11th Formula Sheet

COPYRIGHT@BIOMENTORS CLASSES ONLINE, MUMBAI
SCALARS AND VECTORS

Physical quantity: the quantity which can be measured. Magnitude of a vector:
𝐴⃗ = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑐𝑗̂ + 𝑐𝑘̂
 Scalars - do not require direction to represent
 Vectors - requires direction for their representation 𝐴⃗ = |𝐴⃗| = √𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
 It has magnitude Then, unit vector of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴,
 It has direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
 It has unit 𝐴̂ =
⃗⃗⃗⃗|
|𝐴
 It obeys vector laws
Triangle law of vector addition of two vectors: Polygon law: ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
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l.c
Parallelogram law of vector addition of two vectors: Resolution of a vector:
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gm
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𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 2𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃 + 𝑄 2 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑛𝑑, 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃

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Dot product (scalar product): Cross product: Resolution of a vector:

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⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐵
𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗) 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0 𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2
(𝐴
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗| 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ; 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ ;
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|𝐴
𝑅𝑦
𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1 ∴ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( )
𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂
at
𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ . 𝑖̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑅𝑥

𝑗̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑗̂ = 0 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂ ; 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂ ;
ag
𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂
Rule to find the direction of cross product: Note: if two sides of parallelogram are 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗
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 Put your right hand in stretched manner on then area of parallelogram = |𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗|
first vector.
 Curl your fingers towards second vector If two sides of triangle are ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗, then area of
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
 Stretched thumb will give you the direction 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
triangle = |𝐴 𝐵|
of the cross product. 2
Directions cosines of a line – If any line make angles 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 with x, y and z axes respectively
then, cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝛾 are called the direction cosines of a line.
𝑙 = cos 𝛼 , 𝑚 = cos 𝛽 , 𝑛 = cos 𝛾
Relation - cos 2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1, 𝑜𝑟 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT
Units and measurement - The process of comparison with some reference standard
Physical Quantity: The quantity which can a) The physical quantities which do not depend on other
be measured is called as physical quantity. physical quantity for their measurement are called as
Fundamental physical quantity.
 Fundamental physical quantities
b) The unit used for measurement of fundamental
 Derived physical quantities
physical quantities are called as fundamental units.
 Supplementary physical quantities
Fundamental Unit Symbol Supplementary Units -

physical quantities
Length metre m Plane angle
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Mass kilogram kg 1° = 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 60′
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K 1 min = 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑂𝑅 1′ = 60"
Current ampere A
l.c
1° = 1 ⋅ 745 × 10−2 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd 1′ = 2.9 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑
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Parallax – The apparent change in the position of 1" = 4 ⋅ 9 × 10−6 𝑟𝑎𝑑
object due to change in position of an observer is
called as parallax gm
Light year – The distance travelled by light in Astronomical unit (AU) – mean, distance between
a year, 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 𝑚 Earth and the Sun, 1 𝐴𝑈 = 1.496 × 1011 𝑚
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Derived physical Quantities - The physical Dimensions – The dimensions of a physical quantity
quantities which depend on fundamental are the power of fundamental units must be raised in
physical quantity for their measurement. order to get a derived physical quantity.
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Dimensional Formula – For any physical quantity, Uses of Dimensional formula-

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dimensional formula is the way to express the

physical quantity in terms of appropriate power of 1. To check the correctness of the physical
symbols of fundamental units. equation
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2. To derive an expression for a physical

Length – L, Mass – M, Times -T quantity
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3. To find the conversion factors

Representation = [𝑀𝑎 𝐿𝑏𝑇 𝑐 ]
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Accuracy - Degree of closeness of a Precision - It tells how a device can record the value
measurement to the accepted value. more constantly near to the accepted value.
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Significant figures – measured value that expresses precision of a measurement.
Rules for significant figure
1. All non-zero digits are significant

2. Zero appearing in between non zero digits are significant
3. All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digits are always insignificant
4. Trailing zeros are insignificant when there is no decimal. But trailing zero are significant when
there is decimal present.
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENT
Rounding off: Calculations in significant figures –
Rule no -1 - If digit to be dropped is less than 5, Rules for addition/subtraction –

then previous digit remain same.
Result is written in accordance with which has
Rule – 2 - If digit to be dropped is more than 5, then least no of decimal places.
increase the pervious digit by one
For multiplication /Division –
Rule – 3 - If digit to be dropped is 5
Result is written in accordance with number,
 If preceding digit is even number then keep as it is. which has least no of significant digits.
 If preceding zero is odd number then increase by 1.

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Errors: Difference of the true value and measured Fractional error-
value
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
=
Absolute errors- the difference between true value 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒/𝑇𝑉
l.c
and measured value is called as absolute errors.
Percentage error- Reading of measurement - P
Absolute error=𝑇𝑉 − 𝑀𝑉
Percentage error = 𝑃 × 100%
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Mean absolute error
Reading =True value ± tolerance unit
|Δ𝑎1 | + |Δ𝑎2 | + |Δ𝑎10 |
Δ𝑎𝑚 =
𝑁
gm
Note - Error are always additive in nature.

Vernier Calliper- Positive Zero Error - When zero of Vernier scale is to the right of
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main scale then this is positive zero error.

LC = 1 MSD - 1VSD
Positive zero error = LC × no of VSD coinciding initially.
Reading = MSD + (LC × VSR)
True reading = Measured value – extra Reading = 𝑀𝑉 −
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no of VSD coinsiding
= MSR + LC × [+𝑣𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟]
with MS
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Negative Zero error - When the zero of Vernier scale is to the left of the zero of main scale then the error
is called as negative zero error.
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−ve zero error = −[ Total no of VSD − VSD coinsiding ] × LC

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True Reading = Measured value – (-ve zero error)
True Reading = Measured value + |-ve zero error|

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Screw gauge – Error in screw gauge:

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Pitch – 1. Zero of circular scale coincide with reference line,

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
Least Count = 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 then there is no error.
2. Zero of circular scale is below the reference line,
Standard value→ there is a positive error.
0.01 mm=0.001 cm 3. Zero of circular scale is above the reference line,
then there is a negative error.
Reading in screw Gauge:
MSR + (LC×No of circular division coinciding.)
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
Distance- The actual length of the path /trajectory covered by an object.
Displacement- The shortest distance between two points {initial and final position} on trajectory.
Distance ≥ Displacement
Average velocity– Average speed: Average speed is always greater than or
equal to the average velocity
displacement distance
Avg. vel = Average speed =
time taken time Avg speed ≥ |Avg velocity|
v1 t1 + v2 t2 … … . Acceleration- Rate of change of Velocity

Time Avg speed =
t1 + t2 + ⋯ …
charge in Velocity v2 − v1 Δv
d1 + d2 … … Avg acceleration = = =
Dist avg speed = time taken t2 − t1 Δt
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d1 d2
+ ……….
v1 v2
Motion in a straight line u → Initial Velocity; v→ Final velocity; t → time taken; a → accln &
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under constant acceleration – s → displacement
v = u + at These three equations are called kinematical equations
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1 2 Displacement in 𝐧𝐭𝐡 sec:
s = ut + at
2
v 2 = u2 + 2as
gm 1
Sn = u + a(2n − 1)
2
Differentiation of x wrt t → velocity Instantaneous speed & Instantaneous

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Velocity
Differentiation of v wrt 𝐭 → acceleration
𝑑𝑟⃗
Integration of acceleration wrt t → change in velocity 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
𝑑𝑡
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Integration of velocity wrt t → displacement (change 𝑟⃗ = position vector at any instant t

in position)
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Motion under gravity: Maximum height attained by particle:

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 u2
Gravitational acceleration = g = 9.8m/s2

Hmax =
The point from where the motion starts, 2g
at
is assumed to be origin. Time required to reach maximum height:

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u
Time to reach maximum height: t=
g
u 1 u
t = [1 ± ] = [2 ± √2] Time of flight:
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g √2 2g
2u
T=
g
Free fall: Released /dropped – initial
velocity is zero Time to reach ground: Final velocity when body
A body released near the surface of the reaches the ground:
earth is accelerated downward under the 2H
T=√ vf = √2gH
influence of force of gravity is called as free g
fall.
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MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
Position – Time graph:
 Graph is straight x  inclined straight line

x
line  slope, m = tanθ
 Line is parallel to  particle starts its motion
time axis from origin
 At t=0, x is not dx
 v = dt = slope of O T
zero O T
x − t graph
 x is not  Slope is constant
increasing with time, position is not changing
 Velocity of particle is constant
 particle is at rest  Acceleration is zero
 As time increases, particle moves away from
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origin
 At t=0, x=0 Velocity – Time graph:
 Velocity is not constant x
displacement = area under the v − t curve
 Acceleration is present displacement = A1 + A2 + A3
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distance = |A1 | + |A2 | + |A3 |
 Slope is increasing with O T
time, slope is not constant
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 Particle starts its motion at t=0 from origin and
now moving away from origin with constant
acceleration. gm
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Reading of velocity-time graph:
 Line parallel to time  t=0, v=0

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axis  particle starts its


Velocity
Velocity
Velocity is constant motion from rest

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 Acceleration is zero  velocity increasing

with time
O
 slope is constant , O Time
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Time uniform acceleration

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Acceleration – Time graph:
Acceleration: Slope of velocity time graph

a  t = 0, a is not zero
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a  t = 0, a = 0  acceleration is
 acceleration zero constant
 velocity is constant  acceleration is positive
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O T
O T
River boat problems in 1-D motion: 1

speed of boat in still water, x = [Vu + Vd ]
2
Upstream velocity = Vu , Downstream velocity = Vd
1
x = speed of boat in still water, speed of river or stream, y = [Vd − Vu ]
2
y = speed of river or stream
Vu V
=f x−−Viy.=. …
area
. . (1)
under the a − t graph, gives change in velocity
r sx .+oy.n. l. .i. n… e. (2)

5 | B i o m e n tVdo =
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MOTION IN A PLANE
Projectile motion – Equation of trajectory: It describes the path of particle
 Initial velocity ux = u cos θ , uy = u sin θ 1 gx 2

y = x tan θ −
 Acceleration a x = 0, a y = −g 2 u2 cos 2 θ

Displacement of particle: Instantaneous velocity:
1 ⃗V⃗ = Vxî + Vy ĵ, |V
⃗⃗| = √u2 + g 2 t2 − 2u sin θ gt
r⃗ = (u cos θ)tî + ((u sin θ)t − gt2 ) ĵ
2
Time of flight: The time taken Ascent time: (𝒕𝒂 ) the time Maximum Height:
to complete the motion required to reach max height
u2y u2 sin2 θ
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2 u sin θ 𝑇 Hmax = =
T= 𝑡𝑎 = = (𝑡𝑑 ) 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2g 2g
g 2
Range: The maximum horizontal distance covered Maximum Range: For range to be max, θ = 45°
l.c
u2 sin 2θ u cos θ. 2. u sin θ 2. Ux . Uy u2 . sin (2 × 45°) u2
R= = = Rmax = =
g g g g g
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NOTE: Range will be same for complementary angles, θ and 90 − θ
Relation between range and height:

gm
NOTE: For complementary angles of projection  and 90o – 
4H Ratio of maximum height
tan θ = H1
= tan2 θ
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R
H2
Change in velocity: Change in velocity in Equation of trajectory:

complete projectile:
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∆V = Vf − Vi 1 gx 2 x
→ → y = x tan θ − = xtanθ [1 − ]
v i = u i = u cos θ î + u sin θ ĵ ⃗⃗ = vf − ui = −2u sin θ î
Δv 2 u2 cos 2 θ R
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⃗⃗ = −gt ĵ
ΔV
HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION

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Horizontal Vertical Equation of trajectory: Displacement of particle –

at
ux = u uy = 0 gx 2 2
y= 1
2u2 |r⃗| = √(ut)2 + ( gt2 ĵ)
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Vx =? Vy =? 2
Instantaneous velocity:
Sx = x Sy = −y gt
α = tan−1 ( )
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⃗V⃗ = uî − gt ĵ 2u
ax = 0 a y = −g
Range – Vy
tx = t ty = t ∅ = tan−1 [ ]
Vx
2H
R = u. √
Time of flight – g
2H gt
T=√ Speed – ∅ = tan−1 [ ]
g u
⃗⃗| = √u2 + (gt)2
|V
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MOTION IN A PLANE
RELATIVE VELOCITY
Velocity A w. r. t B = Velocity of A wrt ground – velocity of B wrt ground
⃗⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝐴 − 𝑉
⃗⃗𝐵
River – Boat problems: Time taken to cross the river:
⃗⃗𝑏 = Velocity of boat w. r. t ground

