°C.
a. Mesophilic: organism s whose growt h is opt im um wit hin 30 t o 45°C.
b. Therm ophilic: organism s whose growt h is opt im um wit hin 45 t o 70°C.
4. Ox yge n Re qu ir e m e n t s: On t he basis of oxygen requirem ent m icroorganism s are classified as
. Aerobes: organism s t hat use m olecular oxygen as elect ron accept or.
a. Anaerobes: organism s t hat use som e m olecule ot her t han m olecular oxygen as elect ron accept or.
b. Facult at ive organism s : organism s t hat can use eit her m olecular oxygen or som e ot her chem ical com pound as
elect ron accept or.

Gr ow t h Pa t t e r n of M icr o or ga n ism s

When a sm all num ber of viable bact erial cells are placed in a close vessel cont aining excessive food supply in a suit able
environm ent , condit ions are est ablished in which unrest rict ed growt h t akes place. However, growt h of an organism do not go on
indefinit ely, and aft er a charact erist ic size is reached, t he cell divides due t o heredit ary and int ernal lim it at ions. The growt h rat e
m ay follow a pat t ern sim ilar t o as shown in figure:
The curve shown m ay be divided int o six well defined phases:

1. Lag Phase: adapt at ion t o new environm ent , long generat ion t im e and null growt h rat e.
2. Accelarat ion phase: decreasing generat ion t im e and increasing growt h rat e.
3. Exponent ial phase: m inim al and const ant generat ion t im e, m axim al and const ant specific growt h rat e and m axim um
rat e of subst r at e conversion.
4. Declining growt h phase: increasing generat ion t im e and decreasing specific growt h rat e due t o gradual decrease in
subst rat e concent rat ion and increased accum ulat ion of t oxic m et abolit es.
5. St at ionary phase: exaust ion of nut rient s, high concent rat ion of t oxic m et abolit es, and cells in a st at e of suspended
anim at ion.
6. Endogenous phase: endogenous m et abolism , high deat h rat e and cell lysis.

Biom a ss Gr ow t h Ra t e

The m ost widely used expression for t he growt h rat e of m icro organism s is given by Monod:

Tot al rat e of m icrobial growt h,dx = μm XS

dt Ks+ S

where,

μm = m axim um specific growt h rat e

X = m icro organism concent rat ion

S = subst rat e concent rat ion

Ks= subst rat e concent rat ion at one half t he m axim um growt h rat e

Sim ilarly, rat e of subst rat e ut ilizat ion,

dS = k X S
dt Ks + S

where,

k = m axim um specific subst rat e ut ilizat ion rat e

M a in t e n a n ce a s En doge n ou s Re spir a t ion

Net growt h rat e of m icro organism s is com put ed by subt ract ing from t he t ot al growt h rat e, t he rat e of m icro organism s
endogenously decayed t o sat isfy m aint enance ener gy requirem ent . Therefore,

Net rat e of m icrobial growt h = μm X S − k d X

Ks + S

where,

k d = endogenous decay coefficient

Gr ow t h Yie ld

subst rat e. The m axim um specific growt h rat e is given by: μm = Y.k
Growt h yield is defined as t he increm ent al increase in biom ass which result s from t he ut ilizat ion of t he increm ent al am ount of

where, Y is t he m axim um yield coefficient and is defined as t he rat io of m axim um m ass of cells form ed t o t he m ass of subst rat e
ut ilized. The coefficient s Y, k d , k and Ks are designat ed as kinet ic coefficient s. The values of kinet ic coefficient s depend upon t he
nat ure of wast ewat er and operat ional and environm ent al condit ions in biological react or. The biological react ors can be
com plet ely m ixed flow or plug flow react or wit h or wit hout recycle.

Act iva t e d Slu dge Pr oce ss

The m ost com m on suspended growt h process used for m unicipal wast ewat er t reat m ent is t he act ivat ed sludge process as
shown in figure:

Act ivat ed sludge plant involves:

1. wast ewat er aerat ion in t he presence of a m icrobial suspension,

2. solid- liquid separat ion following aerat ion,
3. discharge of clarified effluent ,
4. wast ing of excess biom ass, and
5. ret urn of rem aining biom ass t o t he aerat ion t ank.

I n act ivat ed sludge process wast ewat er cont aining organic m at t er is aerat ed in an aerat ion basin in which m icro- organism s
 m et abolize t he suspended and soluble organic m at t er. Part of organic m at t er is synt hesized int o new cells and part is oxidized
t o CO2 and wat er t o derive energy. I n act ivat ed sludge syst em s t he new cells form ed in t he react ion are rem oved from t he
liquid st ream in t he form of a flocculent sludge in set t ling t anks. A part of t his set t led biom ass, described as act ivat ed sludge is
ret urned t o t he aerat ion t ank and t he rem aining form s wast e or excess sludge.

Act iva t e d Slu dge Pr oce ss Va r ia ble s

The m ain variables of act ivat ed sludge process are t he m ixing regim e, loading rat e, and t he flow schem e.

M ix in g Re gim e

Generally t wo t ypes of m ixing regim es are of m aj or int erest in act ivat ed sludge process: plu g flow and com ple t e m ix in g. I n
t he first one, t he regim e is charact erized by orderly flow of m ixed liquor t hrough t he aerat ion t ank wit h no elem ent of m ixed
liquor overt aking or m ixing wit h any ot her elem ent . There m ay be lat eral m ixing of m ixed liquor but t here m ust be no m ixing
along t he pat h of flow.

I n com plet e m ixing, t he cont ent s of aerat ion t ank are well st irred and uniform t hroughout . Thus, at st eady st at e, t he effluent
from t he aerat ion t ank has t he sam e com posit ion as t he aerat ion t ank cont ent s.

The t ype of m ixing regim e is very im port ant as it affect s ( 1) oxygen t ransfer requirem ent s in t he aerat ion t ank, ( 2)
suscept ibilit y of biom ass t o shock loads, ( 3) local environm ent al condit ions in t he aerat ion t ank, and ( 4) t he kinet ics governing
t he t reat m ent process.

Loa din g Ra t e

A loading param et er t hat has been developed over t he years is t he h ydr a u lic r e t e n t ion t im e ( HRT) , θ, d

θ= V
Q

V= volum e of aerat ion t ank, m 3 , and Q= sewage inflow, m 3 / d

Anot her em pirical loading param et er is volu m e t r ic or ga n ic loa din g which is defined as t he BOD applied per unit volum e of
aerat ion t ank, per day.

A rat ional loading param et er which has found wider accept ance and is preferred is spe cific su bst r a t e u t iliz a t ion r a t e , q, per
day.

q= Q ( SO - Se)
V X

A sim ilar loading param et er is m e a n ce ll r e side n ce t im e or slu dge r e t e n t ion t im e ( SRT) , θc, d

θc = VX
Qw Xr + ( Q- Qw Xe)

where SO and Se are influent and effluent organic m at t er concent rat ion respect ively, m easured as BOD5 ( g/ m 3 ) , X, Xe and Xr are
MLSS concent rat ion in aerat ion t ank, effluent and ret urn sludge respect ively, and Qw = wast e act ivat ed sludge rat e.

Under st eady st at e operat ion t he m ass of wast e act ivat ed sludge is given by

Qw Xr = YQ ( SO - Se) - k d XV

where Y= m axim um yield coefficient ( m icrobial m ass synt hesized / m ass of subst rat e ut ilized) and k d = endogenous decay rat e
( d- 1) .

From t he above equat ion it is seen t hat 1/ θc = Yq - k d

 I f t he value of Se is sm all as com pared SO, q m ay also be expressed as Food t o M icr oor ga n ism r a t io, F/ M

F/ M = Q( SO- Se) / XV = QSO / XV

The θc value adopt ed for design cont rols t he effluent qualit y, and set t leabilit y and drainabilit y of biom ass, oxygen requirem ent
and quant it y of wast e act ivat ed sludge.

Flow Sch e m e

The flow schem e involves:

•
•
t he pat t ern of sewage addit ion

•
t he pat t ern of sludge ret urn t o t he aerat ion t ank and
t he pat t ern of aerat ion.

Sewage addit ion m ay be at a single point at t he inlet end or it m ay be at several point s along t he aerat ion t ank. The sludge
ret urn m ay be direct ly from t he set t ling t ank t o t he aerat ion t ank or t hrough a sludge reaerat ion t ank. Aerat ion m ay be at a
uniform rat e or it m ay be varied from t he head of t he aerat ion t ank t o it s end.

Con ve n t ion a l Syst e m a n d it s M odifica t ion s

The convent ional syst em m aint ains a plug flow hydraulic regim e. Over t he years, several m odificat ions t o t he convent ional
syst em have been developed t o m eet specific t reat m ent obj ect ives. I n st e p a e r a t ion set t led sewage is int roduced at several
point s along t he t ank lengt h which produces m ore uniform oxygen dem and t hroughout . Ta pe r e d a e r a t ion at t em pt s t o supply
air t o m at ch oxygen dem and along t he lengt h of t he t ank. Con t a ct st a biliza t ion provides for reaerat ion of ret urn act ivat ed
sludge from from t he final clarifier, which allows a sm aller aerat ion or cont act t ank. Com ple t e ly m ix e d process aim s at
inst ant aneous m ixing of t he influent wast e and ret urn sludge wit h t he ent ire cont ent s of t he aerat ion t ank. Ext ended aerat ion
process oper at es at a low organic load producing lesser quant it y of well st abilized sludge.
Design Consideration

The items for consideration in the design of activated sludge plant are aeration tank capacity and dimensions, aeration facilities, secondary sludge settling and
recycle and excess sludge wasting.

Aeration Tank

The volume of aeration tank is calculated for the selected value of qc by assuming a suitable value of MLSS concentration, X.

VX = YQqc(SO - S)
1+ kdqc

Alternately, the tank capacity may be designed from

F/M = QSO / XV

Hence, the first step in designing is to choose a suitable value of qc (or F/M) which depends on the expected winter temperature of mixed liquor, the type of
reactor, expected settling characteristics of the sludge and the nitrification required. The choice generally lies between 5 days in warmer climates to 10 days in
temperate ones where nitrification is desired alongwith good BOD removal, and complete mixing systems are employed.

