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Livelihood challenges faced by women in rural India: exploration of solutions

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 Development in Practice

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Livelihood challenges faced by women in rural

India: exploration of solutions using participatory
action research

Martin Kofi Kanyagui, K. J. Sajithkumar, Yogesh Velankar, Renjith Mohan, P.

K. Viswanathan & Natalia Magnani

To cite this article: Martin Kofi Kanyagui, K. J. Sajithkumar, Yogesh Velankar, Renjith Mohan,
P. K. Viswanathan & Natalia Magnani (08 Dec 2023): Livelihood challenges faced by women
in rural India: exploration of solutions using participatory action research, Development in
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DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE
https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2023.2285251

Livelihood challenges faced by women in rural India: exploration

of solutions using participatory action research
Martin Kofi Kanyaguia, K. J. Sajithkumara, Yogesh Velankara, Renjith Mohana,
P. K. Viswanathanb, and Natalia Magnanic
a
Amrita School for Sustainable Futures, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, India; bAmrita School of
Business, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, India; cDepartment of Sociology and Social Research,
University of Trento, Trento, Italy

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Women in rural India continue to face deprivation and inequality, despite Received 20 June 2023
various initiatives and reforms to empower them. In this note, the authors Accepted 1 October 2023
share their experiences of identifying the challenges faced by women in
KEYWORDS
earning a livelihood and the sustainable solutions they identified using Women; participatory action
the participatory action research approach. The study involved two self- research; rural India;
help groups of women in Nagla Chandi, a rural village in Uttar Pradesh, sustainable development;
India. It revealed three key challenges: a need for entrepreneurial skills, livelihood challenges
low earnings, and limited access to land and capital. The note
highlights potential sources of income and emphasises the importance
of building women’s capacity to enhance their chances of finding work,
starting a business, and supporting their families. Policymakers, Civil
Society Organisations, and academic institutions working to empower
women in rural communities can benefit from this note, offering an
experiential learning approach to sustainable development research
and education.

1. Introduction
In many developing countries, women in rural communities play a role in meeting the needs of their
families when they engage in income-generation activities (Nuryati, Djono, and Chotimah 2022;
Zunaidi and Maghfiroh 2021). Gogoi (2020) observed that rural Indian women contribute less to
the growth of their local communities than their urban counterparts. It was observed that programs
targeting women, such as the Assam Rural Livelihoods Mission, provided rural women with access to
income-generating activities and a platform where they could learn new skills and improve their
existing skills through appropriate training. However, despite efforts to increase women’s partici-
pation in the development process, their participation rate in the labour force was very low.
Figure 1 compares the labour-force participation rates of rural women and men within the national
context and in the State of Uttar Pradesh, where the study village is located.
As shown in Figure 1, women’s participation rates are significantly lower than men’s and have
been declining since 2017. Even though women’s participation rates are lower nationally than
men’s, the rates reported for Uttar Pradesh are lower than the national average. It is estimated
that women in India contribute to 18 per cent of the GDP, one of the lowest rates in the world,
which reflects that women make up only 25 per cent of India’s labour force. Kapsos, Silbermann,
and Bourmpoula (2014) have suggested that measurement, methodology, and occupational

CONTACT Martin Kofi Kanyagui martinkanyagui@gmail.com; jesuslovemartin@yahoo.com Amrita School for Sustainable
Futures, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, No. 36 Edamannel, Clappana P O, Amritapuri, Kollam 690525, Kerala, India
© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.

Figure 1. India rural/urban LFPR based on gender. Source: Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation (MoSPI) (2022).