𝑉 𝑑 𝑊
𝑡= =
⃗⃗𝑏𝑟 = Velocity of boat w. r. t river
𝑉 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑏𝑟 cos 𝜃
⃗⃗𝑟 = Velocity of river w. r. t ground stream velocity
𝑉 Drift: The horizontal distance swept by boat in
A boat wants to row his boat with speed → 𝑽𝒃𝒓 river while crossing it
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Speed of boat in still water. → 𝑽𝒃𝒓
Speed of boat observed from shore → 𝑽𝒃 𝑊
𝑥 = (𝑉𝑟 − 𝑉𝑏𝑟 sin 𝜃) ×
𝑉⃗⃗𝑏𝑟 = 𝑉
⃗⃗𝑏 − 𝑉
⃗⃗𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑, ⃗⃗𝑏 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝑏𝑟 + 𝑉
⃗⃗𝑟 𝑉𝑏𝑟 cos 𝜃
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 Condition when boat man reaches to exactly opposite end
OR Condition for shortest distance
𝑉𝑟
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𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑏𝑟
 Condition when boatmen crosses river in shortest time interval:
Boatman should row ⊥𝑒𝑟 to the river gm
𝑊
𝑡𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 =
𝑉𝑏𝑟
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Relative projectile: Condition of collision,
u1 sin α = u2 sin β
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The time when particle meet:

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d d
t= =
vrel u1 cos α + u2 cos β
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at
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LAWS OF MOTION
Force: Force is an agent which can cause the change in position, shape or size of the body.
Contact forces: when the force is in contact with the body on which it is been applied
Non – contact forces: when the force is not in contact with the body on which it is been applied.
Newton’s First Law of Motion Inertia of Rest: The tendency of body to remain in
rest.
Everybody remains in rest of state of Inertia of motion: the tendency of body to remain in
uniform motion. Unless and until on uniform motion
external unbalanced force is applied on it. Inertia of direction: Inability to change the direction
of motion by its own.
Inertia: Inability to change
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Newton’s Second Law of Motion – Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Force on body is directly proportional to Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
rate of change of momentum of body.
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Weight
𝑑𝑃 Weight is the force exerted by earth on the body of mass
𝐹∝
𝑑𝑡 ‘m’
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W = mg
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
gm
Frame of Reference: The position or co – ordinate system from where, an observer is observing.
Inertial frame of reference Non - Inertial frame of reference

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The frame of reference which is either at The accelerated frame of reference

rest or moving with constant velocity.
Newton’s law’s of motion are valid in inertial Newton law motion are not valid in non - inertial
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frame of reference frame of reference
Normal Reaction force Types of equilibrium –

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 It is a contact force  Equilibrium: When net force on a body is zero, then

 NRF always acts in ⊥𝑒𝑟 direction of the we say that body is in equilibrium
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surface in contact  Static Equilibrium: When body is at rest

 If contact loses, then NRF becomes 
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Dynamic Equilibrium: When body is in uniform state

zero. of motion
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Tension Force - It is a contact force produced in string Con-current forces: When all the forces
when a mass is hanged to it or a force as applied on it on a body passes through a point, then
 It is always pulling in nature they are called as concurrent forces.
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Lami’s Theorem:
When three concurrent forces act on a body & body is in equilibrium then
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾
𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 360°
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LAWS OF MOTION
Motion of bodies in contact: NOTE:
𝐹 When two blocks are
𝑎=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 sliding on smooth
inclined plane, NRF
𝑚2 𝑚2 𝐹
𝑅12 = . 𝐹 = 𝑅21 = between them is zero
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Motoin of body connected with string Uniform massive rope:

F
Acceleration = a =
m1 + m2
om
m1 . F
Tension = T = 𝑥
m1 + m2 𝑀 𝑇 = 𝐹 (1 − )
𝑇 = (𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝐿
𝐿
l.c
Simple pulley block system: Movable pulley:
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If, 𝑚1 > 𝑚2 , 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝑝 =
2
𝑚1 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑜 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛, 𝑚2 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑜 𝑢𝑝
a=[
m1 − m2
]g
gm
Upward direction +Ve
m1 + m2 Downward direction –Ve

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2𝑚1 𝑚1
𝑇=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Lift – Lift –
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We feel heavy in lift – accelerated upward We feel light in lift – accelerated downward
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 Lift moving up with increasing speed  Lift moving up with decreasing speed
 Lift moving down with decreasing speed  Lift moving down with increasing speed
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𝑊 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎) 𝑊 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)
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Pseudo force - Fpseudo = mass of object × acceleartion of frame of reference

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Spring force – Series combination of spring – Spring cutting –
𝐹𝑠𝑝 = −𝑘𝑥 1 1 1 1 1
= + + 𝑘∝
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𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝐿
K = force constant, spring
constant, force factor, spring Parallel combination of spring – 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
factor
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
Impulse – product of force and time. Impulse –

𝑡2
Impulse is also defined as change in momentum,
𝐼⃗ = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑡1
⃗𝐼⃗ = 𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑓 − 𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑓 − 𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖
9|Biomentors.online
9
LAWS OF MOTION
FRICTION - Friction is a force, which acts between two surfaces in contact.
Types of friction – Static friction – when there is no relative motion
1. Static friction – when body is at rest or about to  It is effective only when two bodies in contact
move, but not moved. are at rest relatively.
2. Kinetic friction – When body is moving or sliding  It is self-adjusting in nature
 Numerically static friction is equal to the force
3. Rolling friction – When body is rolling
which creates tendency to move the body.
Laws of limiting friction – Magnitude of NOTE – Maximum value  𝜇𝑠 = coefficient of static

limiting friction is directly proportional to of static friction is called friction
om
normal reaction force between two bodies. as limiting friction,  𝜇𝑘 = coefficient of kinetic
friction
𝑓𝐿 ∝ 𝑅 𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑅
 𝜇𝑅 = coefficient of rolling
𝑓𝐿 = 𝜇𝑅 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑅
friction
l.c
Here, 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction 𝑓𝐿 = 𝜇𝑅
 Practically 𝜇𝑠 > 𝜇𝑘 > 𝜇𝑅
Angle of friction – The angle made by resultant of Angle of repose – The maximum angle at
ai
frictional force and normal reaction force, with the which an object can rest on an inclined plane
normal reaction is called as angle of friction (𝜆) without sliding down
𝜆 = tan−1 (𝜇)
gm 𝛼 = tan−1 (𝜇)
Comparison of 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝒇𝒆𝒙𝒕 –

4@
(i) If 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑡 > 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then block will move with acceleration a
(ii) If 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑡 < 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then block will be at rest.

i1
(iii) If 𝑓𝑒𝑥𝑡 < 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then block will be at critical point, and will start moving if external force is increased
an
Friction involved in two block system –
If both move together

ir
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
at
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = µ𝑚1 𝑔
ag
𝑓1 µ𝑚1 𝑔
𝑎1 = =
𝑚1 𝑚1
𝑎 ′ = µ𝑔
pr
1. 𝑰𝒇 𝒂 ≤ 𝒂′ 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 ≤ µ𝒈
Both will together with acceleration ‘a’
2. 𝑰𝒇 𝒂 > 𝒂′ 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 > µ𝒈
They will move with diff acceleration
10 | B i o m e n t o r s . o n l i n e
10
WORK ENERGY AND POWER
Work: Dot product of Work done can be +ve/-ve / zero Energy: Energy is defined as
force and displacement capacity to do the work. Whenever
1. +ve WD → when 0 ≤ θ < 90
→ → work is done on body it gains
W = F . r = Fr cos θ 2. –ve WD → when 90 < θ ≤ 180 energy
3. Zero WD → When θ = 90
Unit = Nm = J 1. Kinetic energy
WD by area under curve –
Work is a scalar quantity 2. Potential energy
W = Area under F − x curve
Kinetic energy: The energy Potential energy: The Gravitational Potential energy:
possessed by a body by virtue energy possessed by a body The energy possessed by a body by
of its motion is called as kinetic by virtue of its position virtue of its position above the
energy surface of earth
om
WD by conservative force =
1 − [change in PE] = Ui − Uf ∆U = mgh
∴ kE = mv 2
2
l.c
Spring potential energy – Restoring SPRING force – WD by spring force →
1 2 Fs ∝ −x 1
US = kx W = kx 2
ai
2 → → 2
or Fs = − kx
k = force constant If initial PE of spring is zero
Potential energy curve:

gm Attractive force – When force
is negative
It helps us to understand the
4@
nature of force dU
F=−
dx
dU
F=− if, θ < 90°, tanθ
dx
i1
= positive, BC region
Repulsive force – When force
Zero force – when slope of U-x curve is zero. Force is zero. At
an
is positive, it is repulsive.
equilibrium, net force is zero, which is at A, C and D.
dU
F=− dU
dx
ir
F=−
dx
θ2 > 90°, → slope
at
dU
= −Ve, which is AB if = 0, then F = 0, which implies equilibrium
dx
ag
Stable Unstable neutral

dU dU dU
=0 =0 =0
dx dx dx
pr
Fnet = 0 Fnet = 0 Fnet = 0
When a particle is slightly displaced form its When particle is sloghtly Whe particle is displaced
equilibrium position, it tries to return to its displaced from its from its euilibrium position,
initial position. equiibrium position, it its moves in the direction of
moves in the direction of
11
d2 U displacement and lowers displacement but its potential
= +Ve
dx 2 its potential energy. energy remains constant.
2
d U d2 U
2
= −Ve =0
dx dx 2
Work -Energy Theorem - Work done by all the forces is equal to change in kinetic energy of a body.
WDexternal + WDconservative + WDnon conservative + WDpsuedo = KEf − KEi
WDconservative = −(∆PE) = Ui − Uf
CHAIN
om
Work Done in Pulling the Chain against Gravity: Velocity of chain while leaving the table –
(1/n)th of its length hanging over the edge. 1

 Velocity of chain v = √gL (1 − n2 )
l.c
Work done in pulling the hanging portion on the table.
MgL
W= , 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛
2n2
ai
POWER
POWER:
gmInstantaneous power:
Power is rate of doing work dW ⃗⃗ F. ds⃗
(Pinst. ) ==
Total work done ΔW W dt dt
4@
average power (Pav. ) = = = 1Watt = 1Joule/ sec = 1W

total time taken Δt t
Area under power-time curve gives the work done The slope of work time curve gives the
instantaneous power
i1
STOPPING OF VEHICLES BY RETARDING FORCE

an
Let m = Mass of vehicle, v = Velocity, 1. The ratio of stopping distances of vehicles:

P = Momentum=mv, x1 E1 m1 v12
ir
= =
mv 2 Energy x 2 E2 m2 v22
stopping distance, x = =
at
2F retarding force 2. Ratio of stopping time of vehicles:

t1 P1 m1 v1
mv momentum = =
stopping time, t = = t2 P2 m2 v2
ag
F retarding force
If vehicle is stopped by friction MOMENTUM: Examples related to momentum

pr
(𝛍 = 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧) conservation:

P = mv
1 2 1
KE 2 mv mv 2 v2 1. Bullet gun
x= = =2 = 1
KE = mv 2 =
P2
F F ma 2μg 2 2m 2. Bomb explosion
mv mv v
t= = =
F mμg μg P = √2mK 3. collision
12
Bullet gun: recoil velocity of a gun.
Mass of gun = M, Velocity of gun =V, Mass of bullet = m, Velocity of bullet = v

m
V=− v
M
COLLISION
om
Coefficient of restitution:
l.c
velocity of separation(relative) Reformation
e= =
velocity of approach(relative) Deformation
ai
PERFECTLY ELASTIC HEAD ON COLLISION – PERFECT ELASTIC HEAD ON ELASTIC COLLISION:
gm
4@
u1 > u2 , and v2 > v1 u1 > u2 , v2 > v1

m1 − m2 2m2 u2 m1 − m2 2m2 u2
i1
v1 = ( ) u1 + v1 = ( ) u1 +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m2 − m1 2m1 u1 m2 − m1 2m1 u1
an
v2 = ( ) u2 + v2 = ( )u +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2 m1 + m2
PARTIAL ELASTIC COLLISION: LOSS IN KINETIC ENERGY:

ir
For ineleastic collision,

at
KEi ≠ KEf
ag
1 m1 m2
0<e<1 ∆KE = ( ) (1 − e2 )(u1 − u2 )2
2 m1 + m2
(Pi + em2 (u2 − u1 ))
pr
v1 = Rebounding of Ball after Collision with Ground –

m1 + m2
Velocity of ball just before collision:
Pi + em1 (u1 − u2 )
v2 =
m1 + m2 v0 = √2gh
First height of rebound: Velocity of ball just after collision,
h1 = e2 h0 v1 = −ev0
Height after n rebound, hn = e2n h0
th
|v1 | = ev0
13
Velocity after nth rebound – Total distance travelled by the Time taken by the ball to stop
ball before it stops bouncing – bouncing:
vn = en v0
1 + e2 2h0 1 + e
H = h0 [ ] T=√ ( )
vn = en √2gh0 1 − e2 g 1−e
Perfectly Inelastic head on Collision – Oblique Collision: (Perfectly Elastic)
om
Momentum conservation
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2 )vcomb
 Momentum conservation along x direction
1 m1 m2  Momentum conservation along y direction
∆KE = ( ) (u1 − u2 )2
l.c
2 m1 + m2  Kinetic energy conservation,
Collision between bullet and block: Collision Between Bullet and Vertically Suspended
ai
Block –
mu
v=
Momentum conservation, u=(

gm
(m + M)
m+M
) √2gh
m
𝑚𝑢 + 𝑀 × 0 = (𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑣
4@
Angle made by string from vertical,