The second step is to select two interrelated parameters HRT, t and MLSS concentration. It is seen that economy in reactor volume can be achieved by
assuming a large value of X. However, it is seldom taken to be more than 5000 g/m3. For typical domestic sewage, the MLSS value of 2000-3000 mg/l if
conventional plug flow type aeration system is provided, or 3000-5000 mg/l for completely mixed types. Considerations which govern the upper limit are: initial
and running cost of sludge recirculation system to maintain a high value of MLSS, limitations of oxygen transfer equipment to supply oxygen at required rate in
small reactor volume, increased solids loading on secondary clarifier which may necessitate a larger surface area, design criteria for the tank and minimum HRT
for the aeration tank.

The length of the tank depends upon the type of activated sludge plant. Except in the case of extended aeration plants and completely mixed plants, the aeration
tanks are designed as long narrow channels. The width and depth of the aeration tank depends on the type of aeration equipment employed. The depth control
the aeration efficiency and usually ranges from 3 to 4.5 m. The width controls the mixing and is usually kept between 5 to 10 m. Width-depth ratio should be
adjusted to be between 1.2 to 2.2. The length should not be less than 30 or not ordinarily longer than 100 m.
 Oxygen Requirements

Oxygen is reqiured in the activated sludge process for the oxidation of a part of the influent organic matter and also for the endogenous respiration of the micro-
organisms in the system. The total oxygen requirement of the process may be formulated as follows:

O2 required (g/d) = Q(SO - S) - 1.42 QwXr

f

where, f = ratio of BOD5 to ultimate BOD and 1.42 = oxygen demand of biomass (g/g)

The formula does not allow for nitrification but allows only for carbonaceous BOD removal.

Aeration Facilities

The aeration facilities of the activated sludge plant are designed to provide the calculated oxygen demand of the wastewater against a specific level of dissolved
oxygen in the wastewater.

Secondary Settling

Secondary settling tanks, which receive the biologically treated flow undergo zone or compression settling. Zone settling occurs beyond a certain concentration
when the particles are close enough together that interparticulate forces may hold the particles fixed relative to one another so that the whole mass tends to settle
as a single layer or "blanket" of sludge. The rate at which a sludge blanket settles can be determined by timing its position in a settling column test whose results
can be plotted as shown in figure.

Compression settling may occur at the bottom of a tank if particles are in such a concentration as to be in physical contact with one another. The weight of
particles is partly supported by the lower layers of particles, leading to progressively greater compression with depth and thickening of sludge. From the settling
column test, the limiting solids flux required to reach any desired underflow concentration can be estimated, from which the rquired tank area can be computed.

The solids load on the clarifier is estimated in terms of (Q+R)X, while the overflow rate or surface loading is estimated in terms of flow Q only (not Q+R) since
the quantity R is withdrawn from the bottom and does not contribute to the overflow from the tank. The secondary settling tank is particularly sensitive to
fluctuations in flow rate and on this account it is recommended that the units be designed not only for average overflow rate but also for peak overflow rates.
Beyond an MLSS concentration of 2000 mg/l the clarifier design is often controlled by the solids loading rate rather than the overflow rate. Recommended design
values for treating domestic sewage in final clarifiers and mechanical thickeners (which also fall in this category of compression settling) are given in lecture 22.

Slu dge Re cycle

The MLSS concent rat ion in t he aerat ion

t ank is cont rolled by t he sludge
recirculat ion rat e and t he sludge
set t leabilit y and t hickening in t he
secondary sedim ent at ion t ank.

Qr = X
Q Xr - X

where Qr = Sludge recirculat ion rat e, m 3 / d

The sludge set t leabilit y is det erm ined by

sludge volum e index ( SVI ) defined as
volum e occupied in m L by one gram of
solids in t he m ixed liquor aft er set t ling for
30 m in. I f it is assum ed t hat
sedim ent at ion of suspended solids in t he
laborat ory is sim ilar t o t hat in
sedim ent at ion t ank, t hen Xr = 10 6 / SVI .
Values of SVI bet ween 100 and 150 m l/ g
indicat e good set t ling of suspended solids.
The Xr value m ay not be t aken m ore t han
10,000 g/ m 3 unless separat e t hickeners
are provided t o concent rat e t he set t led
solids or secondary sedim ent at ion t ank is
 designed t o y ield a higher value.

Ex ce ss Slu dge W a st in g

The sludge in t he aerat ion t ank has t o be

wast ed t o m aint ain a st eady level of MLSS
in t he syst em . The excess sludge quant it y
will increase wit h increasing F/ M and
decrease wit h increasing t em perat ur e.
Excess sludge m ay be wast ed eit her from
t he sludge ret urn line or direct ly from t he
aerat ion t ank as m ixed liquor. The lat t er is
preferred as t he sludge concent rat ion is
fairly st eady in t hat case. The excess
sludge gener at ed under st eady st at e
operat ion m ay be est im at ed by

θc = VX
Qw Xr

or Qw Xr = YQ ( SO - S) - k d XV

D e sign of Com ple t e ly M ix e d Act iva t e d Slu dge Syst e m

Design a com plet ely m ixed act ivat ed sludge syst em t o serve 60000 people t hat will give a final effluent t hat is nit rified and has
5- day BOD not exceeding 25 m g/ l. The following design dat a is available.

Sewage flow = 150 l/ person- day = 9000 m 3 / day

BOD 5 = 54 g/ person- day = 360 m g/ l ; BOD u = 1.47 BOD 5
Tot al kj eldahl nit rogen ( TKN) = 8 g/ per son- day = 53 m g/ l
Phosphorus = 2 g/ person- day = 13.3 m g/ l
Wint er t em perat ure in aerat ion t ank = 18°C
Yield coefficient Y = 0.6 ; Decay const ant Kd = 0.07 per day ; Specific subst rat e ut ilizat ion rat e = ( 0.038 m g/ l) - 1 ( h) - 1 at 18°C
Assum e 30% raw BOD 5 is rem oved in prim ary sedim ent at ion, and BOD 5 going t o aerat ion is, t herefore, 252 m g/ l ( 0.7 x 360
m g/ l) .

( a ) Se le ct ion of θc, t a n d M LSS con ce n t r a t ion :

Design:

Considering t he operat ing t em perat ur e and t he desire t o have nit rificat ion and good sludge set t ling charact erist ics, adopt θc =
5d. As t here is no special fear of t oxic inflows, t he HRT, t m ay be kept bet ween 3- 4 h, and MLSS = 4000 m g/ l.

( b) Efflu e n t BOD 5 :

Subst rat e concent rat ion, S = 1 ( 1/ θc + k d ) = 1 ( 1/ 5 + 0.07)

qY ( 0.038) ( 0.6)
S = 12 m g/ l.
Assum e suspended solids ( SS) in effluent = 20 m g/ l and VSS/ SS = 0.8.
I f degradable fract ion of volat ile suspended solids ( VSS) = 0.7 ( check lat er) , BOD 5 of VSS in effluent = 0.7( 0.8x20) = 11m g/ l.

Thus, t ot al effluent BOD 5 = 12 + 11 = 23 m g/ l ( accept able) .

( c) Ae r a t ion Ta n k :

1+ k d θc
VX = YQθc( SO - S) where X = 0.8( 4000) = 3200 m g/ l

or 3200 V = ( 0.6) ( 5) ( 9000) ( 252- 12)

[ 1 + ( 0.07) ( 5) ]
V = 1500 m 3
Det ent ion t im e, t = 1500 x 24 = 4h
9000

F/ M = ( 252- 12) ( 9000) = 0.45 kg BOD 5 per kg MLSS per day

( 3200) ( 1500)

Let t he aerat ion t ank be in t he form of four square shaped com part m ent s oper at ed in t wo parallel rows, each wit h t wo cells
m easuring 11m x 11m x 3.1m

( d) Re t u r n Slu dge Pu m pin g:

I f suspended solids concent rat ion of ret urn flow is 1% = 10,000 m g/ l

R= MLSS = 0.67
( 10000) - MLSS
Qr = 0.67 x 9000 = 6000 m 3 / d

( e ) Su r plu s Slu dge Pr odu ct ion :

Net VSS produced Qw Xr = VX = ( 3200) ( 1500) ( 10 3/ 10 6) = 960 kg/ d

θc ( 5)

or SS produced = 960/ 0.8 = 1200 kg/ d

I f SS are rem oved as underflow wit h solids concent rat ion 1% and assum ing specific gravit y of sludge as 1.0,

Liquid sludge t o be rem oved = 1200 x 100/ 1 = 120,000 kg/ d

= 120 m 3 / d

( f) Ox yge n Re qu ir e m e nt :

1. For carbonaceous dem and,

oxygen required = ( BOD u rem oved) - ( BOD u of solids leaving)
= 1.47 ( 2160 kg/ d) - 1.42 ( 960 kg/ d)
= 72.5 kg/ h
2. For nit rificat ion,
oxygen required = 4.33 ( TKN oxidized, kg/ d)
I ncom ing TKN at 8.0 g/ person- day = 480 kg/ day. Assum e 30% is rem oved in prim ary sedim ent at ion and t he balance
336 kg/ day is oxidized t o nit rat es. Thus, oxygen required
= 4.33 x 336 = 1455 k g/ day = 60.6 kg/ h
3. Tot al oxygen required
= 72.5 + 60.6 = 133 kg/ h = 1.0 kg/ kg of BODu rem oved.

Oxygen upt ake rat e per unit t ank volum e = 133/ 1500
= 90.6 m g/ h/ l t ank volum e

( g) Pow e r Re qu ir e m e n t :

Assum e oxygenat ion capacit y of aerat ors at field condit ions is only 70% of t he capacit y at st andard condit ions and m echanical
aerat ors are capable of giving 2 kg oyxgen per kWh at st andard condit ions.