segregation changes have contributed to the decline in the participation rate of women in India.
They have also highlighted the need for policies that can help to reduce segregation and
promote skills development to increase the general participation levels. According to McKinsey
and Company (2018), an increase of 10 per cent in women’s labour-force participation can
account for over 70 per cent of the country’s GDP growth.
Within this study, we refer to women’s empowerment as empowering rural women who have
been denied the ability to make livelihood choices. Disempowerment thus represents the denial
of women’s ability to make these choices (Kabeer 2005). Empowerment can be explored through
three dimensions: agency, resources, and achievements, where agency represents how rural
women make decision to achieve their livelihoods; resources refer to the medium, that is the
means by which the livelihood choices are achieved; and finally, achievements are outcomes of
the choices that women make based on the means available to them within a specific context
(Kabeer 2005).
Women’s empowerment interventions are aimed at improving women’s statuses through provid-
ing educational opportunities, raising awareness of available opportunities, skills development, and
creating an environment for rural women to participate fully in society (Purnamawati and Utama
2019). Sobha and Ijmtst (2021) suggest that age, caste, educational level, and location are all impor-
tant factors influencing women’s empowerment in India.
Generally, women’s empowerment initiatives can be classified under three broad categories:
economic, social, and political empowerment. Economic empowerment involves providing
women with access to jobs, capital, and other factors that contribute to sustainable livelihoods
(Varsha et al. 2019).
The Indian government has launched several schemes, including the STEP Scheme, Rajiv
Gandhi National Creche Scheme, Mahila E-Haat, and Mahila Shakti Kendra, to promote
women’s rights and participation in decision-making (Singh and Singh 2020; Varsha et al. 2019;
Wheare 1951). The private sector in Uttar Pradesh has introduced initiatives like ITC Limited’s
Capacity Building of Women, and Inter Globe Aviation Limited’s Project 6E Shakti, all of which
are aimed at empowering women. About 81.6 per cent of 61 non-governmental organisations
 DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE 3

are also actively involved in women’s empowerment initiatives (Karje and Kulkarni 2020; Singh
and Singh 2020).
Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a method that applies experiential knowledge to
address issues arising from unequal and harmful social systems, thereby fostering alternative sol-
utions (Cornish et al. 2023). It often focuses on knowledge production by treating communities
as knowledge producers. It involves local action to address social problems and promotes sus-
tainability by building local capacity and empowering local people (Anderson 2015; Barbon
et al. 2021). By working together to decide what is researched, how it is researched, and how
it benefits all stakeholders, PAR facilitates the rebalancing of power (Loewenson et al. 2014;
MacDonald 2012).
Although PAR has been used to facilitate community participation in the development process in
a variety of fields (Gogoi 2020; Kumar et al. 2021), little research seems to have been done on using
this approach to identify the fundamental issues affecting women in India, who are disproportio-
nately marginalised in rural communities, and to use those issues to generate alternative solutions
within the research context. This practice note seeks to contribute to this gap by drawing on the
practical experiences of conducting PAR to identify livelihood challenges faced by women in
Nagla Chandi, the study village, as a basis for designing sustainable solutions to empower them.
This practice note is useful for policymakers and civil society organisations interested in applying
PAR approaches to women’s empowerment initiatives in rural communities and for academic insti-
tutions keen on using an experiential learning approach to address sustainable development
research and education. It documents an innovative approach to PAR analysis within a rural
context where data are limited.

1.1. Conceptualising participatory action research: the three phases

Practitioners have used different phases to carry out PAR depending on the study’s context. For this
practice note, we use a three-phase approach: (1) identification, (2) investigation, and (3) action, with
each phase requiring continuous reflection, dialogue with group members, listening to “voices” of
group members, and, finally, action (Valanidou et al. 2021). Participants define problems affecting
their livelihoods during the first phase. The second phase involves participants delving into the pro-
blems identified in phase one. At the third phase, solutions are developed to address the issues
identified in phases one and two (James, Slater, and Bucknam 2014).

Figure 2. Phases of PAR.

4 M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.

Participants sought to answer specific questions at each phase, as indicated in Figure 2. Some
tools commonly applied in PAR include journey maps, focus group discussions, role play, storytelling,
and participant interviews (Varma et al. 2021). The application of these tools has been discussed in
the section that follows.

1.2. Ethical considerations

Free and informed consent of the participants was obtained, and the study protocol was approved
by the appropriate Ethical Review Committee for the Protection of Human Participants (Nagla
Chandi Village), and by the Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences Healthcare, Education, & Research
Institutional Ethics Committee, Kochi, Kerala (Protocol No. IEC-AIMS.2O22. ASSD.255 on 5 October
2022).

