LESSON TEN

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN NATIONAL SECURITY

10.1 Introduction

In lesson nine you were introduced to the state and non-state security actors. This lesson ten
introduces you to the contemporary security issues. In the last two decades, the architecture of
global governance has significantly changed in terms that post-cold-war system dominated
mainly by Western countries is now facing fragmentations. New actors, new forms of
governance and various forms of partnerships are shaping new multilateralism, which is
challenged with many security issues and conflicting relations between global actors. Most
prominent challenges are climate change, terrorism, organised crime and international migration
with transnational volume. These challenges demand consolidated and joint response and for that
relations among main global actors are essential for security and international relations.

10.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

a) Examine the contemporary security issues

10.3 Contemporary Security Issues

All states still feel insecure because of various internal and external threats. Absolute security
involving the complete eradication of threats as detrimental is generally neither unobtainable nor
will a state attain a stage of perfection in future. Poverty, political instability, and disasters
caused by natural hazards and human made hazards are such common factors to precipitate the
crises and threats in any state of its natural security. Dependency on other states and under-
utilization and mismanagement of resources or bargain for foreign exploitation is a security
concern.The boundaries of security have changed fairly drastically in the 21 st century. While the
international security has traditionally focused on geopolitics and conventional military threats
facing states, a new thoughts have emerged challenging the traditional frameworks. These
include:

1. Homeland Security

Homeland Security is a kind of change management dealing with a huge system containing many
of the organizations public or private elements along with various political and sociological
aspects. It is also regarded as studies of culture, merger, innovations, inter organizational and
intra organizational relations, strategic management and leadership. The link between National
Security and Homeland Security is an important one. The interconnected nature of people,
economies, international infrastructure and the world can infuse seemingly isolated or remote
events with global consequences. Events at home and abroad generate rapid effects, often in an
interconnected fashion, driven by breathtaking technological change and speed of light
international communication. This accelerated flow of ideas, goods and people around the world,
while vital to supporting and advancing a nations’ interest, also creates security challenges that
are increasingly borderless and unconventional. In many parts of the world, states no longer have
monopoly on the use of force, although they continue to hold a large majority of power. Globally
natural hazards have increased in scale and impact and emerging diseases move effortlessly
across borders and expansively through global movement systems causing disasters.To a greater
degree than at any point in history, individuals and small groups from Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGO) on one hand to criminal networks and terrorist organizations on the other,
have the ability to engage the world with far reaching effects, including those that are disruptive
and destructive and hence the Homeland Security agenda must be pursued linked to national
security interest.
2. Territorial Disputes

Territorial disputes are about territory or ‘Terra,’ which in Latin means “land” or “earth.”
Territorial disputes are the most complex, most encompassing and historically charged of all
border disputes. Traditionally, they broach issues of sovereignty, but also ethnicity, language,
religion, culture and sense of belonging, as well as natural resources, including access to water,
rivers, the sea and transportation network. Physical and topographical issues contribute to
territorial disputes because often they are linked to questions concerning the nature of the
landscape or the resources available in the land and sea, all which add to the complexity of the
dispute. Also, histories of colonization, conquest, and displacement interfere with the resolution
of those disputes.

3. Globalisation

Globalisation is defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped be events occurring many miles away
and vice versa.It creates greater interconnectedness of social life and social relationships
throughout the world.As a result of globalisation, what happens in one part of the world can
quickly affect other parts of the world.Globalisation is an array of phenomena that derive from
unorganized and stateless forces but that generate pressures that are felt by states. Globalization
influences traditional security concerns in three principal ways. It affects state capacity and
autonomy, that is, the relative power of the state vis-à-vis non-state actors, social forces, and
market pressures. It also affects the balance of power between states, because even if changes in
the system left each state absolutely less able to advance its interests, there would still be a
reshuffling of relative capabilities. By creating new sources of conflict between states, new
opportunities for entrepreneurs of political violence, and by reshaping the costs and benefits of
both warfare and conquest, the forces of globalization can recast the nature of armed conflict.