Power required = 136 = 97 kW ( 130 hp)

0.7 x 2

= ( 97 x 24 x 365) / 60,000 = 14.2 kWh/ year/ per son

Th e or y of Ae r a t ion

Aerat ion is a gas- liquid m ass t ransfer process in w hich t he driving force in t he liquid phase is t he concent rat ion gradient ( Cs - C)
for slight ly soluble gases.
Mass t ransfer per unit t im e = KL.a ( Cs - C)

where, KL = Liquid film coefficient

= Diffusion coefficient of liquid ( D)
Thickness of film ( Y)
a = I nt erficial area per unit volum e
Cs = sat urat ion concent rat ion at t he gas- liquid int erface and C = som e lower value in t he body of t he liquid.

The value of a increases as finer and finer droplet s are form ed, t hus increasing t he gas t ransfer. However, in pract ice, it is not
possible t o m easure t his area and hence t he overall coefficient ( KL.a) per unit t im e, is det erm ined by experim ent at ion.

Adj u st m e n t for Fie ld Con dit ion s

The oxygen t ransfer capacit y under field condit ions can be calculat ed from t he st andard oxygen t ransfer capacit y by t he
form ula:

N = [ Ns( Cs- CL) x 1.024 T- 20 α ] / 9.2

where,
N = oxygen t ransferred under field condit ions, kg O2 / h.
Ns= oxygen t ransfer capacit y under st andard condit ions, kg O2 / h.
Cs= DO sat urat ion value for sewage at operat ing t em perat ure.
CL= operat ing DO level in aerat ion t ank usually 1 t o 2 m g/ L.

α = Correct ion fact or for oxygen t ransfer for sewage, usually 0.8 t o 0.85.
T = Tem perat ure, degree C.

Ae r a t ion Fa cilit ie s

•
•
Oxygen m ay be supplied eit her by surface aerat ors or diffused aerat ors em ploying fine or coarse diffusers.
The aerat ion devices apart from supplying t he required oxygen shall also provide adequat e m ixing in order t hat t he

•
ent ire MLSS present in t he aerat ion t ank will be available for biological act ivit y.
Aerat ors are rat ed based on t he am ount of oxygen t hey can t ransfer t o t ap wat er under st andard condit ions of 20°C,
760 m m Hg barom et ric pressure and zero DO.

Tr ick lin g Filt e r s

Trickling filt er is an a t t a ch e d gr ow t h pr oce ss i.e. process in which m icroorganism s responsible for t reat m ent are at t ached t o
an inert packing m at erial. Packing m at erial used in at t ached grow t h processes include rock, gravel, slag, sand, redwood, and a
wide range of plast ic and ot her synt het ic m at erials.
Pr oce ss D e scr ipt ion

•
•
The wast ewat er in t rickling filt er is dist ribut ed over t he t op area of a vessel cont aining non- subm erged packing m at erial.
Air circulat ion in t he void space, by eit her nat ural draft or blowers, provides oxygen for t he m icroorganism s growing as

•
an at t ached biofilm .
During operat ion, t he organic m at erial present in t he wast ewat er is m et abolised by t he biom ass at t ached t o t he
m edium . The biological slim e grows in t hickness as t he or ganic m at t er abst r act ed from t he flowing wast ewat er is

•
synt hesized int o new cellular m at erial.

•
The t hickness of t he aerobic layer is lim it ed by t he dept h of penet rat ion of oxygen int o t he m icrobial layer.
The m icro- organism s near t he m edium face ent er t he endogenous phase as t he subst rat e is m et abolised before it can
reach t he m icro- organism s near t he m edium face as a result of increased t hickness of t he slim e layer and loose t heir
abilit y t o cling t o t he m edia surface. The liquid t hen washes t he slim e off t he m edium and a new slim e layer st art s t o

•
grow. This phenom enon of losing t he slim e layer is called slou gh in g.
The sloughed off film and t reat ed wast ewat er are collect ed by an underdrainage which also allows circulat ion of air
t hrough filt er. The collect ed liquid is passed t o a set t ling t ank used for solid- liquid separat ion.

Type s of Filt e r s

Trickling filt ers are classified as high rat e or low rat e, based on t he organic and hydraulic loading applied t o t he unit .

S.No. Design Feature Low Rate Filter High Rate Filter

3 2
1. Hydraulic loading, m /m .d 1-4 10 - 40
Organic loading,kg BOD /
2. 0.08 - 0.32 0.32 - 1.0
m3.d
3. Depth, m. 1.8 - 3.0 0.9 - 2.5
0.5 - 3.0 (domestic wastewater) upto 8 for strong
4. Recirculation ratio 0
industrial wastewater.

• The hydraulic loading rate is the total flow including recirculation appied on unit area of the filter in a day, while the organic loading rate is the 5 day

•
20°C BOD, excluding the BOD of the recirculant, applied per unit volume in a day.

•
Recirculation is generally not adopted in low rate filters.
A well operated low rate trickling filter in combination with secondary settling tank may remove 75 to 90% BOD and produce highly nitrified effluent.
It is suitable for treatment of low to medium strength domestic wastewaters.
 • The high rate trickling filter, single stage or two stage are recommended for medium to relatively high strength domestic and industrial wastewater. The

•
BOD removal efficiency is around 75 to 90% but the effluent is only partially nitrified.
Single stage unit consists of a primary settling tank, filter, secondary settling tank and facilities for recirculation of the effluent. Two stage filters consist
of two filters in series with a primary settling tank, an intermediate settling tank which may be omitted in certain cases and a final settling tank.

Pr oce ss D e sign

Generally t rickling filt er design is based on em pirical relat ionships t o find t he required filt er volum e for a designed degree of
wast ewat er t reat m ent . Types of equat ions:

1. NRC equat ions ( Nat ional Research Council of USA)

2. Rankins equat ion
3. Eckenfilder equat ion
4. Galler and Got aas equat ion

NRC and Rankin's equat ions are com m only used. NRC equat ions give sat isfact ory values when t here is no re- circulat ion, t he
seasonal variat ions in t em perat ure are not large and fluct uat ions wit h high organic loading. Rankin's equat ion is used for high
rat e filt ers.

N RC e qu a t ion s: These equat ions are applicable t o bot h low rat e and high rat e filt ers. The efficiency of single st age or first
st age of t wo st age filt ers, E2 is given by

E2 = 100
1+ 0.44( F1.BOD/ V1 .Rf 1 ) 1/ 2

For t he second st age filt er, t he efficiency E3 is given by

E3 = 100
[ ( 1+ 0.44) / ( 1- E2 ) ] ( F2.BOD/ V2 .Rf 2 ) 1/ 2

where E2 = % efficiency in BOD rem oval of single st age or first st age of t wo- st age filt er, E3 = % efficiency of second st age filt er,
F1.BOD= BOD loading of set t led raw sewage in single st age of t he t wo- st age filt er in kg/ d, F2.BOD= F1.BOD( 1- E2 ) = BOD loading on
second- st age filt er in kg/ d, V1 = volum e of first st age filt er, m 3 ; V2 = volum e of second st age filt er, m 3 ; Rf 1 = Recirculat ion fact or
for first st age, R1 = Recirculat ion rat io for first st age filt er, Rf 2 = Recirculat ion fact or for second st age, R2 = Recirculat ion rat io for
second st age filt er.

Ra n k in s e qu a t ion : This equat ion also known as Tent at ive Met hod of Ten St at es USA has been successfully used over wide
range of t em perat ure. I t r equires following condit ions t o be observed for single st age filt ers:

1. Raw set t led dom est ic sewage BOD applied t o filt ers should not exceed 1.2 kg BOD5 / day/ m 3 filt er volum e.
2. Hydraulic load ( including recirculat ion) should not exceed 30 m 3 / m 2 filt er surface- day.
3. Recirculat ion rat io ( R/ Q) should be such t hat BOD ent ering filt er ( including recirculat ion) is not m ore t han t hree t im es
t he BOD expect ed in effluent . This im plies t hat as long as t he above condit ions are sat isfied efficiency is only a funct ion
of recirculat ion and is given by:

E= ( R/ Q) + 1
( R/ Q) + 1.5

Ot h e r Ae r obic Tr e a t m e n t Un it s

1. St a biliz a t ion pon ds: The st abilizat ion ponds are open flow t hrough basins specifically designed and const ruct ed t o
t reat sewage and biodegr adable indust rial wast es. They provide long det ent ion periods ext ending from a few t o several
days.
2. Ae r a t e d la goon s: Pond syst em s, in which oxygen is provided t hrough m echanical aerat ion rat her t han algal
phot osynt hesis are called aerat ed lagoons.
3. Ox ida t ion dit ch: The oxidat ion dit ch is a m odified form of "ext ended aerat ion" of act ivat ed sludge process. The dit ch
consist s of a long cont inuous channel oval in shape wit h t wo surface rot ors placed across t he channel.

An a e r obic Tr e a t m e n t

The anaerobic wast e t reat m ent process is an effect ive m et hod for t he t reat m ent of m any organic wast es. The t reat m ent has a
num ber of advant ages over aerobic t reat m ent process, nam ely,

•
•
t he energy input of t he syst em is low as no energy is requred for oxygenat ion,

•
lower product ion of excess sludge( biological synt hesis) per unit m ass of subst rat e ut ilized,

•
lower nut rient requirem ent due t o lower biological synt hesis, and
degradat ion leads t o product ion of biogas which is a valuable source of energy.

Fu n da m e n t a l M icr obiology

The anaerobic t reat m ent of organic wast es result ing in t he product ion of carbon dioxide and m et hane, involves t wo dist inct
st ages. I n t he first st age, com plex wast e com ponent s, including fat s, prot eins, and polysaccharides are first hydrolyzed by a

ferm ent at ions, β- oxidat ions, and ot her m et abolic processes leading t o t he form at ion of sim ple organic com pounds, m ainly
het erogeneous group of facult at ive and anaerobic bact eria. These bact eria t hen subj ect t he product s of hydrolysis t o

short - chain ( volat ile) acids and alcohols. The first st age is com m only referred t o as "a cid fe r m e n t a t ion " . However in t he
second st age t he end product s of t he first st age are convert ed t o gases ( m ainly m et hane and carbon dioxide) by several
different species of st rict ly anaerobic bact eria. This st age is generally referred t o as "m e t h a n e fe r m e n t a t ion" .
The prim ary acids produced during acid ferm ent at ion are propionic and acet ic acid. I t is report ed t hat only one group of
m et hane bact eria is necessary for m et hane ferm ent at ion of acet ic acid, whereas propionic acid, which is ferm ent ed t hrough
acet ic acid requires t wo different groups of m et hane bact eria. The m et hane ferm ent at ion react ions for t hese t wo acids are:

The bact eria responsible for acid ferm ent at ion are relat ively t olerant t o changes in pH and t em perat ur e and have a m uch higher
rat e of growt h t han t he bact eria responsible for m et hane ferm ent at ion. As a result , m et hane ferm ent at ion is generally assum ed
t o be t he rat e lim it ing st ep in anaerobic wast ewat er t reat m ent .