2. The case study: applying PAR within the study’s context

Nagla Chandi is located in Ral Block within the Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh, India, and has a total
population of 490 based on headcount. Participants were chosen from the village’s two women’s
self-help groups (WSHGs): Krishna Priya Amrita and Gopal, founded on 29 February 2020 and
12 December 2019, respectively, to financially empower members through income-generating
activities.
The average household size of the participants was 6.64 people. Almost half of the participants
lacked an education. However, of those educated, one member had a university degree, while the
rest had completed primary school. Fortunately, everyone who had received any education could
read and write Hindi.
Agriculture is the village’s primary economic activity. Every household in this area has at least one
buffalo or cow, which is cared for by women as part of their traditional duties. According to the
findings of this study, the primary economic work of women in the village is the care of buffalo
and cows, which constitutes their primary source of household-income contributions. Most farm-
lands in the village are owned by men who grow cereals and vegetables. A farm in the village is
depicted in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Harvesting of wheat in Nagla Chandi.

 DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE 5

Horticulture is another major farming activity engaged in as a source of livelihood. Most of the
women work as farmhands and are paid an average daily wage of INR 300. Furthermore, because
the social norms require them to primarily perform household chores, they are only able to
engage in other income-earning activities in the village. During non-farming seasons, men
engage in other income-earning activities such as construction and commerce.
The village members belong to the Rajput caste, an upper-caste Hindu group. Rajput is a men-
dominated caste, consisting of patrilineal clans historically linked to warriorhood. Gender roles are
traditionally defined. In traditional gender roles, men are typically responsible for providing for
the household, while women are responsible for managing the home. This dynamic is also
present in the village of Rani Mājri, located in the North Indian state of Haryana, which is mainly
populated by two castes: Lohar and Rajput. The Rajput who are traditional land owners, engage
in farming, while the Lohar are mainly blacksmiths, even though a few engage in agriculture. Partici-
pation in the waged labour force is highly gender specific, with girls and boys receiving an education
until they are 16 years old. Women’s educational merits are used as leverage in marriage nego-
tiations but women are expected to maintain traditional roles as caretakers and householders.
They cook, clean, milk, herd, forage, harvest, and refine produce. Women with small incomes have
little say in decisions involving the household economy, village development strategies, or political
or economic issues. This attitude is attributed to gendered norms, making it difficult for women to
engage in waged labour after marriage (Kvanneid 2021).

2.1. Phase 1 – identification

2.1.1. Journey map
The journey map is a participatory tool used to understand participants’ dominant activities and pain
points, identify stress areas, and provide guidance for optimal benefit or relief (Connell, MartinRo-
gers, and Petersen 2020). Participants identified by numbers 1–9 were asked to narrate their daily
activities from 4 am to 10 pm as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that women spend most of their time doing buffalo and cow-related activities.
Getting the most out of buffaloes and cows will improve household livelihoods. In India, many
rural women and girls perform most of the unpaid domestic work, such as fetching water and fuel-
wood, cooking food, and caring for the family (Bishop-Sambrook 2016; Gogoi 2020; Zunaidi and
Maghfiroh 2021). Because the time spent on buffalo-related work was significant, the next discussion
focused on the care of and benefits associated with the cattle and buffaloes.