4. Counter Terrorism

Terrorism refers to acts of violence that target civilians in the pursuit of political or ideological
aims. It has a direct impact on the enjoyment of a number of human rights, i.e. the right to life,
liberty and physical integrity. Terrorist acts can destabilize the government, undermine civil
society, jeopardize peace and security, threaten social and economic development, and may
negatively affect certain groups.Terrorist incidents have economic consequences by diverting
foreign direct investment, destroying infrastructure, redirecting public investment funds to
security or limiting trade. The direct and indirect cost of terrorism range from loss of human
lives and the destruction of assets to reduced economic growth and life satisfaction. Terrorist
activity is funded through various legal and illegal avenues and often benefits from corruption
and support from the edges of the formal economy. These include narcotics trafficking, human
trafficking, extortion, illegal mining and banking transfer. The fight against terrorism calls for a
broad based international cooperation by developing the exchange of information and sharing
best practices, experiences and know how. The effectiveness of counter terrorism as a whole is
enhanced by the parties understanding of the various actors, resource and scope of action and the
related cooperation, competencies based on law and clear division of responsibilities.

5. Environmental Degradation

One of the most critical issues concerning a nation’s security in the 21st century is environmental
degradation, and in particular, climate change and its impact. Rising population and burgeoning
energy needs, has led to the excessive depletion of natural resources, at a rate much faster than it
can be replaced. Climate change has assumed critical importance to world security in the last few
decades. Global warming due to climate change has been predicted to have a cascading affect,
wherein the increasing temperatures will facilitate more frequent formation of cyclones and
storms in the tropical regions and the melting of polar ice caps, in turn leading to rising sea levels
and possible submerging of low-lying areas and island nations, threatening their very existence.
Rising temperatures also have the capacity to foster the spread of communicable diseases, such
as malaria and cholera, due to increased number of air-borne and water-borne vector carriers.
Thus climate change is a serious cause for concern to nation, since it is the fountainhead for
various other natural and related phenomena that may threaten the very existence of the human
race in the decades to come.

Dwindling fresh water resources likely to cause inter-state “water wars” in the future. For
example, China has resorted to diverting fresh water resources from Tibet to the water-scarce
Northern China region, thereby affecting millions of livelihoods in the riparian regions from
which the water was redirected. Such endeavours may not only affect the environment but also
lead to deteriorating relations with the neighbouring countries that would be adversely affected
by one state’s quest for fresh water resources. Thus water scarcity is a critical national security
issue for states, and is the best example of a “tragedy of the commons” wherein overpopulation
and a “free-riding mentality” may result in the degeneration and pollution of a resource.

Climate change may also affect agricultural production due to disruption of normal climate
caused by increasing temperatures. Food scarcity is an issue that has been touted to be the most
important problems that will be faced by the states in the future. Inflation in food prices is
already a reality, especially in developing countries which have dense populations. Although
predictions of a food deficit have not yet turned true, this cannot be ruled out in the future, as a
rapidly increasing population will place additional strain on the finite land resource and the
excessive use of fertilizers might result in soil infertility due to chemical imbalance.

Energy security is and will be one of the primary factors that will drive the foreign policy of
nations. Since oil, gas and coal are non-renewable sources of energy, states are expected to resort
to nuclear energy in the future in order to fulfill their energy needs. This will lead to the problem
of nuclear waste disposal and protection of the nuclear fuel from non-state terrorist and criminal
organizations which might misuse it to manufacture nuclear weapons. Resource wars cannot be
ruled out, as states might not hesitate to use offensive force in order to secure its energy needs
for the future.

Environmental refugees may soon become a reality, as environmental degradation and food and
water scarcity may lead to mass migration of populations from the affected regions, contributing
to the instability of the host states. Thus environment protection and nurturing is an urgent need
of the hour, as a destabilized environment can lead to a tipping point, after which catastrophic
and irreversible consequences, such as increase in the number of natural hazards causing
disasters, may threaten the survival of the state and its population.