An a e r obic Re a ct or

Various t ypes of anaerobic unit s t hat have been dev eloped are as follows:

• Upflow a n a e r obic filt e r s packed wit h eit her pebbles, st ones, PVC sheet s, et c.
as m edia t o support subm erged biological growt hs ( fixed film ) . The unit s are
report ed t o work well but a likely problem is accum ulat ion of solids in t he

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int erst ices.
D ow n flow a n a e r obic filt e r s packed wit h sim ilar m edia as above but not t o be
confused wit h usual t rickling filt ers which are aerobic. I n t he anaerobic unit s, t he

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inlet and out let are so placed t hat t he m edia and fixed film st ay subm erged.
UASB t ype u n it s in which no special m edia have t o be used since t he sludge
granules t hem selves act as t he 'm edia' and st ay in suspension. These are

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com m only preffered.
Flu idize d be d u n it s filled wit h sand or plast ic granules are used wit h
recirculat ion under required pressure t o keep t he ent ire m ass fluidized and t he
sludge dist ribut ed over t he ent ire react or volum e. Their power consum pt ion is
higher.
UASB Un it s

UASB t ype u n it s are one in which no special m edia have t o be used since t he sludge granules t hem selves act as t he 'm edia'
and st ay in su spension. UASB syst em is not pat ent ed. A t ypical arrangem ent of a UASB t ype t reat m ent plant for m unicipal
sewage would be as follows:

1. I nit ial pum ping

2. Screening and degrit t ing
3. Main UASB react or
4. Gas collect ion an d conversion or conveyance
5. Sludge drying be d
6. Post t reat m ent facilit y

I n t he UASB process, t he whole wast e is passed t hrough t he anae robic react or in an upflow m ode, wit h a hydraulic ret ent ion
t im e ( HRT) of only about 8- 10 h ours at average flow. No prior sedim ent at ion is required. The anaerobic unit does not need t o
be fi lled wit h st ones or any ot her m edi a; t he upflowing sewage it self form s m illions of sm all " granules" or part icles of sludge
which are held in suspension and provide a large surface area on which organic m at t er can at t ach and undergo biodegradat ion.
A high solid ret ent ion t im e ( SRT) of 30- 50 or m ore days occurs wit hin t he unit . No m ixers or aerat ors are required. The gas
produced can be collect ed and used if desired. Anaerobic syst em s funct ion sat isfact orily when t em perat ures inside t he react or
are above 18- 20°C. Excess sludge is rem oved from t i m e t o t im e t hrough a separat e pipe and sent t o a sim ple sand bed for
drying.

D e sign Appr oa ch

Size of Re a ct or : Generally, UASBs are considered where t em perat ure in t he react ors will be above 20°C. At equilibrium
condit ion, sludge w it hdrawn has t o be equal t o sludge produced daily. The sludge produced daily depends on t he charact erist ics
of t he raw wast ewat er since it is t he sum t ot al of ( i) t he new VSS produced as a result of BOD rem oval, t he yield coefficient
being assum ed as 0.1 g VSS/ g BOD rem oved, ( ii) t he non- degradable residue of t he VSS com ing in t he inflow assum ing 4 0%
of t he VSS are degraded and residue is 60% , and ( iii) Ash received in t he inflow, nam ely TSS- VSS m g/ l. Thus, at st eady st at e
condit ions,

SRT= Tot al sludge pr esent in react or, kg

Sludge wit hdrawn per day, kg/ d

= 30 t o 50 days.

Anot her param et er is HRT which is given by:

HRT= React or volum e, m 3

Flow rat e, m 3 / h

= 8 t o 10 h or m ore at a verage flow.

The react or volum e has t o be so chosen t hat t he desired SRT value is achieved. This is done by solving for HRT from SRT
equat ion assum ing ( i) dept h of react or ( ii ) t he effect ive dept h of t he sludge blanket , and ( iii) t he average concent r at ion of
sludge in t he blanket ( 70 kg/ m 3 ) . The full dept h of t he react or for t reat ing low BOD m unicipal sewage is oft en 4.5 t o 5.0 m of
which t he sludge blanket it self m ay be 2.0 t o 2.5 m dept h. For high BOD wast es, t he dept h of bot h t he sludge blanket and t he
react or m ay have t o be increased so t hat t he organic loading on solids m ay be kept wit hin t he prescribed range.

Once t he size of t he react or is fixed, t he upflow velocit y can be det erm ined from

Upflow velocit y m / h = React or height

HRT, h

Using average flow rat e one get s t he a verage HRT while t he peak flow rat e gives t he m inim um HRT at which m inim um exposure
t o t reat m ent occurs. I n order t o ret ain any flocculent sludge in react or at all t im es, experience has shown t hat t he upflow
velocit y should not be m ore t han 0.5 m / h at average fl ow and not m ore t han 1.2 m / h at peak flow. At higher velocit ies, carry
over of solids m ight occur and effluent qualit y m ay be det eriorat ed. The feed inlet syst em is next designed so t hat t he required
lengt h and widt h of t he UASB react or are det erm ined.
The set t ling com part m ent is form ed by t he sloping hoods for gas collect ion. The dept h of t he com part m ent is 2.0 t o 2.5 m and
t he surface overflow rat e kept at 20 t o 28 m 3 / m 2 - day ( 1 t o 1.2 m / h) at peak flow. The flow velocit y t hrough t he apert ure
connect ing t he react ion zone wit h t he set t ling com part m ent is lim it ed t o not m ore t han 5 m / h at peak flow. Due at t ent ion has t o
be paid t o t he geom et ry of t he unit and t o it s hydraulics t o ensure proper working of t he " Gas- Liquid- Solid- Separat or ( GLSS) "
t he gas collect ion hood, t he incom ing flow dist ribut ion t o get spat ial uniform it y and t he out flowing effluent .

Ph ysica l Pa r a m e t e r s

A single m odule can handle 10 t o 15 MLD of sewage. For large flows a num ber of m odules could be provided. Som e physical
det ails of a t ypical UASB react or m odule are given below:

Reactor
Rectangular or circular. Rectangular shape is preferred
configuration
Depth 4.5 to 5.0 m for sewage.
To limit lengths of inlet laterals to around 10-12 m for facilitating uniform flow
Width or diameter
distribution and sludge withdrawal.
Length As necessary.
gravity feed from top (preferred for municipal sewage) or pumped feed from bottom
Inlet feed
through manifold and laterals (preferred in case of soluble industrial wastewaters).
Sludge blanket
2 to 2.5 m for sewage. More depth is needed for stronger wastes.
depth
This is a deflector beam which together with the gas hood (slope 60) forms a "gas-
liquid-solid-separator" (GLSS) letting the gas go to the gas collection channel at top,
Deflector/GLSS while the liquid rises into the settler compartment and the sludge solids fall back into
the sludge compartment. The flow velocity through the aperture connecting the reaction
zone with the settling compartmentt is generally limited to about 5m/h at peak flow.
Settler
2.0-2.5 m in depth. Surface overflow rate equals 20-28 m3/m2/d at peak flow.
compartment

Pr oce ss D e sign Pa r a m e t e r s

A few process design param et ers for UASBs are list ed below for m unicipal sewages wit h BOD about 200- 300 m g/ l and
t em perat ur es above 20°C.

HRT 8-10 hours at average flow (minimum 4 hours at peak flow)

SRT 30-50 days or more
Sludge blanket concentration
15-30 kg VSS per m3. About 70 kg TSS per m3.
(average)
Organic loading on sludge 0.3-1.0 kg COD/kg VSS day (even upto 10 kg COD/ kg VSS day for
blanket agro-industrial wastes).
1-3 kg COD/m3 day for domestic sewage (10-15 kg COD/m3 day for
Volumetric organic loading
agro-industrial wastes)
BOD/COD removal efficiency Sewage 75-85% for BOD. 74-78% for COD.
Inlet points Minimum 1 point per 3.7-4.0 m2 floor area.
Either constant rate for pumped inflows or typically fluctuating flows
Flow regime
for gravity systems.
About 0.5 m/h at average flow, or 1.2 m/h at peak flow, whichever is
Upflow velocity
low.
Sludge production 0.15-0.25 kg TS per m3 sewage treated.
Sludge drying time Seven days (in India)
Theoretical 0.38 m3/kg COD removed. Actual 0.1-0.3 m3 per kg COD
Gas production
removed.
Method of use is optional. 1 m3 biogas with 75% methane content is
Gas utilization
equivalent to 1.4 kWh electricity.
Nutrients nitrogen and
5 to 10% only.
phosphorus removal
N it r ifica t ion - D e n it r ifica t i on Syst e m s

A cert ain am ount of nit rogen rem oval ( 20- 30% ) occurs in convent ional
act ivat ed sludge syst em s. Nit rogen rem oval ranging from 70 t o 90 %
can be obt ained by use of nit rificat ion- denit rificat ion m et hod in plant s
based on act ivat ed sludge and ot her susp ended growt h syst em s.
Biological denit rificat ion requires prior nit rificat ion of all am m onia and
organic nit rogen in t he incom ing wast e.