2.1.2. Burden and benefits of caring for buffaloes and cows

A brainstorming session (Figure 4) was held to determine the specific burden of caring for cattle and
buffaloes, and the benefits received from the work with the animals. The two WSHG separately dis-
cussed and wrote down their thoughts on sticky notes, as shown in Figure 5.
Having brainstormed and put down their thoughts regarding the subject under discussion, we
synthesised their ideas by creating a composite chart that captured all the ideas provided (see
Figure 6).
Figure 6 illustrates women’s activities in caring for buffaloes and cows, highlighting the significant
benefits and burdens of the animals for families. It further shows that caring for buffaloes and cows
requires a lot of work, which is often not considered employment for women within the household
context.
Figure 7 shows one participant milking a buffalo at home as part of her daily work. The benefits
from buffaloes and cows in milk sales, as well as calves, represent the primary source of household
income generated by women. Table 2 indicates the income generated by women through the
various activities discussed in this section.
The study’s first phase reveals that, while women contribute to household income by caring for
buffalo and cattle, the monetary value of milk sold is relatively low because it is not processed before
 6
M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.
Table 1. Daily activity journey map.
Morning Afternoon Evening
4–6 AM 6–8 8–10 10–12 12–2 PM 2–4 4–6 6–8 8–10
Cleaning buffalo/ Taking a bath Bringing feed from the Bringing feed from the Cleaning buffalo/cow Giving feed to buffalo/ Giving water Feeding children Sleeping (1, 2, 3,
cow dung (2, 3, (1,2,7,8) field for buffalo/cows field for buffalo/cows (2, dung, cows (7, 8) to cows/ (1) 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
4, 6, 7, 8, 9) (2, 6) 4, 6, 7, 8) buffalo (6)
Milking buffalo/ Household chores Giving feed to buffalo/ Cleaning buffalo/cow Giving feed to buffalo/ Milking buffalo/cows Milking Eating (2, 3) Cooking (5)
cows (2, 3) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9) cows (1) dung, 3 cows (1, 2, 3, 4, 8) (2, 5) buffalo/
cows (3, 6,
7)
Giving feed to Getting children Eating (8) Giving feed to buffalo/ Bringing feed from Bringing feed from the Teaching kids Watching TV (4)
buffalo (4, 6, 7, ready for school cows (3) the field for buffalo/ field for buffalo/ (5)
8, 9) (4, 9) cows (7) cows (3)
Taking a bath (4, Daily worship (8) Household chores Eating (4, 5) Milking buffalo/cows Cleaning buffalo/cow Cooking (1, 2, Household chores
6) (3, 4,5, 8) dung (4, 8) 4, 8, 9) (2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9)
House cleaning Eating (2) Getting children ready Fetching firewood Resting (4, 6) Making cow dung into Resting (5)
(4, 3, 7, 9) for school (7) from the field (4) cakes (6)
Sleeping (1, 5) Resting (9) Household survey – Live- SHG meeting (9) Preparing cow/buffalo
in-Lab® (9) feed (6)
Waking up (3) Resting (1) Tailoring/Stitching (5) House cleaning (2, 4, 8)
Eating (6) Visiting kitchen
gardens (9)
Resting (1)
Source: Field research 2023.
 DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE 7

Figure 4. Focus group discussion with WSHG. Source: Field research 2023.

Figure 5. Related work on buffaloes and benefits. Source: Field research 2023.

being sold, which would maximise profit. Furthermore, income is seasonal, as milk from buffaloes
and cows is available only after the heifer is lactating, and income from field work is available
only during the farming season when planting or harvesting takes place, as shown in Table 3.
Thus, men have become the family’s primary breadwinners, as they contribute the most to house-
hold income from farming and other activities such as construction work and retailing.

2.2 Phase 2 – investigation

2.2.1. Business innovation
A brainstorming session was arranged for the participants to generate alternative business ideas to
provide income for the women, especially during off-seasons. This was to assist in increasing their
household income. The women also listed challenges and concerns as shown in Figure 8.
8 M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.

Figure 6. Benefits and care of buffalo/cows. Source: Field research 2023.

Figure 7. Participant milking buffalo at home. Source: Field research 2023.

Figure 8 shows the ideas generated from the discussion, related mainly to fashion and design.
Participants had several questions and needed clarification about achieving the business ideas.
Their concerns related primarily to access to capital, transport, and marketing of products; the
skills required to carry out some of the concepts needed to be improved. Rural entrepreneurs in
India face challenges such as the lack of basic amenities, education, technological awareness,
 DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE 9

Table 2. Source of income for SHG members.

Source Average income (INR)
Sale of milk 2,500/week
Sale of calf 3,000
Work on the field 400/day
Source: Field research 2023.

Table 3. Women seasonal livelihood opportunities.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Milking Sale of milk (activity ceases for max of two months when the buffalo/cow has a calf)
Planting Cereals Vegetables
Harvesting Vegetables Cereals

Figure 8. Business ideas and concerns.

work–life balance, motivating factors, social norms, and insufficient technical and conceptual ability
(Audichya 2014; Rathee and Bhuntel 2017).

2.2.2. Sharing personal experiences

One participant shared her experience with a failed business venture due to an absence of market for
her product. She stated that she had to close the business due to a lack of marketing skills and an
inability to access the market due to logistical issues. She mentioned a need for support services to
assist businesses like hers to grow.
One of the researchers also shared a story about a WSHG in a rural community in India that pro-
cessed buffalo and cow dung into vermicompost as an income-generation initiative to empower
members. It was mentioned that for the group to be able to venture into this business, training
would be required, and the group wouldl have to contact potential buyers, both within the Ral
Block and outside, to sell the products.
One of the participants described how the Panchayat invited women aged between 18 and 45
involved in WSHGs within the Ral Block to attend a training session to learn how to make handicrafts.
The course lasted ten days, and ran from 10 am to 5 pm. They were shown how to make incense
sticks and lanterns to hold fire during festivals (see Figure 9).
10 M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.