6. Demographic Change

While over-population is a legitimate concern and, in some cases, already a reality in the
developing and underdeveloped regions of the world, the developed world is at the threshold of a
sweeping demographic change, with a simultaneously ageing and shrinking population, a
consequence of decreasing fertility rates and increasing life expectancy over the last few
decades. As a result, by 2025, the population in Western Europe and Japan will predominantly
comprise the elderly, with a rapidly decreasing workforce. This will increase the strain on
government resources, which will need to be diverted to provide care and assistance for the
ageing population, while at the same time being constrained by a shrinking working-age
population being unable to offset the deficit.
This demographic transition may be partially assuaged by the migrant working population from
the developing and underdeveloped countries, however, their integration into the society may not
be smooth, due to the prospect of ethnic tensions and religious extremism. A greater proportion
of the national budget will be allocated for social welfare, which might directly impact the
defense spending of the nation and compromising national security. An aging and shrinking
population would also translate into a reduction in the military capacity of a state due to shortage
of personnel. Thus, it is only logical that a dynamic change in the age and size of population
directly affect a state’s national security, even with the development of sophisticated weapons
technology.

7. Epidemics

Multiple public health threats have been classified as national security events. One of the first
was HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS lead to staggering mortality and infection rates, humanitarian
emergencies, and military conflicts requiring intervention as it also threatens citizenry at home,
abroad, armed forces deployed overseas and exacerbate social and political instability in all
regions. In 2002, the US National Intelligence Council (NIC) projected that HIV/AIDS would
seriously implicate national security interests as the disease spread to more populous countries.
Classifying HIV/AIDS as a national security threat paved the way for subsequent classifications
of other infectious diseases or public health threats as matters of national security,the concept of
health security has acquired an international dimension. Global health issues incurred as a result
of modern conflict, globalization, increased mobility of people, climate change, bioterrorism and
emerging infectious diseases pose threats not only to national, but to global security, as well. The
potential dangers of epidemics, particularly pandemics, are considered to be threats to national
security and as such they have found their place in the national documents and strategies of
national security. After the UN Security Council passed the first ever resolution on a health issue
in 2000 – Resolution 1308, which recognized the potential of an epidemic to pose a risk to
stability and security and declared “peaceful war against AIDS” as well as after a SARS
outbreak in 2003, a H1N1 pandemic in 2009, an Ebola outbreak in 2014, and COVID-19
pandemic in 2019 which the UN Security Council Resolution 2177 marked as a “threat to
international peace and security”, more attention has been given to the concept of global health
security.
 8. Transnational Organized Crime

Organized crime serves as a cross-cutting spoiler to achieving the Sustainable Development

Goals by 2030, and a serious threat to attaining several core goals related to health, the
environment, and peaceful and stable societies. These harms or impacts can be analysed and felt
at the individual, community, national or international level, albeit with differences based on
demographics, gender and individual or group vulnerability.

Most TOC flows begin on one continent and end on another, often by means of a third, so only
interventions at the scale of the problem-global-are likely to have a sustained effect. To address
these markets, there is a need to better understand them. Cooperation with national and
international law enforcement agencies should be enhanced. Civil Military Cooperation (CIMIC)
should be fostered and strengthened, while cooperation with available legal mechanisms,
including regional and international bodies should also be enhanced. The levels of TOC in
trafficking in drugs, counterfeit goods, wildlife products, humans, and small arms, as well as
money laundering) have increased in Kenya and become more pervasive during the past ten
years. Criminal networks have penetrated the political class and there are growing concerns
about their ability to fund elections and to exercise influence in Parliament and in procurement
processes. The crimes include:

a) Drug Trafficking

The global market value of drug trafficking is derived from retail sales of the four main
categories of illicit drugs: cannabis, cocaine, opiates, and amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS).
The global market in drug trafficking was worth US$426 billion to $652 billion in 2014.

b) Illicit Trade in Counterfeit Goods and other Commodities

The trade in counterfeit and pirated goods, which includes the theft of intellectual property (IP),
is the most profitable illicit trade. Combatting counterfeiting and piracy is not simply about
protecting corporate profits; it has direct implications on global health, safety, and security as
well as economic growth. Counterfeit and pirated products, as well as packaging, are tangible
goods that violate a trademark, design rights, and/or patent (counterfeit), or a copyright (piracy),
whereas digital piracy involves intangible goods. IP theft, in one form or another, is essentially
found in every country. The counterfeit and pirated goods market is largely responsive to the
same dynamics of the trade in legal goods-if there is a strong demand for a product, it is likely to
be counterfeited or pirated. The items are generally priced well below retail value, however
criminals still make a strong profit.