N it r ifica t ion

There are t w o groups of chem oaut ot rophic bact eria t hat can be
associat ed wit h t he process of nit rificat ion. One group ( Nit rosom onas)
derives it s energy t hrough t he oxidat ion of am m onium t o nit rit e,
whereas t he o t her group ( Nit robact er) obt ains energy t hrough t he
oxidat ion of nit rit e t o nit rat e. Bot h t he groups, collect ively called
Nit rifiers, obt ain carbon required, from inorganic carbon form s.
Nit rificat ion of am m onia t o nit rat e is a t wo st ep process:

Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter

NH3 NH4 NO2 NO3

St oichiom et rically, 4.6 kg of oxygen is required for nit rifying 1 kg of

nit rogen. Under st eady st at e condit ions, exp erim ent al evidence has
shown nit rit e accum ulat ion t o be insignificant . This suggest s t hat t he
rat e- l im it ing st ep for t he conversio n of am m oni um t o n it rat e is t he

θc = 1
oxidat ion of am m onium t o nit rit e by t he genus Nit rosom onas.

μ
where μ is t he growt h rat e of nit rosom onas at t he worst operat ing
t em perat ur e. Sludge age ( or m ean cell residence t im e) , θc in a
t reat m ent plant m ust be sufficient ly high if nit rificat ion is desire d.

Com bi n e d a n d Se pa r a t e Syst e m s of Biologica l Ox ida t ion &

N it r ifica t ion

Following figure shows flow sheet s for com bined and separat e syst em s
for biological oxidat ion and nit rificat ion.

Com bin e d syst e m is favoured m et hod of

 operat ion as it is less sensit ive t o load variat ions
- owing t o larger sized aerat ion t ank - generally

owing t o higher values of θc adopt ed, and bet t er

produces a sm aller volum e of surplus sludge

sludge set t leabilit y.

Care should be t aken t o ensure t hat t he

oxygenat ion capacit y of aerat ion t ank is
sufficient t o m eet oxygen upt ake due t o
carbonaceous dem and and nit rificat ion. Recycling
of sludge m ust be rapid enough t o prevent
denit rificat ion ( and rising sludge) owing t o a noxic
condit ions in t he set t ling t ank.

I n se pa r a t e syst e m , t he first t ank can be

sm aller in size since a higher F/ M rat io can be
used, but t his m akes t he syst em som ewhat m ore
sensit ive t o load variat ions and also t ends t o
produce m or e sludge for disposal. An add it ional
set t ling t ank is also necessary bet ween t h e t wo
aerat ion t anks t o keep t he t wo sludges se parat e.
A principal advant age of t his syst em is it s higher
efficiency of nit rificat ion and it s bet t er
perform ance when t oxic subst ances ar e feared t o
be in t he inflow.

Biologica l D e nit r ifica t ion

When a t reat m ent plant discharges int o receivingst ream wit h lowavaila ble nit rogen concent rat ion and wit h a flow m uch la rger
t han t he effluent , t he presence of nit rat e in t he effluent generally does not adversely affect st ream qualit y. However, if t he
nit rat e concent rat ion in t he st ream is significant , it m ay be desirable t o cont rol t he nit rogen cont ent of t he effluent , as hi ghly
nit rified effluent s can st illaccelarat e algal bloom s. Even m ore crit ical is t he case where t reat m ent plant effluent is
dischargeddirect ly int o relat ively st ill bodies of wat er such as lakes or r eservoirs. Anot her argum ent for t he cont rolof nit ro gen in
t he aquat ic environm ent is t heoccurence of infant ile m et hem oglobinem ia,which result s from high concent rat ion of nit rat e s
indrinking wat er.

The four basic processes t hat are used are: ( 1) am m onia st ripping,
( 2) select ive ion exchange, ( 3) break point chlorinat ion, and
( 4) biological nit rificat ion/ de nit rificat ion.

Biologica l n it r ifica t ion / de n it r ifica t ion is a t wo st ep process. The first st ep is nit rificat ion, which is conversion of am m onia t o
nit rat e t hrough t he act ion of nit rifying bact eria. The second st ep is nit rat e conversion ( denit rificat ion) , which is carried out b y
facult at ive het erot rophic bact eria under anoxic condit ions.

M icr obiologica l Aspe ct s of D e n it r ifica t ion

• Nit rat e conversion t akes place t hrough bot h assim ilat ory and dissim ilat ory cellular funct ions. I n a ssim ila t or y
de n it r ifica t ion , nit rat e is reduced t o am m onia, which t hen serves as a nit rogen source for cell synt hesis. Thus,

•
nit rogen is rem oved from t he liquid st ream by incorporat ing it int o cyt oplasm ic m at erial.
I n dissim ila t or y de n it r ifica t ion , nit rat e serves as t he el ect ron accept or in energy m et abolism and is convert ed t o

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various gaseous end product s but principally m olecular nit rogen, N2 , which is t hen st ripped from t he liquid st ream .
Because t he m icrobial yield under anoxic condit ions is considerably low er t han under aerobic condit ions, a relat ively
sm all fract ion of t he nit rogen is rem oved t hrough assim ilat ion. Dissim ilat ory denit rificat ion is, t herfore, t he prim ary

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m eans by which nit rogen rem oval is achieved.
A carbon source is also essent ial as elect ron donor f or denit rificat ion t o t ake place. This source m ay be in t he form of
carbon int ernally available in sewage or art ificially added ( eg. as m et hanol) . Since m ost com m unit y wast ewat ers have a
higher rat io of BOD: N, t he int ernally a vailable carbon becom es at t ract ive and econom ical for denit rificat ion.

Denit rificat ion releases nit rogen w hich escapes as an inert gas t o t he at m osphere while oxygen released st ays dissolved
in t he liquid and t hus reduces t he oxygen input needed int o t he syst em . Each m olecule of nit rogen needs 4 m olecules of
oxygen during nit rificat ion but releases back 2.5 m olecules in denit rificat ion. Thus, t heore t ically, 62.5% of t he oxygen
used is released back in denit rificat ion.
Typica l Flow sh e e t s for D e n it r ifica t ion

Den it r if icat ion in suspended growt h syst em s can be achieved using anyone of t he t ypical flowsheet s shown in t he figure.

• The use of m et hanol or any ot her art ificial carbo n source should be avoided as far as possible since it adds t o t he cost of
t reat m ent and also som e operat ing difficult ies m ay arise fro dosing rat e of m et hanol. Too m uch would int roduce an

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unnecessary BOD in t he effluent while t oo lit t le would leave som e nit rat es undernit rified.
A m ore sat isfact ory arrangem ent would be t o use t he carbon cont ained in t he wast e it self. However, t he anox ic t ank
has t o be of sufficient det ent ion t im e for denit rificat ion t o occur which, has a slower rat e; since t he corresponding
oxygen upt ake rat e of t he m ixed liquor is m ainly due t o endogenous respirat ion and is t hus low. The denit rificat ion rat e,

•
t herefore, in a way also depends on t he F/ M rat io in t he prior aerat ion t ank.
Consequent ly, if desired, a port ion of t he raw wast e m ay be bypassed t o ent er direct ly int o t he anoxic t ank and t hus
cont ribut e t o an increased respirat ion rat e. Thi s reduces t he sizes of bot h t he anoxic and aerat ion t anks, but t he

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denit rificat ion efficiency is reduced as t he bypassed unnit rified am m onia can not be denit rified.
By reversing t he relat ive posit ions of an oxic and aerobic t anks, t he oxygen requirem ent of t he wast e in it s anoxic st at e
is m et by t he release of oxygen from nit rat es in t he recycled flow t aken from t he end of nit rificat ion t ank. Prim ary

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set t ling of t he raw wast e m ay be om it t ed so as t o bring m ore carbon int o t he anoxic t ank.
More com plet e nit rificat ion- denit rificat ion can be achieved by Bardenpho arrangem ent . The first anoxic t ank has t he
advant age of higher denit rificat ion rat e while t he nit rat es rem aining in t he liquor passing out of t he t ank can be

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denit rified furt her in a second anoxic t ank t hrough endogenous r espirat ion.
The flow from anoxic t ank is desirable t o reaerat e for 10- 15 m inut es t o drive off nit rogen gas bubbles and add oxyge n
prior t o sedim ent at ion.
Ph osph or u s Re m ova l

Phosphorus precipit at ion is ususally achieved by addit ion of chem icals like calcium hydroxide, ferrous or ferric chloride, or alum ,
eit her in t he prim ary or t he final set t ling t ank.

Alum is m ore expensive and generat es m ore hydroxide, which creat es ext ra sludge, t hat is difficult t o dewat er. Use of lim e
result s in an increase of approxim at ely 50% in surplus sludge, but t he sludge is report ed t o have good dewat ering propert ies.
When using iron salt s, a m olar rat io of 1.0: 1.4 of iron t o phosphorus is report ed t o give 91- 96% rem ov al of t ot al phosphorus
using ferrous chloride dosed direct ly beneat h t he aerat or.

Chem ical addit ion prior t o biological t reat m ent is feasible if a prim ary set t ling t ank exist s as in t he case of t he convent ional
act ivat ed sludge process. The dose r equirem ent t hen increases, but chem ical precipit at ion also im proves organic rem oval, t hus
reducing BOD load on t he biological t reat m ent . For ext ended aer at ion plant s t here is no prim ary set t ling; chem ical addit ion has
t o be done in t he final set t ling t ank.

Slu dge D ige st ion

Sludge digest ion involves t he t reat m ent of highly concent rated organic wast es in t he absence of oxygen by anaerobic
bact eria.The anaerobic t reat m ent of organic wast es result ing in t he product ion of carbon dioxide and m et hane, involves t wo
dist inct st ages. I n t he first st age, referr ed t o as "a cid fe r m e n t a t ion " , com plex wast e com ponent s, including fat s, prot eins, and

subj ect t he product s of hydrolysis t o ferm ent at ions, β- oxidat ions, and ot her m et abolic processes leading t o t he form at ion of
polysaccharides are first hydrolyzed by a het erogeneous group of facult at ive and anaerobic bact eria. These bact eria t hen

sim ple organic com pounds, m ainly short - chain ( volat ile) acids and alcohols. However in t he second st age, referred t o as
" m e t h a n e fe r m e n t a t ion" , t he end product s of t he first st age are convert ed t o gases ( m ainly m et hane and carbon dioxide) by
several different species of st rict ly anaerobic bact er ia.