Figure 9. Deepal lanterns and moulds.

The participant stated that she invested INR 1,000 after the training but made no profit. The
factory that had promised to buy the product did not show up. She shut down the business
because it was not profitable. However, it has provided her with new skills to apply if she finds a
market for her products. One of the most important takeaways from her story was the importance
of developing marketing channels for products produced by rural communities to improve their live-
lihoods. The lack of essential services and resources to support start-ups has prevented WSHGs from
exploring and pursuing business ventures (Suresh Babu and Sridevi 2019).

2.2.3. Development priorities

The WSHGs jointly discussed community development priorities by prioritising sectors that best rep-
resented their needs. Polling and rank order were used, listing six key sectors, and requiring them to
select five sectors with the highest priority, as shown in Figures 10 and 11.
Livelihood was identified as the most critical sector. Due to poverty, it was noted that women
could not contribute to household income to meet livelihood needs. The participants believed

Figure 10. Selection of priority sector.

 DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE 11

Figure 11. Prioritising of sectors in the community.

that creating additional livelihood opportunities, caring for buffaloes and cows, and undertaking
farm work would further empower them to support their families adequately. Biswas and Banu
(2023) observed that due to limited livelihood opportunities, women in India are often dependent
on their fathers, brothers, or husbands for financial support.

2.3. Phase 3 – actions

Activities carried out during phases one and two led to the development of specific actions aimed at
empowering the members of the WSHGs. These are discussed below.

2.3.1. Income-generation initiatives

In the village, the production of value-added dairy products such as yoghurt, cheese, and butter from
milk can become a primary source of income for women, which is significant because milk sales form
the primary income source for women. Unprocessed milk is sold to a milkman, for 30 rupees per litre,
who then sells it to other retailers at a higher price. To maximise their profit, the women in the village
can pool their harvested milk and sell it directly to the market’s leading buyers. Providing extension
services to ensure healthy animals and educating women on best feeding methods will also aid in
increasing milk production and thus increasing income from milk sales. Another potential source of
income mentioned during the discussion is the production of vermicompost from dung, which can
be sold for profit. The importance of vermicompost training and marketing was highlighted.

2.3.2. Capacity building

The need for more skills was identified as one of the constraints preventing those in the WSHG from
engaging in business activities. There is a need to develop participatory training programs as an
essential vehicle for skills development. At the village level, follow-up mechanisms and the creation
of an appropriate environment for start-ups to thrive are required. Professional and entrepreneurial
skills are necessary to improve livelihood outcomes and can raise awareness and influence the use of
social services (Kanagaraj and Priya 2020; Kanyagui and Viswanathan 2022). Bhavani, Sheshadri, and
12 M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.

Figure 12. Synthesis of challenges faced by women in Nagla Chandi and suggested solutions. Source: Field Research 2021.

Radhakrishnan (2010) advocate using multimedia and haptic technology to expand vocational edu-
cation because these technologies can effectively communicate complex concepts and skill sets to
illiterate and semi-literate people in rural communities.

2.3.3. Capital for startup

The provision of capital and other resources to help the WSHGs implement their business ideas, as
mentioned during the focus group discussion (FGD), is paramount. The discussions with the WSHG
revealed that financial illiteracy, a lack of awareness of existing government initiatives to support
local businesses, and financial records make it difficult for them to access capital and other forms
of assistance. To overcome challenges and build a stronger, free-market economy, rural communities
in India need tailored finance opportunities for women entrepreneurs.

2.3.4. Valuing unpaid domestic work

Given the effort put in by the women at home, which is frequently overlooked, valuing domestic and
unpaid care work is critical. Gender mainstreaming initiatives that highlight women’s contributions
at the household level and create an environment of respect and dignity for women based on their
contributions at home are essential. Figure 12 depicts a synthesis of challenges faced by women and
proposed solutions.