China and India are known for their large counterfeit and piracy industries. China is a global
leader in manufacturing, and likewise plays a prominent role in the manufacture of counterfeit
and pirated goods. It is estimated that between two-thirds and three-quarters of counterfeit and
pirated goods come from China. Networks of cross-border smugglers target fast moving and
highly profitable goods to import into Kenya illegally, including sugar, motor vehicles,
electronics, pharmaceuticals, batteries, ballpoint pens, and cosmetics. Thousands of bags of sugar
are smuggled into Kenya from Somalia every day, enriching Somali warlords.

c) Trafficking in Wildlife Products

The illegal wildlife trade refers to crimes involving live wildlife, wildlife products, or their
derivatives, both flora and fauna. While ivory and rhino horn dominate the headlines, the illegal
wildlife trade is much more complex, involving a multitude of species and a variety of markets
and drivers. This trade has had a disastrous impact on species conservation. High prices and low
enforcement risk have lured a legion of participants, from subsistence poachers to transnational
criminal networks and armed rebel groups, eager to satisfy and profit from a growing demand.

The illegal wildlife trade relies on a sophisticated global supply chain. The planning, collection,
and smuggling of large quantities of wildlife and wildlife products demonstrate a high degree of
coordination that is indicative of well-funded organized crime groups (OCGs). Criminal
networks may finance the poaching (e.g., providing weapons or money for weapons) so as to fill
orders, but typically they do not take part in the actual hunting. The active participation of these
networks usually begins after the animal has been poached, when brokers and middlemen
purchase and/or collect the goods, assemble caches, smuggle them to transit and exit points, and
launder the money.

d) Human Trafficking and Smuggling

Human trafficking refers to the recruitment, transportation, harbouring or receipt of persons, by
means of coercion, abduction, deception or abuse of power or vulnerability, for the purpose of
exploitation, with exploitation including, at a minimum, “sexual exploitation, forced labour,
slavery or slavery-like practices.Human trafficking is one of the fastest-growing TOC markets
and has the greatest direct impact on individuals. For all the brutality and ruined lives it brings,
human trafficking is motivated by profit maximization: exploiting vulnerable people for labour
or sex for money. Strong profits and weak penalties have attracted a wide variety of illicit actors,
from OCGs to terrorist organizations, operating both domestically and transnationally.

e) Small Arms and Light Weapons Trafficking

Arms’ trafficking is conducted around the world, from the sale of a single handgun to large
consignments and everything in between. Like art theft, popular culture has distorted the
dynamics of arms trafficking, suggesting the trade to be made up of large-scale transactions
brokered by so-called “merchants of death.” Sophisticated transnational illicit arms brokers with
well-connected networks do exist, but they are only one conduit through which arms are
trafficked.

f) Money Laundering

Money Laundering is generally understood to be the practice of converting the illicit proceeds of
criminal activity into funds that are “clean” or that cannot be demonstrated to have come from
criminal activity, thus making them useable for spending or investment. The conversion process
involves several steps, all of which are designed to avoid detection by law enforcement and
conceal the illicit proceeds of criminal activity in such a manner that they appear as the proceeds
from some legitimate endeavour. Money laundering charges may come along with accusations of
prostitution, selling drugs, committing mail or wire fraud, "structuring" a transaction by carving
up cash deposits to avoid currency reporting requirements, narcotics trafficking, bribery,
gambling, counterfeit merchandise, copyright infringement, and a wide range of other white
collar crimes, and illegal activities. Any illegal activity that either uses or generates money can
also lead to charges of money laundering

g) Maritime Piracy
Maritime piracy it is a violent, acquisitive crime that exploits a dense international flow of
commercial vessels. The term “piracy” encompasses two distinct sorts of offences: The first is
robbery or hijacking, where the target of the attack is a maritime vessel or its cargo; the second is
kidnapping for ransom, where the object of the attack is the crew.