The bact eria responsible for acid ferm ent at ion are relat ively t olerant t o changes in pH and t em perat ur e and have a m uch higher
rat e of growt h t han t he bact eria resp onsible for m et hane ferm ent at ion. I f t he pH drops below 6.0, m et hane form at ion
essent ially ceases, and m ore acid accum ulat es, t hus bringing t he digest ion process t o a st andst ill. As a result , m et hane
ferm ent at ion is gen erally assum ed t o be t he rat e lim it ing st ep in anaerobic wast ewat er t reat m ent . The m et hane bact eria are
highly act ive in m esophilic ( 27- 43°C) wit h digest ion period of four weeks and t herm ophilic range ( 35- 40°C) wit h d igest ion
period of 15- 18 days. But t herm ophilic range is not pract ised because of odour and operat ional difficult ies.

D ige st ion Ta n k s or D ige st e r s

A sludge digest ion t ank is a RCC or st eel t ank of cylindrical shape wit h hopper bot t om and is covered wit h fixed or float ing t y pe
of roofs.
Type s of An a e r obic D ige st e r s

The anaerobic digest ers are of t wo t ypes: st andar d rat e and high rat e. I n t he st andard rat e digest ion process, t he digest er
cont ent s are usually unheat ed and unm ixed. The digest ion period m ay vary from 30 t o 60 d. I n a high rat e digest ion process,
t he digest er cont ent s are heat ed and com plet ely m ixed. The required det ent ion period is 10 t o 20 d.

Oft en a com binat ion of st andard and high rat e digest ion is achieved in t wo- st age digest ion. The second st age digest er m ainly
separat es t he digest ed solids from t he supernat ant liquor: alt hough addit ional digest ion and gas recovery m ay also be achieved.
D e sign D e t a ils

Generally digest ers are designed t o t reat for a capacit y upt o 4 MLD.

1. Tank sizes are not less t han 6 m diam et er and not m ore t han 55 m diam et er.
2. Liquid dept h m ay be 4.5 t o 6 m and not great er t han 9 m .
3. The digest er capacit y m ay be det erm ined from t he relat ionship
V = [ Vf - 2/ 3 ( Vf - Vd ) ] t 1 + Vd t 2

where V = capacit y of digest er in m 3 , Vf = volum e of fresh sludge m 3 / d, Vd = volum e of daily digest ed sludge
accum ulat ion in t ank m 3 / d, t 1 = digest ion t im e in days required for digest ion, d, and t 2 = period of digest ed sludge
st orage.

Ga s Colle ct ion

The am ount of sludge gas produced varies from 0.014 t o 0.028 m 3 per capit a. The sludge gas is norm ally com posed of 65%
m et hane and 30% carbondioxide and rem aining 5% of nit rogen and ot her inert gases, wit h a calorific value of 5400 t o 5850
kcal/ m 3.

Tr e a t m e n t Pla n t La you t a n d Sit in g

Pla n t la you t is t he arrangem ent of designed t reat m ent unit s on t he select ed sit e. The com ponent s t hat need t o be included in
a t reat m ent plant , should be so laid out as t o opt im ize land requirem ent , m inim ize lengt hs of int erconnect ing pipes and
pum ping heads. Access for sludge and chem icals t ransport ing, and for possible repairs, should be provided in t he layout .

Sit in g is t he select ion of sit e for t reat m ent plant based on feat ures as charact er, t opography, and shoreline. Sit e developm ent
should t ake t he advant age of t he exist ing sit e t opography. The following principles are im port ant t o consider:

1. A sit e on a side- hill can facilit at e gravit y flow t hat will reduce pum ping requirem ent s and locat e norm al sequence of
unit s wit hout excessive excavat ion or fill.
2. When landscaping is ut ilized it should reflect t he charact er of t he surrounding area. Sit e developm ent should alt er
exist ing nat urally st abilized sit e cont ours and drainage as lit t le as possible.
3. The developed sit e should be com pat ible wit h t he exist ing land uses and t he com prehensive developm ent plan.

Tr e a t m e n t Pla n t H ydr a u lics

H ydr a u lic pr ofile is t he graphical represent at ion of t he hydraulic grade line t hrough t he t reat m ent plant . I f t he high wat er
level in t he receiving wat er is known, t his level is used as a cont rol point , and t he head loss com put at ions are st art ed backward
t hrough t he plant . The t ot a l a va ila ble h e a d at t he t reat m ent plant is t he difference in wat er surface elevat ions in t he
int ercept or and t he wat er surface elevat ion in t he receiving wat er at high flood level. I f t he t ot al available head is less t han t he
head loss t hrough t he plant , flow by gravit y cannot be achieved. I n such cases pum ping is needed t o raise t he head so t hat flow
by gravit y can occur.

There are m any basic principles t hat m ust be considered when pr eparing t he hydraulic profile t hrough t he plant . Som e are
list ed below:

1. The hydraulic profiles are prepar ed at peak and average design flows and at m inim um init ial flow.
2. The hydraulic profile is generally prepared for all m ain pat hs of flow t hrough t he plant .
3. The head loss t hrough t he t reat m ent plant is t he sum of head losses in t he t reat m ent unit s and t he connect ing piping
and appurt enances.
4. The head losses t hrough t he t reat m ent unit include t he following:
a. Head losses at t he influent st ruct ure.
b. Head losses at t he effluent st ruct ure.
c. Head losses t hrough t he unit .
d. Miscellaneous and free fall surface allowance.
5. The t ot al loss t hrough t he connect ing pipings, channels and appurt enances is t he sum of following:
a. Head loss due t o ent rance.
b. Head loss due t o exit .
c. Head loss due t o cont ract ion and enlargem ent .
d. Head loss due t o frict ion.
e. Head loss due t o bends, fit t ings, gat es, valves, and m et ers.
f. Head required over weir and ot her hydraulic cont rols.
g. Free- fall surface allowance.

Typica l H ydr a u lic Pr ofile Th r ou gh Tr e a t m e n t Fa cilit y

Tr e a t e d Efflu e n t D isposa l

The proper disposal of t reat m ent plant effluent or reuse requirem ent s is an essent ial part of planning and designing wast ewat er
t reat m ent facilit ies. Different m et hods of ult im at e disposal of secondary effluent s are discussed as follows.

N a t u r a l Eva por a t ion

The process involves large im poundm ent s wit h no discharge. Depending on t he clim at ic condit ions large im poundm ent s m ay be
necessary if precipit at ion exceeds evaporat ion. Therefore, considerat ions m ust be given t o net evaporat ion, st orage
requirem ent s, and possible percolat ion and groundwat er pollut ion. This m et hod is part icularly beneficial where recovery of
residues is desirable such as for disposal of brines.

Gr ou n dw a t e r Re ch a r ge

Met hods for groundwat er recharge include rapid infilt rat ion by effluent applicat ion or im poundm ent , int erm it t ent percolat ion,
and direct inj ect ion. I n all cases risks for groundwat er pollut ion exist s. Furt herm ore, direct inj ect ion im plies high cost s of
t reat ing effluent and inj ect ion facilit ies.

I r r iga t ion

I rrigat ion has been pract iced prim arily as a subst it ut e for scarce nat ural wat ers or sparse rainfall in arid areas. I n m ost cases
food chain crops ( i.e. crops consum ed by hum ans and t hose anim als whose product s are consum ed by hum ans) m ay not be
irrigat ed by effluent . However, field crops such as cot t on, sugar beet s, and crops for seed product ion are grown wit h
wast ewat er effluent .

Wast ewat er effluent has been used for wat ering parks, golf courses and highway m edians.

Re cr e a t ion a l La k e s

The effluent from t he secondary t reat m ent facilit y is st ored in a lagoon for approxim at ely 30 days. The effluent from t he lagoon
is chlorinat ed and t hen per colat ed t hrough an area of sand and gr avel, t hrough which it t ravels for approxim at ely 0.5 km and is
collect ed in an int ercept or t rench. I t is discharged int o a series of lakes used for swim m ing, boat ing and fishing.

Aqu a cu lt u r e

Aquacult ure, or t he product ion of aquat ic organism s ( bot h flora and fauna) , has been pract iced for cent uries prim arily for
product ion of food, fiber and fert ilizer. Lagoons are used for aquacult ure, alt hough art ificial and nat ural wet lands are also being
considered. However, t he uncont rolled spread of wat er hyacint hs is it self a great concern because t he flora can clog wat erways
and ruin wat er bodies.

M u n icipa l Use s

Technology is now available t o t reat wast ewat er t o t he ext ent t hat it will m eet drinking wat er qualit y st andards. However, direct
reuse of t reat ed wast ewat er is pract icable only on an em ergency basis. Many nat ural bodies of wat er t hat are used for
m unicipal wat er supply are also used for effluent disposal which is done t o supplem ent t he nat ural wat er resources by reusing
t he effluent m any t im es before it finally flows t o t he sea.

I n du st r ia l Use s

Effluent has been successfully used as a cooling wat er or boiler feed wat er. Deciding fact ors for effluent reuse by t he indust ry
include ( 1) availabilit y of nat ural wat er, ( 2) qualit y and quant it y of effluent , and cost of processing, ( 3) pum ping and t ransport
cost of effluent , and ( 4) indust rial process wat er t hat does not involve public healt h considerat ions.

D isch a r ge in t o N a t u r a l W a t e r s

Discharge int o nat ural wat ers is t he m ost com m on disposal pract ice. The self- purificat ion or assim ilat ive capacit y of nat ural
wat ers is t hus ut ilized t o provide t he rem aining t reat m ent .

St a biliz a t ion Pon ds

 secondary effluent s and rem oval of bact eria are called m a t u r a t ion pon ds.

Cla ssifica t ion of St a biliz a t ion Pon ds

St abilizat ion ponds m ay be aerobic, anaerobic or facult at ive.

• Ae r obic pon ds are shallow ponds wit h dept h less t han 0.5 m and BOD loading of
40- 120 kg/ ha.d so as t o m axim ize penet rat ion of light t hroughout t he liquid dept h.

