Atmosphere

-thick envelope of gases that surrounds the earth and retained its gravity.
Significant component of Biosphere ecosystem
 Provide all necessary gases for sustenance.
 Filters harmful solar radiation.
-governs the overall physical conditions of weather.
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Moisture content
 Wind velocity
 Wind direction

Origin and Formation

Atmosphere 1
-primitive atmosphere: source form primordial nebula and dominated by
Hydrogen and Helium.
Atmosphere 2
-formed as the planet cooled and sourced from Earth itself through
outgassing process.
Several gases:
CO2
SO2
N
NH3
H2O
-CO2 and Water Vapor are dominant.
Atmosphere 3
-the atmosphere was dominated by water vapor, condensed and fell as
rain that forms global oceans of today.
-atmospheric CO2 decreased by dissolving in ocean water.
-stable Nitrogen increases but no free oxygen.
-reduced temperatures and stable atmospheric conditions led to the
evolution of life.
Modern atmosphere
Present atmosphere was formed much later through several factors:
-mechanical
-physical
-chemical
-biological
 3.5 billion years ago: free oxygen molecules were slowly added to
the atmosphere by photosynthetic bacteria.
 Eukaryotic green algae: helped the acceleration of oxygen
production.
 Around 600 million years ago: oxygen levels went at 10%.
 Photosynthesizing organisms multiplied.
 Around 400-2550 million years ago: oxygen concentration reached
to 20.9%, making life on Earth possible.

Composition of Earth atmosphere

 Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
1. Troposphere
-weather and climate
-airplanes
-ranging from about 18 degrees Celsius near the surface
 Tropopause
-dividing line between the troposphere and the stratosphere
-temperature drops
-jet streams and thunderstorms occur
2. Stratosphere
-greek word “stratos” – stratified
-ozone (O3)
-temperature rises with the rise in altitude
 Stratopause
-boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.
3. Mesosphere
-meteors burn upon entry
- “meso” – middle
-coldest layer (ice clouds)
-protects the Earth from meteors and asteroids.
- -2.5oC to -90oC
 Mesopause
-coldest part of the mesosphere
-ranging form about -100oC to -143oC
4. Thermosphere
-highest temperature (300oC)
-Aurora borealis and Aurora Australis occur
 2 parts
1. Ionosphere
-lower portion of the thermosphere
-absorbs radio waves
2. Exosphere
-upper portion of the thermosphere
-molecules are very sparse and interact rarely.
1. The study of science that focus on the atmosphere, climate, and weather
A. biology
B. meteorology
C. evolution
D. astronomy
2. Layer of the atmosphere closest to the earth where most weather phenomena
occurs.
A. Exosphere
B. Mesosphere
C. Troposphere
D. Stratosphere
3. Outermost Layer of atmosphere where satellites are located
A Exosphere
B. Mesosphere
C. Troposphere
D. Stratosphere
4. What instrument is used to measure
atmospheric pressure?
A. Anemometer
B. Barometer
C. Hygrometer
D. Pyranometer
5. The boundary between two different air masses is called:
A. Front
B. Tropopause
C. Thermocline
D. Isobar
6. Which layer of the Earth's atmosphere contains
the ozone layer?
A. Troposphere
B. Stratosphere
C. Mesosphere
D Thermosphere
7. What is the primary cause of the Coriolis effect?
A. Earth's rotation
B. Solar radiation
C. Ocean currents.
D. Atmospheric pressure
8. The process by which water vapor turns into
liquid water is called:
A Condensation
B. Evaporation
C. Precipitation
D. Sublimation
9. What is the name for a rotating column of air with high wind speeds and a funnel-
shaped cloud?
A. Hurricane
B. Tornado
C. Typhoon
D. Cyclone
10. The scale used to measure the intensity of tornadoes is called:
A. Richter Scale
B. Beaufort Scale
C. Fujita Scale
D. Saffir-Simpson Scale
11. In meteorology, what does the term "dew point" represent?
A. Temperature at which air expands
B. Temperature at which clouds form
c. Temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture
D. Temperature at which precipitation occurs
12. What is the primary driver of the water cycle?
A. Wind
B. Sun
C. Moon
D. Earth's magnetic field
13. The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is known as the:
a Tropopause
b) Stratopause
c) Mesopause
d) Thermopause
14. What is the main greenhouse gas responsible for trapping heat in the Earth's
atmosphere?
A. Oxygen (02)
B. Nitrogen (N2)
C. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
D. Methane (CH4)
15. What is the name for a large-scale weather system characterized by low
pressure and counterclockwise winds in the Northern Hemisphere?
A. Anticyclone
B. Cyclone
C. Monsoon
D. Trade winds
16. The phenomenon where warm air rises and cool air sinks is known as:
A. Convection
B. Advection
C. Subsidence
D. Inversion
17. What is the name for a severe tropical storm with sustained winds of at least 74
mph (119 km/h)?
A Typhoon
B. Hurricane
C. Tornado
D. Cyclone
18. The instrument used to measure wind speed is called:
A. Anemometer
B. Barometer
C. Hygrometer
D. Psychrometer
19. What is the name for the process where a gas turns directly into a solid without
passing through the liquid phase?
a) Evaporation
b) Deposition
c) Condensation
d) Sublimation
20. The process of a gas turning into a liquid is known as:
a. Condensation
b) Evaporation
c) Sublimation
d) Precipitation
1. The most abundant gas in the atmosphere by volume is This gas comprises 78%
of the Earth atmosphere by volume.
a. Oxygen
b. Carbon Dioxide
c. Nitrogen
d. Argon
2. The definition of a variable gas is a gas that varies significantly from time to time
and place to place. The most significant variable gas by volume in the planetary
boundary layer in the
atmosphere is:
a. Ozone
b. Oxygen
c. Water vapor
d. Carbon dioxide
3. An isobar is a line of constant
a. Pressure
b. Temperature
c. Density
d. Dewpoint
4. Which of the following best explains how pressure decreases with height in the
Earth's atmosphere?
a. It decreases at a constant rate (linear decrease)
b. It decrease quickly at first then more gradually (exponential decrease)
c. It decreases at a rate of 9.8 millibars per kilometer
d. It decreases in the troposphere, increases in the stratosphere, then decreases to
the top of the atmosphere
5. In the vertical dimension, the upper level jet stream is located closest to which
mandatory synoptic scale pressure level?
a. The 850 millibar level (1,500 meters)
b. The surface
c. The 500 millibar level (5,500 meters)
d. The 300 millibar level (9,500 meters)
6. The seasons of Spring, Summer, Winter, and Fall are a direct result of which
phenomenon?
a. The sun's energy output and the Earth's proximity to the sun
b. Shifting of ocean currents
c. The 23.5 degree tilt of the earth from vertical
d. The jet stream
7. _________ refers to the horizontal transport of air while vertical transport of air
__________ is the vertical transport of air.