∆KE M
= h (m + M)√2gh
KEi m + M θ = cos −1 [1 − ] = cos −1 [1 − ]
L mL
i1
ROCKET PROPULSION
an
 At any time ‘t’ Mass of rocket = m, Velocity dm

= rate of change of mass
of rocket = v, dt
ir
 In the short time interval dt, mass of

Thrust on the rocket:
rocket is decreased by dm,
at
 Velocity of rocket is increased by dv dm

F = ma = −vr
dt
If initial mass of rocket is m0 and the initial
ag
velocity is v0 , and v
⃗⃗r is Velocity of gases When gravity is considered,
relative to rocket dm
pr
F = ma − g = −vr −𝑔
m dt
v = v0 + vr log e
m0
Acceleration of rocket,
dm vr dm
Mass is decreasing at the rate of dt a=
m dt
dm
In time ‘t’, dercreamnet in mass = dt
t Acceleration when gravity is considered:
dm
Mass at time ‘t’, m = m0 − t vr dm
dt a=− −g
m dt
14
CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular motion: In this motion, particle revolves along the circumference of circle.
Angular displacement – Angular Velocity – Angular Velocity –
Angle swept by the particle 𝜃, Angular displacement = ∆θ Angular displacement = ∆θ
∆S Average angular velocity: Average angular velocity:

∆θ =
R Δθ Δθ 2𝜋𝑛
ωavg = ωavg = = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
S = Arc length, R = radius Δt Δt 𝑡
Relation between linear velocity Unifrom circular motion: UCM

and angular velocity:
om
If a particle moving in a circle with constant speed or with constant
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 angular velocity is called uniform circular motion
Acceleration of particle in UCM: Angular acceleration in Acceleration is always directly
l.c
circular motion: (𝜶) towars center of circle,
𝑎 = 𝑣𝜔 = (𝜔𝑟)𝜔 = 𝜔2 𝑟
𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖 ∆𝜔 a⃗⃗ = −ω2 r⃗⃗
𝑣 𝑣2 𝛼= ⇒ 𝛼𝐴𝑣𝑔 =
ai
𝑎 = 𝑣. = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
𝑟 𝑟 |a⃗⃗| = |−ω2 r⃗⃗|
gm
Non –UCM: If speed of particle performing circular motion changes with time, it is Non-UCM.
Net acceleration of particle – Centripetal acceleration changes direction only, not the magnitude
4@
a net = a⃗⃗t + a⃗⃗c

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ at = αr, And, ac = ω2r
angular velocity, ω = constant

anet = √(a2t + a2c ) = √(αr)2 + (ω2 r)2
i1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆v = v⃗⃗f − v
⃗⃗i ac αr α
θ = tan −1 ( ) = tan−1 ( 2 ) = tan −1 ( )
at ω r ω
an
NOTE:
ir
 a t = 0, and a c = 0, speed constant, velocity constant, direction constant, translatory motion,

a net = 0
at
 a t = 0, and a c ≠ 0, speed constant, velocity not constant, direction change, UCM

a net = a c

ag
a t ≠ 0, and a c = 0, speed not constant, direction constant, accelerated translatory motion

a net = a t
 a t ≠ 0, and a c ≠ 0, speed not constant, direction change, non UCM
pr
a net = √(a2t + a2c )
Centripetal force: towards the centre. Centrifugal force: Psuedo force, Away from the centre.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚 × 𝑎𝑐𝑝 Magnitude of centrifugal force = magnitude of

centripetal force
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐𝑝 = 𝑚. 𝜔2 𝑟 = Direction of centrifugal force = opposite to the direction
𝑟
of centripetal force
15
CIRCULAR MOTION
NOTE: For a car moving on a circular road, the necessary centripetal force is provided by the friction
force between car tyres and road,
𝑓 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
Motion on horizonatal curved roads
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑁 Banking of cyclist:
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇𝑟𝑔 𝑣2
tan 𝜃 =
𝑅𝑔
om
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣2
To increase 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑅𝑔
𝜇 ↑ = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
l.c
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑅𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝑟 ↑ = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜃(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) ↑ = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ↑
ai
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 is independent of the mass of vehicle.
Maximum and minimum speed of the

gm
Banking of road: The process of rising the outer surface of the road is called as banking of road
1. If road is smooth, 𝝁 = 𝟎,
vehicle on the banked road –
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃
4@
tan 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 2. If road is horizontal, (𝜽 = 𝟎)

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑟𝑔 [ ]
1 − 𝜇 tan 𝜃
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇𝑟𝑔
i1
tan 𝜃 − 𝜇
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √𝑅𝑔 ( ) 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
an
1 + 𝜇 tan 𝜃
Conical pendulum
ir
l = length of string, Time period: 𝑻𝟏

at
h = height of pendulum
𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑇1 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
ag
θ = semi vertex angle, v = speed of bob
v = √rg tan θ Tension –

pr
𝑚𝑔𝑙
g tan θ 𝑇=
ω=√ 𝑟
r
Death well / Rotor drum
Condition – For minimum angular speed,
𝜇𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 ≥ 𝑚𝑔
g gR
𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ 𝐴𝑛𝑑, 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
μR μ
16
CIRCULAR MOTION
Skidding of object in rotating bowl – Non-skidding of object in rotating bowl:
𝑁 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 1. 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑁 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅

𝑔 𝑔
ℎ=𝑅− 2. 𝜔 = √
𝜔2 𝑅 cos 𝜃
𝑔
𝑔 3. 𝜔 = √
𝜔=√ 𝑅−ℎ
𝑅−ℎ 𝑔
4. 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝑔 𝑅
𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ 𝑅
𝑅 5. ℎ = 𝑔 − 2
𝜔
om
Minimum and maximum angular velocity of object for no slipping in bowl:
If block has tendency to slip downward
Friction acts in upward direction,
l.c
𝑔 (tan 𝜃 − 𝜇)
𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
ai
𝑅 sin 𝜃 (1 + 𝜇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)
If block has tendency to go upward,
Friction will act downward,

gm
𝑔 (𝜇 + tan)
4@
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
𝑅 sin 𝜃 (1 − 𝜇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)
Motion of block on horizontal hemisphere

i1
𝑢2 2 Height from ground for u = 0,

𝜃 = cos −1 [ + ]
an
3𝑅𝑔 3
2𝑅
ℎ=
Note: if u = 0, If block is given 3
a small jerk
ir
𝑖𝑓 𝑢 ≠ 0
2
at
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) 𝑢 2 2𝑅
3 ℎ= +
3𝑔 3
ag
Reaction of road on bridge
1. Concave bridge 2. convex bridge:

pr
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 −
𝑅 𝑅
17
CIRCULAR MOTION
Vertical Circular Motion
Velocity at point P –
𝑣𝑃 = √𝑢 2 − 2𝑔𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑣𝐴 > 𝑣𝐵 > 𝑣𝐶
om
l.c
ai
gm
Critical condition for vertical circular motion: If a particle is projected with speed u at lower point of
vertical circle nad it just complete vertical circle. For critical condition, velocity At lowest point of vertical
circle.
4@
𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √5𝑅𝑔
For critical situation:

i1
𝑣𝑎 = √5𝑅𝑔
an
𝑣𝐵 = √u2 − 2gR(1 − cos 𝜃) = √5Rg − 2gR(1 − cos 90) = √3𝑅𝑔
𝑣𝑐 = √u2 − 2gR(1 − cos 𝜃) = √5Rg − 2gR(1 − cos 180) = √𝑅𝑔

ir
at
For critical condition:
critical velocity at point P,

ag
𝑣𝑃 = √𝑅𝑔(3 + 2 cos 𝜃)
𝑇𝑃 = 3𝑚𝑔(1 + cos 𝜃)
pr
𝑇𝐴 = 6𝑚𝑔, 𝑇𝐵 = 3𝑚𝑔, 𝑇𝐶 = 0, 𝑇𝐷 = 3𝑚𝑔
- Difference in tension at highest point and lowest point = 6mg
18
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
Rigid Body – The body which is not Centre of mass – It is the point where the whole mass of the
deformed on applying an external body can be assumed to be concentrated. It can lie inside or
force is called as rigid body. outside the body.
Position vector of COM – Velocity of COM –
m1 r⃗1 + m2 r⃗2 + ⋯ + mn r⃗n 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑣⃗𝑛

r⃗cm = 𝑣⃗𝑐𝑚 =
m1 + m2 + ⋯ + mn 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛
m1 x1 + m2 x 2 + ⋯ … ∑ mi x i ∑ mi x i
x cm = = =
m1 + m2 + ⋯ . . ∑ mi M
Acceleration of COM –
m1 y1 + m2 y2 + ⋯ . . ∑ mi yi ∑ mi yi
ycm = = =
om
𝑚1 𝑎⃗1 + 𝑚2 𝑎⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 𝑎⃗𝑛
m1 + m2 … . . ∑ mi M 𝑎⃗𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛
m1 z1 + m2 z2 + ⋯ . ∑ mi zi ∑ mi zi
zcm = = =
m1 + m2 + ⋯ . . ∑ mi M
l.c
Concept of symmetry – When an object is symmetric to y axis then 𝑥𝑐𝑚 is zero and vice versa.
ai
Concept of mass density – COM of continuous mass distribution system –
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
=𝜆 gm
To get the centre of mass of continuous mass
distribution, convert the Σ by the integration
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 sign.
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =𝜎
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
4@
Distributed mass Continuous mass

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 system system
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =𝜌
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∫ 𝑥. 𝑑𝑚
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑥𝑐𝑚 =
∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∫ 𝑑𝑚
i1
Centre of mass of uniform rod of length L – ∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝑚

𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
𝐿 𝑀 ∫ 𝑑𝑚
an
𝐿 𝐿
∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑚 ∫0 𝑥 𝐿 𝑑𝑥 1 𝐿 ∫ 𝑧𝑑𝑚
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = = = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑧𝑐𝑚 =
∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑀 𝐿 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑚
0
ir
COM of semi-circular ring Height of COM of semi-circular COM of semi-circular disc

at
2𝑅 ring from top 4𝑅

𝑦𝑐𝑚 = 𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
𝜋 2𝑅 𝑅 3𝜋
ℎ𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅 − = (𝜋 − 2)
𝜋 𝜋
ag
COM of hollow hemisphere COM of solid cone COM of solid hemisphere

𝑅 ℎ 3𝑅
𝑦𝑐𝑚 = = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
2 4 8
pr
COM of triangular plate –
19
COM OF ADDED AND REMOVED PART
𝑚
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜎 = ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝜎𝐴
𝐴
𝑚∝𝐴
For added part For removed part

𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴2 𝑥2 𝐴1 𝑥1 + (−𝐴2 )𝑥2 𝐴1 𝑥1 − 𝐴2 𝑥2
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑥𝑐𝑚 = ⇒ 𝑥𝑐𝑚 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝐴1 + (−𝐴2 ) 𝐴1 − 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝑦1 + 𝐴2 𝑦2
𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝐴1 𝑦1 − 𝐴2 𝑦2
𝑦𝑐𝑚 =
𝐴1 − 𝐴2
om
NOTE –
If we consider, 𝑟⃗𝑐𝑚 = 0, means 𝐶𝑂𝑀 is at origin. And also If 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 & 𝑈

⃗⃗𝑐𝑚 = 0
l.c
COM will not move. It means, Left side displacement of masses = Right side displacement of masses
ai
Also, Momentum of the system is conserved. Initial momentum = Final momentum
Moment of Inertia: (MI) The amount of effort required to move an object is called force.
Moment of inertia: It is the resistance offered by a

gm
For system of particles:
body in rotational motion:
𝐼 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛2
4@
Consider a point mass rotating about fixed axis: 𝑛
𝑀𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ⊥ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 2