•
Such ponds develop int ense algal growt h.
An a e r obic pon ds are used as pret reat m ent of high st rengt h wast es wit h BOD
load of 400- 3000 kg/ ha.d Such ponds are const ruct ed wit h a dept h of 2.5- 5m as

•
light penet rat ion is unim port ant .
Fa cu lt a t ive pon d funct ions aerobically at t he surface while anaerobic condit ions
prevail at t he bot t om .They are oft en about 1 t o 2 m in dept h. The aerobic layer
act s as a good check against odour evolut ion from t he pond.

M e ch a n ism of Pu r ifica t ion

The funct ioning of a facult at ive st abilizat ion pond and sym biot ic relat ionship in t he pond
are shown below. Sewage organics are st abilized by bot h aerobic and anaerobic react ions.
I n t he t op aerobic layer, where oxygen is supplied t hrough algal phot osynt hesis, t he non-
set t leable and dissolved organic m at t er is oxidized t o CO2 and wat er. I n addit ion, som e of
t he end product s of part ial anaerobic decom posit ion such as volat ile acids and alcohols,
which m ay perm eat e t o upper layers are also oxidized periodically. The set t led sludge
m ass originat ing from raw wast e and m icrobial synt hesis in t he aerobic layer and dissolved
and suspended organics in t he lower layers undergo st abilizat ion t hrough conversion t o
m et hane which escapes t he pond in form of bubbles.

Fa ct or s Affe ct in g Pon d Re a ct ion s

Various fact ors affect pond design:

•
•
wast ewat er charact erist ics and fluct uat ions.

•
environm ent al fact ors ( solar radiat ion, light , t em perat ure)

•
algal growt h pat t erns and t heir diurnal and seasonal variat ion)

•
bact erial growt h pat t erns and decay rat es.
solids set t lem ent , gasificat ion, upward diffusion, sludge accum ulat ion.
The dept h of aerobic layer in a facult at ive pond is a funct ion of solar radiat ion, wast e
charact erist ics, loading and t em perat ure. As t he organic loading is increased, oxygen
product ion by algae falls short of t he oxygen requirem ent and t he dept h of aerobic layer
decreases. Furt her, t here is a decrease in t he phot osynt het ic act ivit y of algae because of
great er t ur bidit y and inhibit ory effect of higher concent rat ion of organic m at t er.

Gasificat ion of organic m at t er t o m et hane is carried out in dist inct st eps of acid product ion
by acid form ing bact eria and acid ut ilizat ion by m et hane bact eria. I f t he second st ep does
not proceed sat isfact orily, t here is an accum ulat ion of organic acids result ing in decrease of
pH which would result in com plet e inhibit ion of m et hane bact eria. Two possible reasons for
im balance bet ween act ivit ies of m et hane bact eria are: ( 1) t he wast e m ay cont ain inhibit ory
subst ances w hich would ret ard t he act ivit y of m et hane bact eria and not affect t he act ivit y
of acid producers t o t he sam e ext ent . ( 2) The act ivit y of m et hane bact eria decreases m uch
m ore rapidly wit h fall in t em perat ure as com pared t o t he acid form ers.

Thus, year round warm t em perat ure and sunshine provide an ideal environm ent for
operat ion of facult at ive ponds.

Alga l Gr ow t h a n d Ox yge n Pr odu ct ion

Algal growt h convert s solar energy t o chem ical energy in t he organic form . Em pirical
st udies have shown t hat generally about 6% of visible light energy can be convert ed t o
algal energy.

The chem ical energy cont ained in an algal cell averages 6000 calories per gram of algae.

Depending on t he sky clearance fact or for an area, t he average visible radiat ion received
can be est im at ed as follows:

Avg. radiat ion= Min. radiat ion + [ ( Max. radiat ion - Min. radiat ion) x sky
clearance fact or]

Oxygen product ion occurs concurrent ly wit h algal product ion in accordance wit h following
equat ion:

106C0 2 + 16NO3 + HPO4 + 122H2 O + 18H+ C106 H 263 O110 N16 P1 + 138O2

On weight basis, t he oxygen product ion is 1.3 t im es t he algal product ion.

Ar e a l Or ga n ic Loa din g

The perm issible areal organic loading for t he pond expressed as kg BOD/ ha.d will depend
on t he m inim um incidence of sunlight t hat can be expect ed at a locat ion and also on t he
percent age of influent BOD t hat would have t o be sat isfied aerobically. The Bureau of
I ndian St andards has relat ed t he perm issible loading t o t he lat it ude of t he pond locat ion t o
aerobically st abilize t he organic m at t er and keep t he pond odour free. The values are
applicable t o t owns at sea levels and where sky is clear for nearly 75% of t he days in a
year. The values m ay be m odified for elevat ions above sea level by dividing by a fact or ( 1
+ 0.003 EL) where EL is t he elevat ion of t he pond sit e above MSL in hundred m et ers.

D e t e n t ion Tim e

The flow of sewage can approxim at e eit her plug flow or com plet e m ixing or dispersed flow.
I f BOD exert ion is described by first order react ion, t he pond efficiency is given by:

for plug flow: Le/ Li = e - k1t

for com plet e m ixing: Le/ Li = 1

1+ k 1 t
For dispersed flow t he efficiency of t reat m ent for different dgr ees of int erm ixing is
charact erized by dispersion num bers.Choice of a larger value for dispersion num ber or
assum pt ion of com plet e m ixing would give a conservat ive design and is recom m ended.

D e pt h

Having det erm ined t he surface area and det ent ion capacit y, it becom es necessary t o
consider t he dept h of t he pond only in regard t o it s lim it ing value. The opt im um range of
d ept h for facult at ive ponds is 1.0 - 1.5 m .

Aqu a t ic Pla n t Syst e m s

Aquat ic syst em s in wast e t reat m ent are eit her free float ing growt hs harnessed in t he form of built - up ponds for wast e t reat m ent
such as du ck w e e d a n d hya cin t h pon ds or root ed veget at ions ( reeds) which em erge out of shallow wat ers cult ivat ed in
con st r u ct e d w e t la n ds.

• N a t u r a l w e t la n ds exist s all over t he w orld. They generally have sat urat ed soil condit ions and abound in root ed
veget at ion which em erges out of shallow wat ers in t he euphot ic zone. They m ay also have phyt oplankt on. Nat ural

•
wet lands can be int egrat ed wit h wast ewat er t reat m ent syst em s.
Con st r u ct e d w e t la n ds are m an- m ade for t reat m ent of wast ewat er, m ine drainage, st orm drainage, et c. They have
root ed veget at ion.

Lon git u din a l Se ct ion Th r ou gh a Typica l Re e d Be d W it h Gr a ve l, Sa n d or Se le ct e d Soil W it h H or iz on t a l Flow of

W a st e w a t e r

• Aqu a t ic pla n t pon ds consist ing of free float ing m acrophyt es, such as wat er hyacint hs, duckweeds, et c. have been
cult ured in ponds eit her for t heir abilit y t o rem ove heavy m et als, phenols, nut rient s, et c. from wast ewat ers or t o assist
in giving furt her t reat m ent t o pret reat ed wast ewat er s t o m eet st ringent discharge st andar ds while at t he sam e t im e
producing new plant growt hs for t heir gas product ion or food value.

Con ce pt u a l flow sh e e t sh ow in g w a st e t r e a t m e n t u sin g a n a qu a t ic pla n t pon d

Se pt ic Ta n k

Sept ic t anks are horizont al cont inuous flow, sm all sedim ent at ion t anks t hrough which sewage is allowed t o flow slowly t o enable
t he sewage solids t o set t le t o t he bot t om of t he t ank, where t hey are digest ed anaerobically. The t ank is de- sludged at regular
int ervals usually once every 1- 5 years.

Ce sspool

I t is a pit excavat ed in soil wit h wat er t ight lining and loose lining by st one or brick t o provide for leaching of wast ewat er by
sides and t he pit is covered. The leaching t ype is suit able for porous soils. The capacit y should not be less t han one day's flow
int o t he pit . I f all t he wat er in a t est pit of one m et er diam et er and 2 m deep, disappears in 24 hours, such soil is best suitable
for cesspools. The bot t om of t he cesspool m ust be well above t he ground wat er level. Aft er som et im e t he sides of pit get
clogged by t he sewage solids, reducing t he leaching capacit y. At overflow level, an out let is provided t o t ake- off unleached
liquid int o a seepage pit . The set t led m at t er is rem oved at int ervals. Wat er t ight cesspools are cleaned every 6 m ont hs and t heir
capacit y m ust not be less t han 70 l/ person/ m ont h.

Se e pa ge Pit

The seepage pit is needed t o discharge t he effluent of cesspool, aquaprivy, sept ic t ank or sullage from bat hroom s and kit chens.
The difference bet ween seepage pit and cesspool is t hat t he seepage pit is com plet ely filled up wit h st ones. The fine suspended
solids adhere t o t he surface of st ones and get decom posed by t he zoogleal film , which are on t he st ones and t he effluent is
leached int o t he side walls.
 Design Examples

H om e W or k e d- ou t Ex a m ple s:
Le ct u r e
Qu iz Population Forecast by Different Methods
D e sign Sedimentation Tank Design
Ex a m ple Rapid Sand Filter Design
Flow in Pipes of a Distribution Network by Hardy Cross Method
Trickling Filter Design

Popu la t ion For e ca st by D iffe r e n t M e t h ods

Problem: Predict the population for the years 1981, 1991, 1994, and 2001 from the following census figures of
a town by different methods.

Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Population: 60 65 63 72 79 89 97 120
(thousands)

Solution:

Year Population: Increment per Incremental Percentage Increment per

(thousands) Decade Increase Decade
1901 60 - - -
1911 65 +5 - (5+60) x100=+8.33
1921 63 -2 -3 (2+65) x100=-3.07
1931 72 +9 +7 (9+63) x100=+14.28
1941 79 +7 -2 (7+72) x100=+9.72
1951 89 +10 +3 (10+79) x100=+12.66
1961 97 +8 -2 (8+89) x100=8.98
1971 120 +23 +15 (23+97) x100=+23.71
Net values 1 +60 +18 +74.61
Averages - 8.57 3.0 10.66

+=increase; - = decrease

Arithmetical Progression Method:

Pn = P + ni

Average increases per decade = i = 8.57

Population for the years,

1981= population 1971 + ni, here n=1 decade

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Design Examples

= 120 + 8.57 = 128.57

1991= population 1971 + ni, here n=2 decade

= 120 + 2 x 8.57 = 137.14

2001= population 1971 + ni, here n=3 decade

= 120 + 3 x 8.57 = 145.71

1994= population 1991 + (population 2001 – 1991) x 3/10

= 137.14 + (8.57) x 3/10 = 139.71

Incremental Increase Method:

Population for the years,

1981= population 1971 + average increase per decade + average incremental increase

= 120 + 8.57 + 3.0 = 131.57

1991= population 1981 + 11.57

= 131.57 + 11.57 = 143.14

2001= population 1991 + 11.57

= 143.14 + 11.57 = 154.71

1994= population 1991 + 11.57 x 3/10

= 143.14 + 3.47 = 146.61

Geometric Progression Method:

Average percentage increase per decade = 10.66

P n = P (1+i/100) n

Population for 1981 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n

= 120 x (1+10.66/100), i = 10.66, n = 1

= 120 x 110.66/100 = 132.8

Population for 1991 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n

= 120 x (1+10.66/100) 2 , i = 10.66, n = 2

= 120 x 1.2245 = 146.95

Population for 2001 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n

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Design Examples

= 120 x (1+10.66/100) 3 , i = 10.66, n = 3

= 120 x 1.355 = 162.60

Population for 1994 = 146.95 + (15.84 x 3/10) = 151.70

Se dim e n t a t ion Ta n k D e sign

Problem: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million litres of raw water per day. The detention
period may be assumed to be 3 hours.

Solution: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 l. Detention period is 3h.

Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24 = 300 m3

Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m.

Surface area = 300/3 = 100 m2

L/B = 3 (assumed). L = 3B.

3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m

L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m

Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4 x 106 = 24,000 l/d/m2 < 40,000 l/d/m2 (OK)
100

Ra pid Sa n d Filt e r D e sign

Problem: Design a rapid sand filter to treat 10 million litres of raw water per day allowing 0.5% of filtered
water for backwashing. Half hour per day is used for bakwashing. Assume necessary data.

Solution: Total filtered water = 10.05 x 24 x 106 = 0.42766 Ml / h

24 x 23.5

Let the rate of filtration be 5000 l / h / m2 of bed.

Area of filter = 10.05 x 106 x 1 = 85.5 m2

23.5 5000

Provide two units. Each bed area 85.5/2 = 42.77. L/B = 1.3; 1.3B2 = 42.77

B = 5.75 m ; L = 5.75 x 1.3 = 7.5 m

Assume depth of sand = 50 to 75 cm.

Underdrainage system:

Total area of holes = 0.2 to 0.5% of bed area.

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Design Examples

Assume 0.2% of bed area = 0.2 x 42.77 = 0.086 m2

100

Area of lateral = 2 (Area of holes of lateral)

Area of manifold = 2 (Area of laterals)

So, area of manifold = 4 x area of holes = 4 x 0.086 = 0.344 = 0.35 m2 .

∴ Diameter of manifold = (4 x 0.35 /π)1/2 = 66 cm

Assume c/c of lateral = 30 cm. Total numbers = 7.5/ 0.3 = 25 on either side.

Length of lateral = 5.75/2 - 0.66/2 = 2.545 m.

C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral. Take dia of holes = 13 mm

Number of holes: n π (1.3)2 = 0.086 x 104 = 860 cm2

4

∴ n = 4 x 860 = 648, say 650

π (1.3)2

Number of holes per lateral = 650/50 = 13

Area of perforations per lateral = 13 x π (1.3)2 /4 = 17.24 cm2

Spacing of holes = 2.545/13 = 19.5 cm.

C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral = 2 x 17.24 = 34.5 cm2.

∴ Diameter of lateral = (4 x 34.5/π)1/2 = 6.63 cm

Check: Length of lateral < 60 d = 60 x 6.63 = 3.98 m. l = 2.545 m (Hence acceptable).

Rising washwater velocity in bed = 50 cm/min.

Washwater discharge per bed = (0.5/60) x 5.75 x 7.5 = 0.36 m3/s.

Velocity of flow through lateral = 0.36 = 0.36 x 10 4 = 2.08 m/s (ok)

Total lateral area 50 x 34.5

Manifold velocity = 0.36 = 1.04 m/s < 2.25 m/s (ok)

0.345

Washwater gutter

Discharge of washwater per bed = 0.36 m3/s. Size of bed = 7.5 x 5.75 m.

Assume 3 troughs running lengthwise at 5.75/3 = 1.9 m c/c.

Discharge of each trough = Q/3 = 0.36/3 = 0.12 m3/s.

Q =1.71 x b x h3/2

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Design Examples

Assume b =0.3 m

h3/2 = 0.12 = 0.234

1.71 x 0.3

∴ h = 0.378 m = 37.8 cm = 40 cm

= 40 + (free board) 5 cm = 45 cm; slope 1 in 40

Clear water reservoir for backwashing

For 4 h filter capacity, Capacity of tank = 4 x 5000 x 7.5 x 5.75 x 2 = 1725 m3

1000

Assume depth d = 5 m. Surface area = 1725/5 = 345 m2

L/B = 2; 2B2 = 345; B = 13 m & L = 26 m.

Dia of inlet pipe coming from two filter = 50 cm.

Velocity < 0.6 m/s. Diameter of washwater pipe to overhead tank = 67.5 cm.

Air compressor unit = 1000 l of air/ min/ m2 bed area.

For 5 min, air required = 1000 x 5 x 7.5 x 5.77 x 2 = 4.32 m3 of air.

Flow in Pipe s of a D ist r ibu t ion N e t w or k by H a r dy Cr oss M e t h od

Problem: Calculate the head losses and the corrected flows in the various pipes of a distribution network as
shown in figure. The diameters and the lengths of the pipes used are given against each pipe. Compute
corrected flows after one corrections.

Solution: First of all, the magnitudes as well as the directions of the possible flows in each pipe are assumed
keeping in consideration the law of continuity at each junction. The two closed loops, ABCD and CDEF are
then analyzed by Hardy Cross method as per tables 1 & 2 respectively, and the corrected flows are computed.

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Design Examples

Table 1

Consider loop ABCD

Pipe Assumed flow Dia of pipe Length K= L Qa1.85 HL= K. lHL/Qal

in l/ in d in of pipe 470 d4.87 Qa1.85
d4.87 (m)
sec cumecs m
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB (+) 43 +0.043 0.30 2.85 X10-3 500 373 3 X10-3 +1.12 26

BC (+) 23 +0.023 0.20 3.95 X10-4 300 1615 9.4 X10-4 +1.52 66

CD (-) 20 -0.020 0.20 3.95 X10-4 500 2690 7.2 X10-4 -1.94 97

DA (-) 35 -0.035 0.20 3.95 X10-4 300 1615 2 X10-3 -3.23 92

Σ -2.53 281

* HL= (Qa1.85L)/(0.094 x 100 1.85 X d4.87)

or K.Qa1.85= (Qa1.85L)/(470 X d4.87)
or K =(L)/(470 X d4.87)

For loop ABCD, we have δ = - ΣHL / x.Σ lHL/ Qa l

= ( - ) - 2.53/ ( 1.85 X 281) cum ecs

= ( - ) ( - 2.53 X 1000) / ( 1.85 X 281) l/ s

= 4.86 l/ s = 5 l/ s ( say)

Hence, correct ed flows aft er first correct ion are:

Pipe AB BC CD DA
Corrected flows after
+ 48 + 28 - 15 - 30
first correction in l/s

Table 2

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Design Examples

Consider loop DCFE

Pipe Assumed flow Dia of pipe Length K= L Qa1.85 HL= K. lHL/Qal

in l/ in d in of pipe 470 d4.87 Qa1.85
d4.87 (m)
sec cumecs m
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
DC (+) +0.020 0.20 3.95 X10- 500 2690 7.2 X10-4 +1.94 97
20 4
CF +0.028 0.15 300 6580 1.34 X10-3 +8.80 314
(+) 28 9.7 X10-5
FE -0.008 0.15 500 10940 1.34 X10-4 -1.47 184
(-) 8 9.7 X10-5
ED -0.005 0.15 300 6580 5.6 X10-5 -0.37 74
(-) 5 9.7 X10-5
Σ +8.9 669

For loop ABCD, we have δ = - ΣHL / x.Σ lHL/ Qa l

= ( - ) + 8.9/ ( 1.85 X 669) cum ecs

= ( - ) ( + 8.9 X 1000) / ( 1.85 X 669) ) l/ s

= - 7.2 l/ s

Hence, correct ed flows aft er first correct ion are:

Pipe DC CF FE ED
Corrected flows after first
+ 12.8 + 20.8 - 15.2 - 12.2
correction in l/s

Tr ick lin g Filt e r D e sign

Problem: Design a low rate filter to treat 6.0 Mld of sewage of BOD of 210 mg/l. The final effluent should be
30 mg/l and organic loading rate is 320 g/m3/d.

Solution: Assume 30% of BOD load removed in primary sedimentation i.e., = 210 x 0.30 = 63 mg/l. Remaining
BOD = 210 - 63 = 147 mg/l.
Percent of BOD removal required = (147-30) x 100/147 = 80%

BOD load applied to the filter = flow x conc. of sewage (kg/d) = 6 x 106 x 147/106 = 882 kg/d

To find out filter volume, using NRC equation

E2= 100
1+0.44(F1.BOD/V1.Rf1)1/2

80 = 100 Rf1= 1, because no circulation.

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Design Examples

1+0.44(882/V1)1/2

V1= 2704 m3

Depth of filter = 1.5 m, Fiter area = 2704/1.5 = 1802.66 m2, and Diameter = 48 m < 60 m

Hydraulic loading rate = 6 x 106/103 x 1/1802.66 = 3.33m3/d/m2 < 4 hence o.k.

Organic loading rate = 882 x 1000 / 2704 = 326.18 g/d/m3 which is approx. equal to 320.

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