h) Cybercrime

Cybercrime has been used to describe a wide range of offences, including offences against
computer data and systems such as “hacking”, computer-related forgery and fraud such as
“phishing”, content offences such as disseminating child pornography and copyright offences
such as the dissemination of pirated content. The 21stcentury has been labeled as the Information
Age, where civilians are being able to have unprecedented access to information. The
cyberspace, i.e. cyber-conflict and cyber-exploitation are the new threats to a state’s security,
where both offensive and defensive acts take place in the cyber-arena. During a cyber-conflict,
there are no clear lines between the civilian and military, as civilian computer systems may be
used to launch offensive cyber-war against an “enemy” state. Also, the difficulty is determining
the perpetrator which could be state or non-state actors adds to the confusion in determining the
legal course of action once a cyber-attack is discovered. Spates of cyber-attacks have been
reported by the media, especially in the last few years: China, Israel and the US are thought to
routinely engage in cyber-conflicts with other states in order to siphon confidential business or
military information i.e. cyber-exploitation or prevent/stun rival military systems from
functioning properly i.e. cyber-conflict.Cyber-war is especially a serious threat to the national
sovereignty and security because it transcends national borders and involves use of civilian
resources such as broadbandnetworks and electric grids and, sometimes, malignant non-state
actors such as organized crime networks and fringe extremist groups that hack into national
databases and steal classified information, in many cases without being discovered. The
reverberations of an intrusive cyber-attack are hard to predict.

i) Illegal Organs Trade

Much of the focus of the illegal organ trade is placed on the vendor and recipient, but there are a
variety of actors that play important roles in perpetrating this crime. Vendor, recipient, and
transplant teams, as well as various individuals from the public and private sectors are involved
in every transaction; brokers are also involved in some instances.The illegal organ trade is not
one of the most lucrative transnational crimes, yet there are serious impacts on human security.
Also referred to as organ trafficking or trafficking in persons for the removal of organs, the trade
primarily involves the movement of people rather than harvested organs. With a severe shortage
of legally-sourced organs around the world, organs have become a commodity to be bought and
sold illicitly. The illegal organ trade has serious consequences for individuals and communities
around the world. There are also instances where an individual is killed for their organs. China
previously had a policy of forced organ donation from executed prisoners, harvesting organs via
a reverse-matching scheme.

j) Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing

Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing is a serious issue that impacts not only
conservation but development and security as well. Fishing is a major industry around the world,
and even a small level of IUU fishing can generate billions of dollars in illicit profits. With an
estimated 90 percent of the world’s fisheries classified as fully exploited or overexploited, legal
and sustainable fishing operations are critical to maintain the integrity of global fishery
resources. The IUU fishing covers a variety of fishing activities, such as fishing in contravention
to a State’s laws, using illegal gear, and misreporting catch volumes. Like all transnational crime,
IUU fishing is motivated by profits.

k) Illegal Logging

Illegal logging is a lucrative and destructive crime, yet authorities have allowed it to flourish
relatively unchecked due to its perceived innocuous nature. It causes harm not just to the
environment but to human security and economic development as well. The revenues provide
very little long-term benefit to loggers and indigenous communities but serve as valuable
financing for violent groups. With the livelihoods of 1.6 billion people around the world
dependent on forests, illegal logging is not a victimless crime.

l) Crude Oil Theft

Crude oil theft involves the theft of state or privately owned oil, most commonly from pipelines
but also from facilities, tankers, or even offshore platforms. Similar to illegal mining, while oil
production occurs in developed and developing countries around the world, developing countries
experience the greatest level of oil theft, often due to weak rule of law, higher levels of criminal
activity, and/or economic desperation.

9. White-Collar Crime

A white-collar crime is a non-violent crime usually involving cheating, or dishonesty in

commercial matters. Examples are fraud, embezzlement, bribery and insider trading. White-
collar crime is anact committed by persons in the upper socio-economic level. If a person, who
possesses some degree of good reputation, sells shoddy goods, he/she commits a white-collar
crime. But if a group of persons, unknown to the victims, sell the same type of shoddy goods, the
group commits a crime, not white-collar crime. White-collar crimes are unethical business
practices amongst the respectable groups and include tax evasion, credit card fraud, soliciting
bribes or kickbacks, embezzlement, land swindles, securities theft, medical fraud, fake drugs,
price fixing, false advertisement etc. Two important types of white-collar crimes may be
identified:

a) Fraudulent activities including such things as false advertisements, short-weights, inferior

materials and systematic over-charging

b) Violation of laws such as patent infringement, illegal labour practices such as using
unskilled personnel to do the work of professionals, price-fixing during shortage period.