𝑖=1
i1
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
Parallel axis theorem: Perpendicular axis theorem:

an
(Lamina – 2D)
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑀ℎ2
𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑋 + 𝐼𝑌
ir
𝐼𝐶𝑀 = MI of body about an axis passing through COM

𝐼𝑥 = MI of body about x – axis
𝑀 = Mass of body
at
𝐼𝑌 = MI of body about Y – axis

𝐼𝑜 = MI of body about an axis, parallel to line passing through COM
ag
𝐼𝑍 = MI of body about Z – axis

ℎ =⊥ distance between these axis.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF DIFFERENT BODIES

pr
MI of rod about one end: MI of ring: about MI of Solid sphere: MI of hollow sphere:
its geographic axis
1 MI of a solid sphere MI of hollow sphere
I= ML2
3 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2 about its about geographic axis,
MI of rod about COM: geographic axis,
MI of Disc: about 2
its geographic axis, 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
2 3
𝑀𝐿2 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼𝐶𝑀 = 1 5
12 I = MR2
2
20
MI |ofBrod
i oabout
m e nCOM:
tors.online
𝑀𝐿2
𝐼𝐶𝑀 =
12
20
Radius of gyration: 𝐾𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑅 𝑅

𝐾𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 2 2
√2 𝐾ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = √ 𝑅 𝐾𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = √ 𝑅
a body whose MI is I 3 5
𝐼 = 𝑀𝐾 2
𝐾2 𝐾2 1 𝐾2 2 𝐾2 2
( 2) =1 ( ) = ( 2) = ( ) =
K is radius of gyration 𝑅 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 2 𝑅 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 3 𝑅 2 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 5
Kinetic energy of rotating body: Consider a Torque: Turning effect of force is called as torque. Or
rigid body of mass M rotating with angular moment of force.
speed 𝜔 about the given axis which is
perpendicular to the plane of body. 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
⊥ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
om
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔2 𝜏⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
2
l.c
Relation between torque, angular acceleration and MOI, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐼𝛼
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
ai
CG: It is that point on body where the total 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2 +. . . . . .
𝑥𝐶𝐺 =
gravitational torque is zero. 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + … . . .
If a body is extended in such a way that

gm 𝑦𝐶𝐺 =
𝑊1 𝑦1 + 𝑊2 𝑦2 +. . . . . .
gravitational; acceleration is different at 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + … . . .
different parts of body. Then CG and CM are
4@
𝑥𝐶𝐺 = 𝑥𝐶𝑚
different.
EQUILIBRIUM
i1
Fnet = 0, static equilibrium ∑ 𝜏𝑍 = 0

an
∑ FX = 0 , rightward forces = leftward forces

𝐴𝐶𝑊 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐶𝑊 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
∑ Fy = 0 , Upward forces = Downward forces

ir
at
Ladder problem: 𝜇1 for floor, and 𝜇2 for wall, Ladder weight w, 𝜃 angle for no slipping,
1 − 𝜇1 𝜇2
ag
𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
2𝜇1
Angular momentum: Moment of momentum

pr
angular momentum = mass(⊥ distance × velocity) Angular momentum of rigid body:

𝑛
⃗⃗ = rF sin θ
τ⃗⃗ = r⃗ × F
𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜔 [∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 ]
⃗⃗
L = r⃗ × ⃗P⃗ 𝑖=1
⃗⃗ = m(r⃗ × v
L ⃗⃗) = mvr sin θ 𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜔𝐼
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
21
Principle of angular momentum conservation: If external torque on stystem about axis of rotation is
zero. Then angular momentum of system will remain conserved about that axis of rotation.
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ 𝐼𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2
COMBINED TRANSLATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
Velocity of a point on circumference:
Rolling without slipping:
om
For no slipping on ground, velocity of point in contact with ground must be zero.
𝑉𝐶𝑀 = 𝜔𝑅
Rolling motion on horizontal plane: Kinetic energy of rigid body in rolling motion:
l.c
⃗⃗𝑝 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗𝐶𝑀 + 𝑉
⃗⃗𝑃𝐶𝑀 1 2
1
𝐾𝐸𝑡𝑟 = 𝑀𝑣𝐶𝑀 = 𝑀𝑣 2
2 2
ai
1. 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉 − 𝜔𝑅
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔2
2. 𝑉𝐵 = √𝑉 2
3. 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉 + 𝜔𝑅
+ (𝜔𝑅)2 gm 1
2
1
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑀𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
4@
4. 𝑉𝐷 = √𝑉 2 + (𝜔𝑅)2
Total energy of a body in rolling motion –

i1
1
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑀𝜔2 (𝐾 2 + 𝑅 2 )
2
an
1 𝐾2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑀𝑣 2 [1 + 2 ]
2 𝑅
ir
Velocity of body reaching bottom –

at
2𝑔ℎ
𝑣=√
𝐾2
ag
1+ 2
𝑅
Acceleration of the body –

pr
𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑎=
𝐾2
1+ 2
𝑅
Time to reach bottom –
1 2ℎ 𝐾2
𝑡= √ (1 + 2 )
sin 𝜃 𝑔 𝑅
22
GRAVITATION
Newton’s law of gravitation

1  It is always attractive in nature:
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝
𝑟2  Gravitational force is independent of medium present
between masses.
Combinely,
 It is central force, always acts along the line joining the
𝑚1 𝑚2 centres of masses
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺
𝑟2  It is conservative force
G : Universal gravitational constant  Net force on a particle will be vector sum of all the forces
= 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2 acting on that particle.
om
Acceleration due to gravity
On the surface of earth: For any other planet: 𝑀𝑒 = mass of earth = 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚 𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑃 4 𝑅𝑒 = Radius of earth = 6400 km =
l.c
𝑔𝑠 = ≈ 9.8 2 ≈ 10 2 𝑔𝑝 = = 𝜌𝜋𝐺𝑅
2
𝑅𝑒 𝑠 𝑠 𝑅𝑃2 3 6.4 × 106 𝑚
Value of g at height h : Variation of g due to depth d:
ai
𝐺𝑀 d
𝑔ℎ = g d = g (1 − )
(𝑅 + ℎ)2
2h Also,
gm R
within 500 km, g h = g (1 − )

R
4
4@
g d = πρG(R − d)
gR2 3
for every height, gh =
(R + h)2
i1
Effect of rotation of earth
if 𝜔 is the angular velocity of rotation of earth on its At equator, 𝜆 = 0° → cos 𝜆 = 1

an
axis,
𝑔𝑒 = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅
′ 2 2
𝑔 = 𝑔 − 𝜔 𝑅 cos 𝜆
𝑔𝑒 < 𝑔
ir
At poles, 𝜆 = 90° → cos 𝜆 = 0

𝑔 − 𝑔𝑒 = 𝜔2 𝑅 = 0.034 𝑚/𝑠 2
at
′
𝑔 =𝑔
Difference in value of gravitational
There is no effect of rotation of earth on poles. acceleration at poles and equator.
ag
Gravitational field intensity: (𝑰\𝑬𝒈 )

pr
𝑚 = Point test mass, 𝑚 ≪ 𝑀 Point mass M, Due to uniform ring –

𝐹 at a distance r from the mass radius = a, mass = M
𝐼=
𝑚
𝐺𝑀 axial distance = x
I is defined as the gravitational 𝐼=
𝑟2
force experienced by unit test mass. 𝐺𝑀𝑥
𝐼 = 𝐸𝑔 = 3
𝐺𝑀 (𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝐼=
𝑟2
23
GRAVITATION
Uniform disc – on the axis Solid sphere – R – radius Hollow sphere: R – radius
2GMr 1 1 GM GM
I= [ − ] Ioutside = Ioutside = , r>R
R2 r √R2 + r 2 r2 r2
At center, I = 0 GM GM
Isurface = Isurface = , r=R
R2 R2
GMr Iinside = 0, r < R
Iinside =
R3
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Gravitational potential energy: The work done by an change in potential energy = ∆U = Uf − Ui
om
external agent to bring the particle from infinity to a
WD by conservative force = −∆U
finite distance r, from the body.
𝐺𝑀𝑚 gravitational force = conservative force
l.c
𝑈=−
𝑟
Potential energy for earth – particle
for more than 2 particles, system: r = R + h
ai
Gm1 m2 Gm1 m2 Gm2 m3 GMm −GMm
U = (− ) + (− ) + (− ) … …. U=− =
r12 r13 r23 gm r R+h
Energy conservation: If a particle is projected vertically upward with the velocity u, then
4@
KEA + PEA = KEB + PEB
u2
h= , maximum height attained by particle
u2
2g − R
i1
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
an
The work done to bring unit mass from Potential due to a uniform disc at a point on its axis –
infinite to the point at a distance r, at a distance r
ir
𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑔 = − 𝑉𝑔 = − [√𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 − 𝑟]
at
𝑟 𝑅2
Solid sphere: Shell/hollow sphere:

ag
GM GM
Voutside = − Voutside = −
r r
pr
GM GM
Vsurface = − Vsurface = −
R R
GM GM
Voutside = − [3R2 − r 2 ] Vinside = −
2R3 R
Satellite – The object revolving round the planet.
 Natural – Moon
 Artificial
24
GRAVITATION
Projection of satellite – The speed required for satellite to Critical/orbital velocity of satellite –
revolve in orbit is critical velocity or orbital velocity. That minimum velocity which must be
given to satellite in order to have
Given velocity = v, Critical velocity = vc , Escape velocity = ve revolution of satellite in circular orbit.
v > ve → Hyperbolic
GM
v = ve → Parabolic vc = √ = √g h (R + h)
R+h
vc < v < ve → orbittimg in elliptical path
For a satellite revolving very close to
v = vc → circular path earth, h ≪ R
v < vc → elliptical path, spiral path fall down vc = √gR, vc = 7.8 ≈ 8 km/s
om
ENERGY OF REVOLVING SATELLITE
Gm1 m2 1 GM GMm
GPE → − KEsat = m. TEsat = −
l.c
r12 2 R+h 2(R + h)
1 2Gm Let’s say,
KE = mv 2 KEsat =
2 2(R + h)
ai
R+h = r
GMm TE = KE + PE
PEsat = − GMm
R+h TEsat = −
1
KEsat = mvc2
TEsat =
GMm
− gm
GMm
2(R + h) R + h
2r
2
4@
Binding energy of satellite – To free the Escape velocity:(𝒗𝒆) - The minimum velocity which
satellite from earth’s gravitational pull, the must be given to an object placed on surface of earth
amount of energy required = Binding energy so that it can be escapes from earths gravitational
field is called as escape velocity.
i1
𝐵𝐸 = |𝑇𝐸|
For particle at rest on surface of earth,
1
an
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸
2
2𝐺𝑀
𝑃𝐸 = −2𝐾𝐸 𝑣𝑒 = √ = √2𝑔𝑅 = √2𝑣0
𝑅
ir
1
𝐾𝐸 = − 𝑃𝐸 If a particle is thrown with velocity v such that 𝑣 > 𝑣𝑒 ,
at
2
then it moves in interstellar space with speed v’
ag
Kepler’s law
1. Law of orbits: Each 2. Law of area – The 3. Law of period: For

planet revolves round
pr
radius vector drawn planetary system

the sun in elliptical from sun at any square of the time
orbits. Such that sun is planet sweeps equal period of a planet is
situated at of the foci area in equal directly proportional to
internal of time cube of the semi-major
𝑃 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑒)
axial distance of a
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑒) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 planet from sun
𝑡
𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑎3
25
GRAVITATION
Time period of revolution in circular orbit {Planet Satellite}: Motion of satellite \ Planet in elliptical
orbit: 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚, and 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0
Valid for sun-planet system also if constant that planet
revolves in circular orbit around the sun 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑟1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑟2
4π2 𝐺𝑀 1 + 𝑒
T2 = . (R + h)3 𝑣𝑃 = √ ( )
GM 𝑎 1−𝑒
T 2 ∝ (R + h)3
T2 ∝ r3 𝐺𝑀 1 − 𝑒
𝑣𝑃 = √ ( )
𝑎 1+𝑒
For a satellite very close to earth, h = 0
Decreasing order of velocities
om
R
T = 2π√ = 84.6 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝐴 > 𝑣𝐷 > 𝑣𝐵 > 𝑣𝑐
g
l.c
Geostationary Satellite:
ai
 Satellite at rest with respect to earth
 Relative velocity of GS satellite must be zero with

respect to earth
Time period of GS satellite must be 24 hrs
gm
 Sense of rotation must be from west to east