3. Concluding remarks
This practice note highlights several underlying issues affecting women in the community and the
possible solutions based on the outcome of the various engagements with the participants.
The PAR process helped develop WSHG members’ skills by helping them identify their problems
and find sustainable solutions. This study has introduced WSHG members to important concepts and
 DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE 13

how they can be applied to address challenges in improving livelihoods in the short term. Develop-
ment practitioners and researchers may use a similar approach to investigate other pressing con-
cerns in the domains of livelihoods, women’s empowerment, and other related areas.

Acknowledgements
This paper forms part of the E4LIFE International Doctoral Research Program being undertaken by the first author and
supported by the School of Sustainable Futures, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India. We extend our gratitude to the
Amrita Live-in-Labs® academic program for providing support. The usual disclaimers apply.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
Martin Kofi Kanyagui is a PhD candidate at Amrita University School of Sustainable Futures in India. He has a master’s
degree in Project Management from the University of Greenwich, United Kingdom and a BSc in Development Planning
from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. He has over 22 years of experience in Project/
Program/Business Management, as well as extensive knowledge of Organizational Management, International Devel-
opment and Mobilization, Planning, Research, Financial Management, and Procurement. He has coordinated and
managed project teams as an in-house manager in a variety of private and public sector jobs in the UK and Ghana.
His primary research focus relates to Water and Sanitation, Waste Management, Energy Transitions, Natural Resource
Management, Urban and Rural Development, and Sustainability. For correspondence, his email address is
martinkanyagui@gmail.com.
Dr. K. J. Sajithkumar holds the position of Senior Research Scientist at Amrita School for Sustainable Futures, Amrita
Vishwa Vidyapeetham. He earned his Ph.D. in Environmental Science from Mahatma Gandhi University, India, with
his educational background encompassing graduation, post-graduation, and a Master of Philosophy in the Environ-
mental Science discipline. His primary research focuses on wastewater treatment and energy generation utilizing
anaerobic digesters and microbial fuel cells. He is interested in sustainable waste management, bioenergy, environ-
mental pollution studies, biopolymers, and studies related to microplastic pollution. For correspondence, his email
address is sajithkumarkj@am.amrita.edu.
Dr. Yogesh Velankar holds a Ph.D. in Engineering Education, M.S. in Electrical Engineering, and M.Ed. in Mathematics
Education. He has worked in academia and industry across disciplinary boundaries focussing on capacity building, Insti-
tutional reforms and transformation, leadership development and related areas. His interest areas include Quality Edu-
cation and it’s interrelationship with other Sustainable Development Goals. For correspondence, his email address is
yogeshvelankar@am.amrita.edu.
Renjith Mohan is the program coordinator of Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham’s Live-in-Labs® program. He was instrumen-
tal in executing more than 150 projects across 21 Indian states. He has mentored over 1,000 Amrita University students
and 500 international exchange students. He has collaborated with faculty and researchers from more than 30 inter-
national universities. For correspondence, his email address is renjithmohan@am.amrita.edu.
P. K. Viswanathan serves as Professor (Economics & Sustainability) at the Amrita School of Business, Amritapuri, India.
He has specialized interests in the Economics of Natural Resources Management and Sustainability. He secured a PhD in
Economics from the Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Mysore University). His research and teaching
interests relate to Economics of Natural Resources Management; Agrarian Transformation and Rural livelihoods; Aspects
of Technology, Institutions, Policies and Governance; Climate Change impacts on natural resources, environment and
agriculture; Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystems; Sustainable energy policy; Globalization and its impacts on
Agriculture and Trade; Welfare Impacts of Trade Certifications in India’s Plantation Sector, etc. He has extensively pub-
lished his research in national and international peer-reviewed Journals. For correspondence, his email address is
viswanathanpk@am.amrita.edu.
Dr Natalia Magnani is Associate Professor in Environmental Sociology in the Department of Sociology and Social
Research of the University of Trento. Her research interests include the socio-ecological transition in the energy and
food systems, sustainable development, urban and rural development, and environmental conflicts. On these issues
she has published articles in various international journals such as the Journal of Rural Studies, Sustainable Production
and Consumption and Energy Research & Social Science, as well as two monographs and chapters in national and inter-
national volumes. For correspondence, her email address is natalia.magnani@unitn.it.
14 M. K. KANYAGUI ET AL.

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