Blue-Collar Crimes- A blue-collar crime occurs in connection to occupational pursuit although

at the common or lower level of the labour. Here, it is not usually the customer or client who is
always the victim but the employee.An example is the policeman who demands for a bribe at the
checkpoint. In the ministry, you would be told to offer a bribe for an application form which is
supposed to be free. It is a warped attitude of the society, resulting from the empirical
applicability of the unstructured economy of our society, i.e. the wider social conditions or social
structures of the political economy.

10. Civil Conflict

Civil wars last many years longer than on average than inter-state conflicts, and have a much
higher civilian death count as is seen in Syria, Afghanistan, Yemen, Ukraine, the Central African
Republic, South Sudan, Somalia, etc.

11. Cyber Threat

With the development of modern technology, the world has changed greatly. Internet service has
brought the world closer and it has become an inseparable part of life at present. Therefore, the
development of the computer has made the people’s lives much more convenient and, on the
other hand, it is also causing serious problems in the present world. It seems as a growing global
threat, i.e. computer viruses, which attacks isolated or network information systems through the
Internet or software carriers and devices. Many vital decision-making processes of governments
are now electronically based and, therefore, vulnerable to this threat. All countries are extremely
vulnerable to cyber-attacks and faces a greater number of malware attacks. Cybercrime is a
crime committed against a nation, or its citizens with the help of the computer through a global
network-internet. Cybercrimes such as financial fraud and identity theft threaten the security of
an individual or business that operates in the process through the internet and national security
seeks to protect the state and the wellbeing of its citizens by overcoming the multi-dimensional
threat whose effects include sabotage, negative international publicity and threats to lives.

12. Corruption

Corruption can be broadly defined as the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. Corruption
can range from a broad misuse of power and authority to moral decay. In simple terms,
corruption is an act of bribery or the use of public power for private profit that constitutes a
serious breach of the rule of law. A broad and comprehensive concept of national security
encompasses various security concerns, including human security. In this vein, corruption and
poverty can be detrimental to human security and national development. When corruption
becomes endemic, it can derail political and economic transitions, undermine state capacity and
legitimacy, exacerbate poverty and inflame grievances linked to many forms of conflicts.
Governments across the world, particularly those in developing countries, have come to realize
that threats to national security are more likely to emanate from internal rather than external
sources. Corruption has taken firm hold in the society, causing significant negative impact to
economic and developmental activities and to the socio-cultural value system at large.

10.4 Note

All states still feel insecure because of various internal and external threats.

10.5 Activity

Watch the videos and write a summary of what you

learnthttps://youtu.be/mdSiX9K2frohttps://youtu.be/HFgpTG0IoMQhttps://youtu.be/
0oXoednmIEA

10.6Summary

This lessonhas introduced you to the contemporary security threats that are trans-national,
multidimensional and high in its range. In terms of transnational character, it means that the
threat in one part of the world is capable of disrupting peace and stability in the country on the
other side of the globe. For example, contemporary security threats like the COVID-19 pandemic
influence the whole world and recognize no boundaries.

10.7 Assessment Questions

1. Outline the traditional and non-traditional security threats in Kenya

2. Explain how globalization has become a double edged sword in the wake of international
terrorism.

10.8 Reference
10.8.1 Core Reference

Battersby, P. and Siracusa, J. M. (2009). Globalisation and Human Security. UK. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

10.8.2 Further Reading

Kirshner, J. (2006). Globalisation and National Security. USA. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
UNODC (2010). The Globalization of Crime. A Transnational Organized Crime Threat
Assessment. Vienna. United Nations Office of Drug and Crime.

10.9 Glossary

Contemporary: issues happening, existing, living or coming into being that are currently
affecting people or places and that is unresolved.

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