4@
Anticlockwise
𝑇 = 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠
Height of Geostationary Satellite = 3600 km = 6 R from

i1
surface and 7 R from center of earth

an
Weightlessness →
True weight, 𝑅 = 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
ir
If we are in motion
at
Apparent weight = Normal Reaction applied by surface Lift
Lift free fall = a decreases = 𝑔 → 𝑁 = 0 → 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠

ag
Null Point; The point where g = 0, W = mg = 0

pr
26
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Rigid Body: A body which cannot be deformed by Deforming Force: The force which do not give
applying external force translatory motion in whole body but changes
the relative position of molecules present in body
Deformation: Change in dimensions (shape or size)
Elastic Materials Plastic Materials

The materials which completely regains or have The materials which do not regain their original
original dimensions after removal of deforming force. dimensions after removal of deforming force
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 → 𝐸𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 → 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Ex : Rubber Ex : Mud, putty
STRESS AND STRAIN
om
Stress - Internal Restoring force per unit area is Strain - The ratio of deformation to original
called as stress dimensions
l.c
Longitudinal Stress: Whenever applied force Tensile stress: Increase in length
produces change in length then stress associated
Compressive Stress: Decrease in length
with body Longitudinal Stress
ai
Restroing force mg
Longitudinal or Tensile Stress = =
Area A
Volume Stress: Whenever applied force produces change in volume

gm Shear Stress: Whenever a
then the stress associated with body is called as volume stress tangential force is applied on
body then stress associated is
4@
Force AdP
volume stress = = = dP called as shear stress
Area A
STRAIN
i1
Tensile / Longitudinal Strain → Ratio of change in Shear Strain: Ratio of relative displacement of
an
length to original length any layer to the decreases distance of this layer
from fixed base
Change in length
Tensile/ Longitudinal strain = x
Original length
ir
= = tanθ ≈ θ
b
Chnage in volume dv
at
Volume Strain → =
original volume v
ag
HOOK’S LAW AND ELASTIC MODULI
Hooke’s Law: Young’s Modulus: y Bulk modulus: (k) Compressibility: (C)

pr
within proportionally limit,

within elastic limit Tensile stress volume stress It is the reciprocal of
y= k=
tesnsile strain volume strain bulk modulus.
stress ∝ strain
longituidal stress dP 1
stress = k= C=
= constant Longituidal strain −dV K
strain V
mgL 1 dV
y= dP C= .
πr2 l |k| − V V dP
dV
WL
y=
Al
27
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Modulus of Rigidity 𝛈: Poison’s Ratio : 𝛔 Lateral Strain:
shearing stress lateral strain Change in diameter

η= σ= =
shearing strain longituidal strain Original Diameter
F/A For Homogenous isotropic Change in radius
η= =
θ materials Original Radius
F mg −1 ≤ σ ≤ 0.5
η= = 0 < σ ≤ 0.5
Aθ πr 2 θ
Practically σ is always +ve σrubber = 0.5 , σmetals = 0.3
Behaviour of metal wire under increasing Load:
om
upto E → Hooke′ s Law valid → E → elastic limit
After E, on increasing stress, strain increases more.
l.c
On removal of load, wire does not gain original length,
means wire is permanently deformed.
ai
Tangent to the curve is parallel to strain axis
gm
Yield Point: Strain start increasing without increment of stress
Stress at yield point is called as yield stress.
Beyond 𝐘𝐏 → stress & strain both increases curve bends upward. Actually wire begins to flow
4@
Neck Formation is started
At any one point on wire → Locally → wire flow more and is about to break → Strain Increase
i1
faster even we decrease stress
After this wire will break

an
𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐏𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 → (𝐁)

ir
Breaking Stress: The maximum stress which a wire can with stand
at
Elastic Energy: WD per unit volume or strain

energy per unit volume:
Energy stored in a body subjected
ag
to elastic deformation. 1
Uv = y. strain2
2
1
U= × load × extension Strain energy per unit volume:
pr
2
1
Sagging → Dispersion: EUnit volume = stress × strain
2
Wl3 stress 2
δ= EUnit volume =
4bd3 Y 2Y
For circular cross section:
wl3
δ=
12. πr 4 y
28
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Some basic terms
Density - Specific Weight – Specific Gravity →
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 weight specific weight of substance

𝜌= → 3 γ= =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚 volume specific weight of water
At constant Temperature density Relative Density → (𝐑𝐃)- Note - Numerically RD & SG
of material remains constant are equal
Density of substance
3 RD =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 Density of water at 4.0 C
Density of mixture: If two substances of densities If two substances of densities
om
𝜌1 & 𝜌2 are mixed in equal 𝜌1 & 𝜌2 are mixed in equal
m1 + m2 + m3 + ⋯ …
ρmix = volume amount
V1 + V2 + V3 + ⋯ . .
𝜌1 + 𝜌2 2𝜌1 𝜌2
x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ⋯ . . 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑥 = ρmix =
vavg =x 2
l.c
1 x2 x3 𝜌1 + 𝜌2
v1 + v2 + v3 + ⋯ …
ai
PRESSURE
Pressure: Pressure at any point is defined as the Unit of pressure:

normal force (The force which is perpendicular to
the surface exerted on a unit area around that point
gm 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
𝐹⊥ 1 bar = 105 N/m2

𝑃=
4@
𝐴 1 bar = 1 mm of Hg
N N
SI Unit = → 1 2 = 1 pascal = 1 pa 1 atm = 1.01 × 105 N/m2
m2 m
i1
Pascal’s Law
an
Pascal’s Law – The Pressure exerted at any point on an

enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all direction
ir
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐
at
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵
ag
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure Variation of pressure with depth – Pressure at depth h
exerted by atmospheric gases is called below the surface of liquid,
as atmospheric pressure
PA = PB + ρ. gh
pr
1atm = 1.01 × 105 N/m2

Here, 𝑃𝐵 is the atmospheric pressure, and 𝑃𝐴 is the pressure
at h depth below.
Open Tube Monometer: PA = PB
PA = Pressure Of gas
PB = Pressure which we can measure
PB = Pa + ρgh
29
Archimedes Principle and buoyancy
When a body is dipped partially or fully in a liquid them it exerts a force on body in upward direction.
The Force is equal to weight of the liquid displaced by body Called as buoyant force
FB = ρliq . VBody . g
Equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium: Tendency of rotation Neutral equilibrium:
om
l.c
Apparent weight of immersed body – Apparent weight
Weight of in air = W = mg= 𝜎. 𝑉. 𝑔 𝑊𝑎 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
ai
Weight in Air = Actual weight 𝜌
𝑊𝑎 = 𝑊 [1 − ]
gm
Types of fluid flow
𝜎
Steady Flow → Unsteady flow – Uniform flow: In a pipe/tube if velocity of

4@
each point is constant or velocity of fluid

Condition Condition does not change with change in position
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜌
i1
=0, =0, =0 ≠ 0, ≠ 0, =0 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =0
𝑑𝑠
an
Rate of Flow → (𝐐) volume of liquid flowing through pipe/cross section per unit time.
V Area × length
Q = =
ir
t t
Q = a. v, v = velocity of flow, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
at
Laminar Flow: Speed of liquid is same in Turbulent Flow: when motion of liquid is in zig-zag
ag
difference layers of fluid manner

pr
Velocity Profile - Used to determine the type of liquid
Viscous - When velocity Non-viscous liquid - When

profile is curved shape and velocity profile is straight line
there is frictional force and there is no frictional force
present b/w layers of liquid present b/w layers of liquid
Ex - Honey Ex - water
30
Velocity Profile - Used to determine the type of liquid
Equation of continuity - When a liquid is flowing in a pipe its mass will remain conserved. And rate of
flow (Q) remains constant
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Energy of fluid: For a flowing through a pipe
Kinetic energy of fluid – Potential energy Pressure energy:
om
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1 𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑈
2 = 𝜌. 𝑔ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙 Pressure energy per unit volume = P
𝐾𝐸 1 2
l.c
= 𝜌𝑉 𝑈
𝑣𝑜𝑙 2 =ℎ PV
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 Pressure energy per unit weight =
𝐾𝐸 𝑉 2 W
= P. V P
ai
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 2𝑔 = =
mg ρ. g
𝑃𝐸 𝑈 𝐾𝐸
gm
Bernoulli’s Principle
+ + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙
4@
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
i1
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
an
Bernoulli’s Principle
ir
Venturimeter: Pitot tube: Dynamic Lift: Thrust is produced in upward

direction
at
2𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ Velocity of flow

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 √ Thrust = (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) × 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜌(𝐴21 − 𝐴22 ) 𝑣0 = √2𝑔ℎ
ag
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = Pressure difference on wing

If water or same liquid is used in
venture meter, then 𝜌𝑚 = 𝜌
pr
Speed of efflux → Toricell’s Theorem

2𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 √ 2 2(P − Pa )
𝐴1 − 𝐴22 ve = √2gh +
ρ
If tank is open atmosphere, P = Pa

Roof uplifting in storm –
𝑃𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 > 𝑃𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 Then, ve = √2gh
𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 = 𝐴(𝑃𝑈𝑝 − 𝑃𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 )
31
Time to empty the tank from 𝑯𝟐 to 𝑯𝟏 – Time to full empty the tank – 𝐻1 = 𝐻 & 𝐻2 = 0
𝐴 2 𝐴 2 𝐴 2𝐻
𝑡= √ [√𝐻2 − √𝐻1 ] 𝑇= . √ . √𝐻 ⇒ 𝑇 = . √
𝑎 𝑔 𝑎 𝑔 𝑎 𝑔
VISCOSITY
Viscosity: The property of fluids by virtue Newton’s law of viscosity: Velocity at bottom is zero. As
of which the layers of fluids opposes the we go up velocity increases
relative motion of each other.
𝑑𝑣
𝐹𝑉 ∝ (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 )
𝑑𝑧
om
Viscous force opposes relative motion, Shearing stress in fluid –
𝜂 → 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
=
l.c
𝑑𝑣 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹𝑣 = −𝜂𝐴.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑣
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜂 .
-ve sign shows that opposing force 𝑑𝑧
ai
Critical velocity (𝑉𝑐 )
The velocity at which laminar flow converts to turbulent flow

gm Re → Reynold number
Vc ∝ viscocity (η) ρ. Vc . D
Re =
η
4@
1
Vc ∝ Re ≤ 2000 → Laminar
density of liquid
2000 < Re < 3000 → unstable
1
i1
Vc ∝ Re > 3000 → Turbulent Flow

diameter of pipe
an
Stoke’s law – Viscous force acting on Terminal velocity: When an object is drooped in liquid the
a sphere of radius ‘r’ moving with rate of increment in speed decreases consequently object
speed ‘v’ in a liquid of viscosity ′𝜂′ is achieves a constant velocity. It is called as Terminal velocity
ir
given by
2𝑔𝑟 2 . (𝜎 − 𝜌)
at
𝑉𝑇 =
𝐹𝑣 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 9𝜂
ag
Cohesive Force: The force of attraction Surface energy: Under isothermal condition,
between same\similar types of molecules molecules present in surface film holds extra
energy
Adhesive force: The force of attraction
pr
between two molecules of different substances 𝐸 = 𝑇∆𝐴
Surface Tension: The force acting per unit Excess pressure inside soap bubble –
length at right angles to an imaginary line
4T
drawn on surface of liquid P=
r
Capillary height: Excess pressure inside drop –
2Tcos θ 2T
h =
ρgr P=
r
32
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Basic definitions
 Temperature: Degree of hotness or coldness Conversion of temperature –

of a body
 Heat: Energy which flows from hotter body to 𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝑘 − 273
= =
colder body when in contact 100 180 100
 Freezing Point / Ice Point: The temperature Celsius Scale Fahrenite scale Kelvin scale
at which water begins to freeze UFP Steam 212°𝐹 373.15 k
 Boiling Point / Steam Point: The temperature Point 100°𝐶
at which water starts converting into steam 100 div 180 div 100 div
 Melting Point: The temperature at which a LFP 0°𝐶 32°𝐹 273.15 k
solid begins to melt Freezing point
om
Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion – Areal expansion – Volumetric Expansion –
l.c
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿0 [1 + 𝛼𝑡] 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴0 [1 + 𝛽𝑡] 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉0 [1 + 𝛾𝑡]
ai
To find 𝜶 using different lengths To find 𝛽 using different areas To find 𝛾 using different volumes
at different temperatures at different temperatures at different temperatures
𝛼=
𝐿2 − 𝐿1
𝐿1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
𝛽=
𝐴2 − 𝐴1gm
𝐴1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
𝛾=
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑉1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
Relation between 𝜶, 𝜷 & 𝜸 – Variation of density with temperature:

4@
𝛾 = 3𝛼, 𝛽 = 2𝛼, 𝛾 = 3𝛼 Volume at 0 °𝐶 = 𝑉0 , Volume at 𝑡 °𝐶 = 𝑉𝑡

𝛽 𝛾 Density at 0 °𝐶 = 𝜌0 , Density at 𝑡 °𝐶 = 𝜌𝑙
∴𝛼 = =
i1
2 3 𝜌0
𝜌𝑡 =
1 + 𝛾𝑡
an
Effect of temperature of pendulum

ir
Effect of temperature on time  Temp increase → Time Period increase ⇒ Clock run slowly =
at
period of simple pendulum – loss in time

 Temp decrease → Time period decrease ⇒ Clock run faster =
1 gain in time
ag
∆𝑇 = 𝛼𝑡𝑇0
2
At 𝑡1 °𝐶 → 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇1 , At 𝑡2 °𝐶 → 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇2
Fractional change in time period
pr
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 [1 + 𝛼(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ]
∆𝑇 1
= 𝛼𝑡
𝑇0 2 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 Δ𝑇 1
= = 𝛼(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
𝑇1 𝑇1 2
Consider a free rod – Thermal Strain –
Temp. Increase = length increase 𝐶ℎ𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑡 − 𝐿0

𝜖0 𝑜𝑟 𝜖𝑡 = = = 𝛼𝑡
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿0
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿0 + 𝛼𝑡𝐿0
33
Rod is fixed at end – 0°C → length = L0 Bimetallic Strip:
Thermal stress → σθ or σt = Yϵt If heated equally
σt = Y αt 𝛼𝑐𝑢 > 𝛼𝐹𝑒

Rod will exert a force on rigid support ∆𝐿𝐶𝑢 > ∆𝐿𝐹𝑒
F = σ. A = Y αtA Length of Cu strip will be compared to Fe strip
Anomalous behaviour of water
0°𝐶 𝑡𝑜 4°𝐶 → 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
om
4°𝐶 𝑡𝑜 100°𝐶 → 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
At 4°𝐶, Volume of water is minimum, Density of water is maximum
HEAT AND CALORIMETERY
l.c
Gram Specific Heat: It is the amount Heat Capacity: The amount of heat energy required to raise of
of heat energy required to raise the m gram substance by 1°C
ai
temperature of 1g mass by 1°C
S = ms or C = mc
Q = m. s. ∆T
cal
gm
Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat energy required to
charge 1 gm solid into 1 gm liquid at its freezing point
Sice = 0.5
gm°C Lf(ice) = 80 cal/gm
4@
cal Lice = 80 cal/gm

Swater = 1
gm°C
Latent heat of vaporization: The heat energy required to
cal
i1
Sstream = 0.48 ≈ 0.5 convert 1 gm liquid into 1 gm mass at its boiling point
gm°C
Lsteam = 540 cal/gm
an
Latent heat: heat required to change the state of a substance of unit of mass at constant temperature.
ir
Phase change – Law of Mixing – Principle of Calorimetery

∆ ∆
at
𝑖𝑐𝑒 (𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠) ) → 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

Water equivalent: The mass of water which requires the
ag
same amount of heat energy as required by the substance 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0
to raise the temperature by same amount
pr
Modes of Transfer Heat
Conduction: Only solids. HE is transferred Rate of heat flow → Rate of flow of heat
from one molecule to other due to collision
𝑑𝑡
& without actual transfer of molecules 𝐻 = 𝐾𝐴
𝐿
Convection→ Liquid & gas, Molecules are 𝐿
in motion ( = 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑐𝑒 )
𝐾𝐴
Radiations → Universal (Always Occurs) 𝐾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
34
Combination of metallic rods
Series combination – Parallel combination of rods
Equivalent thermal resistance 1 1 1 1 1

= + + + ⋯. .+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 … … … … . +𝑅𝑛
𝐴𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛
Equivalent thermal conductivity –
Equivalent thermal conductivity –
l1 + L2 + L3 + ⋯ + Ln ∑ni Li
k eq = =
L1 L2 Ln L 𝑘1 𝐴1 + 𝑘2 𝐴2 + ⋯ … + 𝑘𝑛 𝐴𝑛
∑ni ( )
k1 + k 2 + ⋯ … . + k n k i 𝑘𝑒𝑞 =
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + ⋯ . +𝐴𝑛
om
CONVECTION - Molecules moves and transfer the heat.
𝐻 = ℎ𝐴. ∆𝑇𝐻 Natural Convection: Temperature increase => Density decrease
l.c
H = heat current 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑡𝑎𝑒𝑟 > 𝑑ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
h = convection constant Hot water molecules starts rising up
ai
A = Area Forced Convection: Heat flow is due to a machine
∆𝑇 = Temperature Difference gm 𝑒𝑥 → 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐴𝑐
Radiation: The process of heat flow without presence of any medium is called radiation
4@
Every body whose temperature is Wein’s Displacement Law – The Spectral Emissive Power
more than 0 K, emits relations wavelength for which emissive (E) –The amount of
power of a black body is maximum energy radiated by a body
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
i1
is inversely proportional to the per unit time per unit

Q = Qa + Qr + Qt absolute temperature of body area
an
a+r+t = 1 1 Q
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ E=
𝑇 At
For a body a = 1 (perfect absorber)
ir
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏. 𝑇 Q = Radiant Energy,

For a body if r = 1 (perfect reflector)
𝑏 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
at
A = surface area
For a body if t = 1 (Perfect
transmitter) 𝑏 = 2.898 × 10−3 𝑚𝑘 t = time
ag
pr
35
Coefficient of emission / Emissivity (e) – Stefan’s Law of radiation: For a perfect black body
amount of radiant energy per unit time per unit area is
Ratio of emissive power of an ordinary
directly proportional to fourth power of absolute
body to emissive power of black body temperature
𝐸
𝑒= 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝐸𝑏
𝐽
For perfect black body e = 1 𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 5.67 × 10−8
𝑚2 . 𝑆𝐾 4
For perfect reflectors e = 0 Amount of energy radiated by perfect black body heaving
area A, Temp T, in time t
For ordinary body 0 < e < 1
𝑄 = 𝜎. 𝐴𝑡𝑇 4
om
Good absorber of heat are good emitter
of heat For ordinary body, 𝑄 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑡𝑇 4
Newton’s Law of cooling –
l.c
Rate of loss of heat ∝ Temp diff of a body with surrounding for lower temp range
ai
Body temp = T, Surrounding temp = T0
𝐝𝐓
𝐝𝐭
∝ (𝐓 − 𝐓𝟎 )gm
dT
→ rate of fall in temp of body
dt
4@
Rate of fall in temp of body is directly proportional to difference of temp of body with surrounding
T1 − T2 T1 + T2
= k[ − T0 ]
i1
t 2
T1 = higher Temp
an
T2 = lower Temperature
T0 = temp of surrounding
ir
t = time in which temp of body falls from T1 to T2

at
ag
pr
36
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
SOME IMPORTANT FORMULAS
Mean free path: Mean velocity (𝐂̅ 𝐨𝐫 𝐕

̅) →
1 C1 → velocity of 1st molecule

λ=
√2 πnd2
C2 → velocity of 2nd molecule
λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + ⋯ … +
λavg = λ̅ = C1 + C2 + ⋯ . . +CN
N C̅ =
N
Root mean square velocity → (𝐂𝐑𝐌𝐒 𝐨𝐫 𝐕𝐑𝐌𝐒 𝐨𝐫 √̅̅̅
𝐂𝟐 𝐨𝐫 √̅̅
𝐕̅̅𝟐)
̅̅̅𝟐 𝐨𝐫 ̅̅
Mean Square velocity → (𝐂 𝐕̅̅𝟐 )
C12 + C22 + C32 + ⋯ … . CN2 C12 + C22 + C32 + ⋯ … . . +CN2
om
CRMS = √ ̅̅̅
C2 =
N N
Derivation of Pressure Of gas: Relation Between 𝐂𝐑𝐌𝐒 & T – Boyle’s Law →
l.c
N = no. of gas molecules, M = Mass of gas At constant temp
3RT
CRMS = √
Volume of container= V, ρ = density M0 2N 1
ai
2
PV = ( mCRMS )=C
3 2
1M 2 1
P= 2
. CRMS = ρCRMS ∴ CRMS ∝ √T
3V 3 gm
Kinetic Energy of gas: KE of gas per unit volume – KE per molecule –
4@
Whole gas of mass M is 3nRT 3

KEvol = KE of one molecule = k T
concentrated as point mass M 2V 2 B
moving with CRMS KE per mole – k B = Boltzman Constant
i1
3 3
KEgas = PV = nRT 3
nRT 3 k B = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
2 2
KEmole =2 = RT
an
n 2
DIFFERENT SPEEDS OF GASES

ir
RMS speed – Average speed: Average speed of all RMS speed –

molecules in a gas
at
3RT 3kB T 3RT 3k B T

CRMS = √ = √ CRMS = √ = √
M0 m 8RT 8k B T M0 m
ag
Vavg = √ = √ = 0.92 VRMS

πM0 πm
Most probable speed: The speed of largest no of molecules in a gas is called as most possible velocity
pr
2RT
Vmp = √ = 0.816 VRMS , 𝐕𝐑𝐌𝐒 > 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠 > 𝐕𝐦𝐩
M0
Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature the pressure of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
1
P∝ [at constant Temperature ]
V
PV = constant
37
Charles law: At constant pressure volume of the gas is directly proportional to the temperature
V ∝ T [At constant pressure ]
Temp is taken in kelvin.
Gay Lussac’s Law: At constant volume the pressure of gas is directly proportional to its temperature
P ∝ T [At constant volume]

P
= constant
T
om
IDEAL GAS EQUATION
𝐏𝐕 = 𝐧𝐑𝐓 Graham’s law of diffusion: Rate of diffusion –

Consider two gases density
l.c
1 r ∝ CRMS
P∝ , V ∝ T, P∝T ρ1 & ρ2 , RMS speed v1 & v2 ,
V
Pressure P1 & P2
r1 v1 ρ2
ai
R = Universal gas constant = = √
v1 ρ2 r2 v2 ρ1
J cal = √
R = 8.314
nol k
=2
mol. k
v2 ρ1 gm
Dalton’s Law of partial Pressure: In a Vander Waal’s equation: for real gas
4@
container of volume V, The total

pressure exerted by non-reacting n2 a
(P + ) (V − nb) = nRt
gases when taken in a container is V2
algebraic sum of their partial pressure
i1
a & b are Vander Wall’s constant

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . . . . .. NOTE - Real gases behaves like ideal gases at High temperature
an
& Low pressure
CRITICAL CONSTANT
ir
dP
When the rate of changes of pressure with respect to rate of change of volume is zero then [dV = 0 ],
at
which is called point of inflexion.

ag
Critical Temp Critical volume Critical pressure

8a vc = 3b a
Tc = Pc =
27bR 27b2
pr
VAPOUR PRESSURE
When a liquid is kept in a closed container some of the liquid get evaporated and adjust itself between air
molecules present over the liquid surface & exert a pressure on liquid surface
Saturation vapour Pressure: During evaporation when volume of liquid becomes constant & max
evaporation has occurred. Then at this stage VP is called or SVP
SVP increases with increase in temperature
38
Dew Point: The temperature Humidity: The amount of water present per unit volume of air is called
at which SVP is equal to as humidity
existing vapour pressure
unit = kg/m3
Relative Humidity (RH): Mean Free Path: d = Diameter of gas molecule

SVP of dew point 1
RH = λ = n = no of gas molecule per unit
SVP at existing temp √2 πnd2 volume
VP of air PV = nRT N
RH = n=
SVP of air at that temp V
om
Degree Of Freedom: The minimum number of information required to know about any system
Transitional DOF: Max = 3 Rotational DOF: Max = 3 Vibrational DOF: Achieved at high
l.c
temperature
1 1
KEx = mVx2 , KERot(x) = I ω2 ,
2 2 x For 1 mode of vibration = 2 DOF
ai
1
KEy = 2 mVy2 , 1 1
KERot(y) = yω2 , KE = µV 2 → µ = related mass of system
2
KEz =
1
2
mVz2 1
KERot(z) = Iz ω2
gm PE =
2
1 2
Kx , x = Distance between molecules
2 2
4@
General Expression for DOF – 1. Monoatomic Gas: Non Rigid molecule: Addition
made of vibration
f = 3N − k Translation DOF = 3
Total = 3 T + 2 r + 2 V = 7
i1
N = No of atoms in molecule 2. Diatomic Gas: 𝐍𝟐 , 𝐎𝟐

3. Triatomic Non-Linear: H2 O
No of particles in system 3 transitional DOF, 2 Rotational DOF
an
3 translation, 3 rotational
K = no of independent Total DOF = 5
relations between particles Total DOF = 6
ir
4. Triatomic linear: 𝐂𝐎𝟐

at
3 translational, 2 rotational, 2 vibrational

ag
Total DOF = 7
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT

pr
CV → Molar specific heat at constant volume DOF = f At thermal equilibrium

CP → Molar specific heat at constant pressure
nfRT nfR
KE = Cv =
3 1 1 1 2 2
KE per mole = RT = RT + RT + RT
2 2 2 2
Adiabatic Constant(𝛄): ratio of molar specific heats at
Mayor’s formula – constant pressure and constant volume
CP − CV = R CP
γ=
R = universal gas constant CV
39
𝛄 for monoatomic gas [for one 𝛄 for diatomic [Rigid] – 𝛄 for diatomic Non-rigid –
mole of gas] –
7 9
γdia = = 1.4 γdi−non rigid = = 1.28
γmono = 1.66 5 7
𝛄 for triatomic non-linear [f = 6] – For polyatomic gas – 3 tr + 3 rot + f no. of vibrational moles
4 4+f
γtri = = 1.33 γpoly =
3 3+f
Relation between 𝛄 & f –
om
γ= 1+
f
2
f=
γ−1
l.c
ai
gm
4@
i1
an
ir
at
ag
pr
40
THERMODYNAMICS
WORK DONE IN THERMODYNAMICS
Total work done by gas system → expand → volume increase Work done in cyclic
𝑉𝑓
process –
Work done by gas = +ve , Work done on gas = -ve
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 Work done is area
systerm → compression → volume decrease
𝑉𝑖 inside the cycle.
Work done by gas = -ve, Work done on gas = +ve
If pressure is constant Clock Wise → WD
= +ve
𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ) W = ∫ P. dV
Anticlockwise
Work done = Area under pressure – volume graph → WD = −ve
om
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS Pressure Y on axis,
Volume on X axis
Zeroth law of thermodynamics: First Law of thermodynamics → WD by system = +ve
l.c
[𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑻 ]
If A is in thermal equilibrium WD on system = -ve
with B and also B is in thermal When heat is given to system
Temp of body ↓ , ∆U = +ve
ai
equilibrium with C then A will be them some part of this heat is
in thermal equilibrium with C. used to do the work & some Temp of body ↑ ∆U = −ve
part increase its internal energy
If, 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐶 and also, 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑇𝐶
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
gm Heat is given to system = +ve
Then, 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵 Heat is given by system = -ve

4@
Second Law of Thermodynamics – Entropy: Degree of randomness or disorder
1. Kelvin-plank statement: It is impossible to  Entropy is not a conserved quantity

construct an engine which can convert entire heat  Entropy of universe always increase
i1
into useful work.  For an isolated system it is not possible

for a process to decrease the entropy.
an
2. Claussius’s Statement: In a self-acting machine it is

Tf
not possible to transfer heat from colder body to dQ
hotter body without an aid of external energy. ∆S = Sf − Si = ∫
T
ir
Ti
at
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF GASES
CP R n1 CP1 + n2 CP2 n1 CV1 + n2 CV2

=γ CV = γmix = CV(mix) =
ag
CV γ−1 n1 CV1 + n2 CV2 n1 + n2

γR
CP − CV = R CP = n1 + n2 n1 n2 n1 CP1 + n2 CP 2
γ−1 = + CP(mix) =
pr
γmix − 1 γ1 − 1 γ2 − 1 n1 + n2
FLOT FOR DIFFERENT PROCESSES
Isobaric Process: The physical change 5𝑅

𝐶𝑃(𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜) =
undergoing at constant pressure. 2
7𝑅
𝐶𝑃(𝑑𝑖𝑎) =
1. 𝑉∝𝑇 2
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
2. Slope of P-V curve = = 0 4. Bulk modulus of elasticity, 𝐵 = − . 𝑉 = 0
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
3. Specific heat 5. Work done : 𝑊 = 𝑃. ∆𝑉 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑃. 𝑉 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
41
THERMODYNAMICS
FLOT for isobaric Process: FLOT for Isochoric or Isometric Process: Volume constant
𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 1. It obeys Gay-Lussac’s Law

𝑃∝𝑇
∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 ∆𝑇 2. Pressure – Volume Graph
𝑄 = 𝑛. 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑃
3. Slope of P.V Graph 𝑑𝑉
=∞
3𝑅
FLOT for isochoric process – 4. Specific heat 𝐶𝑉(𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜) =
2
5𝑅
𝑊 = 𝑃. ∆𝑉 = 0 𝐶𝑉(𝑑𝑖𝑎) =
2
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 5. Bulk modulus of elasticity
−𝑑𝑃
om
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉 ∆𝑇 𝐵= .𝑉
𝑑𝑉
𝐵=∞
Isothermal Process: The physical change undergoing at constant temperature
l.c
1. It obeys Boyle’s law 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1. Specific Heat
ai
2. Slope of PV Graph Q Q
C= = =∞
n∆T n. 0
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑉
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑃. 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
gm
2. Specific heat in isothermal process is not defined
3. Bulk Modulus OF Elasticity

𝑑𝑃 −𝑃
4@
= −dP −P
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 B= .V = −( ).V = P
dV V
Work done in isothermal process:
FLOT in isothermal process –
i1
Vf Pi
W = nRT ln [ ] = nRT ln [ ] ∆𝑇 = 0 ⇒ ∆𝑈 = 0
Vi Pf
an
vf Pi ∴𝑄=𝑊
W = 2.303 nRT log10 [ ] = 2.303nRTlog10 [ ]
Vi Pf
ir
Adiabatic Process: Such a process in which heat exchange will not occur between system and surrounding
at
 Process must be sudden Slope of PV curve – Adiabatic Elasticity –

 Walls between system surrounding
must be perfectly insulated 𝑃. 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐵𝑎𝑑𝑖 = 𝛾. 𝐵𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
ag
Specific heat Work done in adiabatic Process:

𝑃. 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑄 0 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑛𝑅[𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 ]
pr
𝑇. 𝑉 𝛾−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐶= = =0 𝑊= =
𝑛∆𝑇 𝑛∆𝑇 1−𝛾 𝛾−1
𝑇 𝛾 𝑃1−𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
∆𝑈 = −𝑊
Heat engine: The device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy in a cyclic process
Source: Reservoir at higher temp 𝑇1 o/P work done by engine

Efficiency = =
I/P heat energy absorbed by engine from source
Sink: Reservoir at lower Temp 𝑇2
W Q1 − Q 2 Q2 T2
η= = =1− =1− <1
𝑊 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 Q1 Q1 Q1 T1
42
THERMODYNAMICS
Carnot Reversible heat engine
A to B - Isothermal expansion: B to C - Adiabatic process:

𝑉2 𝑛𝑅(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑊1 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 ln ( ) 𝑊2 =
𝑉1 𝛾−1
∴𝑄=𝑊 𝑄2 = 0
𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑉2 𝛾−1
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑄1 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 ln ( ) =( )
𝑉1 𝑇1 𝑉3
From C to D - Isothermal From D to A - Adiabatic V2 V4

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤, W = nRT1 ln ( ) + nRT2 ln ( )
om
compression: compression: V1 V3
𝑉4 𝑛𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) Total 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 absorbed by system , Q = Q1

𝑊3 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇2 ln ( ) 𝑊4 =
𝑉3 𝛾−1 V2
l.c
Q = Q1 = nRTln ( )
𝑉3 V1
𝑄3 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇2 ln ( ) 𝑄4 = 0
𝑉4 W T2
𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲, η = = 1−
ai
Q T1
REFRIGERATOR
Coefficient of performance(𝛃):
gm
Relation between 𝜷 & 𝜼:
Heat absorbed 1−𝜂

β= 𝛽=
4@
Work done 𝜂
Q2 Q2 1
β= = =
W Q1 − Q2 T1 − 1
i1
T2
an
ir
at
ag
pr
43
OSCILLATIONS
BASIC FORMULAS
For oscillatory Motion For SHM Time period in SHM (T) – The time taken by particle
to complete one cycle in SHM.
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥 ⇒ 𝐹 = −𝐾𝑥
𝑚
𝑎 ∝ −𝑥 𝑎 ∝ −𝑥 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐾
General equation of SHM – Velocity – Acceleration –

x0 v = ωAcos(ωt + ϕ) a = ω2 A sin(ωt + ϕ)
x = Asin [ωt + sin−1 ( )]
A
v = −ω√A2 − x 2 𝑎 = −ω2 𝑥
x = A sin(ωt + ϕ)
om
vmax = ωA ⇒ at mean position, a max = ω2 A ⇒ extreme position,
−1
X0
ϕ = sin ( ) and v = 0, at extreme positions
A and a = 0, at mean position
l.c
Time 𝑡=0 𝑇 𝑇 3𝑇 t=T 5𝑇
𝑡= 𝑡= 𝑡= 𝑡=
4 2 4 4
(𝝎𝒕)𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 0 2𝜋 𝑇 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋
. =
ai
𝑇 4 2 2 2
Disp (x) 0 +A 0 -A 0 +A
Vel (V)
Accln (a)
𝜔𝐴
0
0
−𝜔2 𝐴
−𝜔𝐴
0
gm 0
+ 𝜔2 𝐴
𝜔𝐴
0
0
−𝜔2 𝐴
ENERGY IN SHM
4@
Potential energy in SHM: Kinetic energy in SHM: Average value of potential energy in SHM:
1 1 1
i1
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑢𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2

2 2 4
𝑢(0) = 0 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 Average value of kinetic energy in SHM:
an
1 1 1
𝑢(𝐴) = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2 2 4
ir
Total energy in SHM –

at
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑘𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
ag
1 1 1
𝑇𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2 2 2
pr
Time period of simple pendulum –
Linear SHM Angular SHM

Displace the particle from mean position Displace the particle from mean position
Find restoring force Find restoring torque
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡
Find acceleration 𝑎 = Find acceleration 𝛼 =
𝑚 𝐼
Compare this acceleration with 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 Compare this acceleration with 𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= 𝑇=
𝜔 𝜔
44
OSCILLATIONS
TIME PERIOD OF PENDULUM
Simple Pendulum as Linear SHM – Time period on surface of earth – Time period of simple
pendulum at depth d –
𝐿 𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔 𝑔𝑠 𝐿
𝑇𝑑 = 2𝜋√
𝑔𝑑
Simple pendulum as angular SHM – Time period of simple pendulum at
height ‘h’ from the surface of earth – 𝑔𝑑 − acceleration due
For small angles
to gravity at depth d
𝐿
𝐿 𝑇ℎ = 2𝜋√ 𝑔ℎ − acceleration due
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑔ℎ
om
𝑔 to gravity at height h
WHEN POINT OF SUSPENSION IS ACCELERATING
l.c
Time period of simple pendulum when point of suspension is accelerating –
𝑎 𝐿
ai
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋 √
𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 2 2
√𝑎 + 𝑔 + 2𝑎𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
Point of suspension accelerating upward / Retarding down – gm

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
4@
𝑔+𝑎
Point of suspension accelerating A pendulum is kept in vehicle moving down freely on an inclined
down / Retarding upward – plane –
i1
𝐿 𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
an
𝑔−𝑎 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Point of suspension moving 𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

ir
horizontally with acceleration “a” –

at
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ Time period of simple pendulum in Electric Field:
√𝑎 + 𝑔2
2
ag
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑞𝐸
Simple pendulum with large length
𝑚𝑔 + 𝑞𝐸 𝑞𝐸
and small amplitude – 𝑎= = 𝑔+
pr
𝑚 𝑚
𝑅 𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √
𝑅 𝑞𝐸
𝑔 ( 1 + 𝐿) 𝑔+
𝑚
Second’s Pendulum – The simple Time period of infinite length: SHM of floating Body:
pendulum whose time period is 2
second 𝑅 𝑀
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔 𝐴𝜌𝑔
𝑙 = 99.3 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 1𝑚
45
OSCILLATIONS
Physical pendulum – Spring pendulum Time period –
𝑚
𝐼ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑘
𝑚𝑔𝑑
Frequency –
m = mass of body, d = distance between com & hinge
I = MI about hinge 1 1 𝑘
𝑓= = √
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑚
𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑚 + 𝑚𝑑2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚𝑔𝑑
om
For vertical spring pendulum
l.c
ai
gm
COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
4@
Springs in series combination – Springs in parallel combination –
𝑚(𝐾1 + 𝐾2 ) 𝑚
i1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
an
COMPOSITION OF TWO SHM
Two equations are given Resultant amplitude – Composition of two SHM in

ir
perpendicular direction –
𝑥1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼1 )
at
𝑅 = √𝐴21 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos(𝛼1 − 𝛼2 )

𝑥 = 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑥2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼2 )
𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 + 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 𝑦 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)
ag
Resultant SHM 𝛿 = tan−1 [ ]

𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2
𝑥 2 𝑦2
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) + =1
𝐴21 𝐴22
pr
DAMPED OSCILLATION
For damped oscillations In damped oscillation a periodic force is applied
d2 x b dx k d2 x b dx k
+ + x=0 + + x = F0 sin ωt
dt2 m dt m dt2 m dt m
2π
T=
2
√k − ( b )
m 2m
46
WAVES
BASIC FORMULAS
Newton’s Formula for velocity of Laplace Correction

sound –
1. Propagation of sound wave in air is an adiabatic process
𝐸 2. Compression & rarefaction is fast process
𝑉= √
𝜌 3. 𝐸 = 𝛾𝑃
In isothermal process, 𝐸 = 𝑃 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.41

𝐶𝑃
𝑃 𝛾=
𝑉= √ 𝐶𝑉
𝜌
Velocity of sound wave = 332.3 𝑚/𝑠
om
Effect of temperature Effect of humidity on speed of sound: Simple harmonic progressive wave:
on velocity of sound:
Humidity Dry Air < Humidity Moist Air 2π
l.c
y = A sin (ωt − x)
λ
γRT ρdry air > ρmoisy air
v= √ ⇒ v ∝ √T y = A sin (ωt − kx)
M0 humidity ↑ density ↓
ai
ω coefficient of t
Vmoist > Vdry = wave speed =
k cofficient of x
Direction of wave –
gm Phase difference and path difference:
Sign of t & x are opposite → wave travels in +Ve x direction 2π

Phase difference = . path difference
4@
λ
Sign of t & x are same → wave travels in –Ve x direction
Particle speed → Short trick – To find the direction of particle, stand

on that particular particle of wave, and look at the
i1
ω
Wave speed = v = direction just opposite to the direction of wave –
k
an
∂y  If this point is upside, then the particle will move

Particle speed = VP = upward
∂t
 If this point is downside, then particle will move
ir
∂y
Slope of wave = downward.
∂x
at
NOTE – Particle velocity changes periodically while

Particle speed = −wave speed × slope of wave
wave speed remains constant
ag
ECHO
Echo: reflection of sound that arrives at the Reverberation: The time for which sound persists even
pr
listener with a delay after the direct sound. after a sound source has stopped producing sound waves
is called as reverberation time (T)
Time required to hear the echo
Reverberation time for a hall of volume V and area S
2𝑥
𝑡=
𝑉 0.16𝑉
𝑇= ∑
𝑎𝑖 𝑆𝑖
Minimum distance for which echo can be
heard clearly – S = surface area, a = Absorption coefficient,
V = Volume
𝑥 = 17 𝑚
47
WAVES
Range of hearing : For man it is 20 Hz to 20 kHz Mach cone–
Infrasonic (Dolphin, Elephant) < 20 Hz to 20 kHz < ultrasonic (SONAR) 1

θ = sin−1 ( )
M
Mach number: The ratio of speeds of object to the speed of sound.
θ = Mach cone angle
Let’s say, V0 = speed of object, V = speed of sound
Mach cone forms when,
𝑉0
𝑀=
𝑉 Vo ≥ V
REFLECTION OF WAVES
Reflection of Longitudinal wave: Reflection of transverse wave –
om
When longitudinal wave travels from rarer to denser When transverse wave travels from rarer to
medium, denser medium
l.c
 compression reflects back as compression 1. Crest reflects back as trough
 rarefaction reflects back as rarefaction 2. Trough reflects back as crest
ai
When longitudinal wave travels from denser to rarer When transverse travels from denser to rarer
medium, medium
 the compression reflects back as rarefaction

 the rarefaction reflects back as compression
gm 1.
2.
Crest reflects back as crest
Trough reflects back as trough
4@
FORMATION OF BEATS - Alternate waxing and waning is called as beat.
Analytical treatment of beats: NOTE – Intensity will be max if amplitude is maximum
Let there are two waves Indensity ∝ Amp2

i1
y = A sin(ωt − kx) & y = A sin(2πnt − kx) Time interval for max sound to be heard:
an
Wave produces a disturbance in medium 1

(beat period) T =
whose displacement depends on time ‘t’ n1 − n2
ir
1. Amplitude of both sound waves is same Beat Frequency = N = n1 − n2

2. Frequencies are nearly equal
at
NOTE – Sound intensity will be min if amplitude is min

They will interfere - superposition
𝑅=0
ag
y = y1 + y2
(2𝑃 + 1 )
𝑡=
n1 + n2 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
y = R sin 2π ( )t
pr
2
Maxima → Minima →
1 2 3 1 3 5 7
0, , , , . . . .. , , , . ..
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
2nd max - 1st min → 2nd min - 1st max →
1 1 2−1 1 3 1 3−2 1
− = = − = =
(
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) (
2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2) (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) 2(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
48
WAVES
APPLICATION OF BEATS
To determine unknown frequency Loading Method: Put some wax an unknown fork. It
decreases the frequency of unknown tuning fork.
Two tuning fork
If no. of beats decreases If no. of beats ↑ 𝑒𝑠
A → known frequency = fA or nA
𝑛𝐵 (original) = 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑁 𝑛𝐵 (original) = 𝑛𝐴 − 𝑁
B → unknown frequency = fB or nB
Both of them are sounded together Filling Method: File the unknown tuning fork
Beat frequency = N→ No. of beats per second Filling increases its frequency
om
Possibility of unknown frequency If no. of beats decreases If no. of beat increases
𝑛𝐵 (original) = 𝑛𝐴 − 𝑁 𝑛𝐵 (original) = 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑁
nB = nA + N or nB = nA − N
l.c
INTENSITY
Energy For a point source – Loudness: Intensity of sound measured in
Intensity =
ai
Area. time decibels is called as loudness
𝑃 𝑃
I W 𝐼= =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2 Loudness for Loudness for
I= 2 = 2
m S m
For one Dimensional wave:
For line source of wave –
gm Intensity I1
I
L1 = 10 log10 I1
intensity I2
I2
L2 = 10log10
𝑃 𝑃 0
I0
𝑃 𝐼= =
4@
𝐼= 𝐴 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 Change in Loudness –

𝐴
L = Length of line source, I2
P = Power of source ∆L = 10 log10
r = perpendicular distance I1
i1
DOPPLER’S EFFECT
an
Apparent frequency = Source & observer both moving towards each other
𝑉 ± 𝑉0 𝑉 + 𝑉0
𝑛′ = 𝑛 𝑛′ = 𝑛 ( )
𝑉 ± 𝑉𝑆 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑆
ir
Source & observer both moving away from each other

at
V = velocity of sound 𝑉 − 𝑉0
𝑛′ = 𝑛 ( )
𝑉 + 𝑉𝑆
ag
𝑉0 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
n = original frequency of source
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
pr
𝑛′ = apparent frequency
STATIONARY WAVE
𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) By superposition Node →

𝑥 2𝜋𝑥 Resultant amplitude is zero
𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋 (𝑛𝑡 − ) ∴ 𝑦 = 2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝜆 𝜆
𝑥 Antinode →
2𝜋𝑥
𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋 (𝑛𝑡 + ) 𝑅 = 2𝐴 cos
𝜆 𝜆
Resultant amplitude is maximum
49
WAVES
Harmonics: The fundamental frequency & its Overtone: the first higher frequency than
integral multiples are called as harmonics harmonic & its multiple are called as overtone
Fundamental frequency → Smallest Frequency → When all harmonics are present –

1st harmonic
𝑃𝑡ℎ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 = (𝑃 + 1)𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
st
1 harmonic → 50 Hz
When only odd harmonics are present –
100 𝐻𝑧 → 2 × 50 → 2𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝑃𝑡ℎ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 = (2𝑃 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝑟𝑑
150 𝐻𝑧 → 3 × 50 → 3 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
MODES OF VIBRATION OF STRING
om
1st Mode of vibration – 𝑷𝒕𝒉 Mode of Vibration:
1 𝑇 𝑃 𝑇
∴ 𝑛1 = √ 𝑛𝑃 = √
l.c
2𝐿 µ 2𝐿 µ
𝑛1 = 𝑛 → 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑛𝑃 = 𝑃. 𝑛
ai
2nd mode of vibration – 𝑃𝑡ℎ Harmonic = (𝑃 − 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑛2 =
2 𝑇
√
gm
Frequency of 𝑷𝒕𝒉 overtones –
2𝐿 µ
𝑃+1 𝑇
𝑛𝑃+1 = √
4@
𝑛2 = 2𝑛1 2𝐿 µ
2𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 In Vibrating string all harmonics are present
i1
LAWS OF VIBRATING STRING

an
If material is same
1 𝑇
𝑛= √
2𝐿 µ 1
𝑛∝
ir
𝑟
1
𝑛∝ If radius is kept constant & material is changed
at
𝐿
1 1
𝑛 ∝ √𝑇 ∝ 𝑛∝
ag
√µ √𝜌
Modes of vibration in origin pipe

pr
Pipe closed at one end – Pipe open at both ends –
𝑃𝑡ℎ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 = nP = (2P + 1)n v

P th overtone = nP = (P + 1)n = (P + 1)
v 2L
= (2P + 1)
4L
- (𝑃 + 1)𝑡ℎ mode of vibration
Note - Only odd harmonic are present - (𝑃 + 1)𝑡ℎ Harmonic
 All harmonic are present
 Ratio harmonics 1 : 2 : 3 : . . . . . (P + 1 )
50

11th Formula Sheet

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11th Formula Sheet

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COPYRIGHT@BIOMENTORS CLASSES ONLINE, MUMBAI

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Triangle law of vector addition of two vectors: Polygon law: ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 2𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃 + 𝑄 2 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑛𝑑, 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃

Dot product (scalar product): Cross product: Resolution of a vector:

𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ . 𝑖̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑅𝑥

Fundamental Unit Symbol Supplementary Units -

Dimensional Formula – For any physical quantity, Uses of Dimensional formula-

dimensional formula is the way to express the

2. To derive an expression for a physical

3. To find the conversion factors

Significant figures – measured value that expresses precision of a measurement.

Rules for significant figure

1. All non-zero digits are significant

Rule no -1 - If digit to be dropped is less than 5, Rules for addition/subtraction –

main scale then this is positive zero error.

−ve zero error = −[ Total no of VSD − VSD coinsiding ] × LC

True Reading = Measured value – (-ve zero error)

True Reading = Measured value + |-ve zero error|

Screw gauge – Error in screw gauge:

Pitch – 1. Zero of circular scale coincide with reference line,

v1 t1 + v2 t2 … … . Acceleration- Rate of change of Velocity

v = u + at These three equations are called kinematical equations

Differentiation of x wrt t → velocity Instantaneous speed & Instantaneous

Integration of velocity wrt t → displacement (change 𝑟⃗ = position vector at any instant t

Motion under gravity: Maximum height attained by particle:

is assumed to be origin. Time required to reach maximum height:

 Graph is straight x  inclined straight line

Reading of velocity-time graph:

 Line parallel to time  t=0, v=0

axis  particle starts its

Velocity is constant motion from rest

 Acceleration is zero  velocity increasing

Time uniform acceleration

Acceleration – Time graph:

Acceleration: Slope of velocity time graph

River boat problems in 1-D motion: 1

r sx .+oy.n. l. .i. n… e. (2)

 Initial velocity ux = u cos θ , uy = u sin θ 1 gx 2

Relation between range and height:

Change in velocity: Change in velocity in Equation of trajectory:

HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE MOTION

Horizontal Vertical Equation of trajectory: Displacement of particle –

Velocity A w. r. t B = Velocity of A wrt ground – velocity of B wrt ground

River – Boat problems: Time taken to cross the river:

⃗⃗𝑏 = Velocity of boat w. r. t ground

Relative projectile: Condition of collision,

The time when particle meet:

Inertial frame of reference Non - Inertial frame of reference

The frame of reference which is either at The accelerated frame of reference

frame of reference frame of reference

Normal Reaction force Types of equilibrium –

 It is a contact force  Equilibrium: When net force on a body is zero, then

surface in contact  Static Equilibrium: When body is at rest

Dynamic Equilibrium: When body is in uniform state

Motoin of body connected with string Uniform massive rope:

m1 + m2 Downward direction –Ve

Pseudo force - Fpseudo = mass of object × acceleartion of frame of reference

Spring force – Series combination of spring – Spring cutting –

Impulse – product of force and time. Impulse –

Types of friction – Static friction – when there is no relative motion

Laws of limiting friction – Magnitude of NOTE – Maximum value  𝜇𝑠 = coefficient of static

Comparison of 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝒇𝒆𝒙𝒕 –