a. Advection, convection
b. Convection, advection
8. Which of the following has the highest albedo and thus more reflected solar
radiation?
a. Fresh snow
b. Water
c. Grass
d. Blacktop
9. Which of the following is NOT a primary
"control" of climate?
a. Altitude
b. Daily weather
c. Latitude
d. Ocean currents
10. Water has a heat capacity. This means a large amount of energy is needed to
raise the temperature of water relative to other substances.
a. Low
b. High
11. A one degree temperature change on the Fahrenheit scale is equal a degree
change on the Celsius scale.
a. 0.56
b. 1.8
c. 0.90
d. 3.6
12. Unsaturated air rises at the dry adiabatic lapse rate which is °C per kilometer.
This is also the same numerical value as the gravitational force constant in meters
per second squared.
a. 15.2
b. 6.5
c. 9.8
d. 5.5
13. Which of the following processes ABSORBS the most latent heat?
a. Melting
c. Evaporation
b. Freezing
d. Condensation
14. Which of the following processes will result in a GREATER dewpoint depression
at the surface? The dewpoint depression is the difference between the temperature
and the dewpoint.
a. Wet-bulb cooling
b. Saturating previously unsaturated air
c. Radiational cooling
d. Solar heating
15. One saturated air parcel with a temperature of 10° C has a saturation mixing
ratio of 7 grams per kilogram; A second air parcel with a temperature of 20° C has a
saturation mixing ratio of 14 grams per kilogram; From this information, what is the
most likely saturation mixing ratio of a parcel of air at 30° C? Warmer air holds
exponentially more water vapor, therefore the temperature/saturation mixing ratio
relationship is not linear.
a. 17.5 grams per kilogram
b. 19.0 grams per kilogram
c. 21.0 grams per kilogram
d. 26.5 grams per kilogram
16. In which air mass type would a rising parcel's slope at the moist adiabatic lapse
rate be closest to the dry adiabatic lapse rate? The moist adiabatic lapse rate is NOT
a constant. The moist adiabatic lapse rate has a smaller slope than the dry adiabatic
lapse rate if a parcel contains moisture. The amount of latent heat release depends
on the temperature and moisture content of the air.
a. Maritime tropical (warm and moist)
b. Maritime polar (cool moist)
c. Continental tropical (hot and dry)
d. Continental polar (cold and dry)
17. Which of the following fronts GENERALLY has the smallest slope and is
associated with light to moderate and widespread precipitation? This front is often
found to the right of a mid- latitude cyclone in North America.
a. Cold front
c. Dryline
b. Warm front
d. Hurricane
18. Which of the following statements is FALSE:
a. Cloud droplets freeze once temperature drops
below 0° C.
b. The vapor pressure is higher over water than over ice
c. The typical raindrop is about 2 millimeters in diameter
d. Salt particles make good condensation nuclei
19. The geostrophic wind is a balance of the pressure gradient force and the
force. This balance causes air to flow nearly parallel to the height contours in the mid
and upper levels of the atmosphere.
a. Friction
b. Coriolis
c. Centrifugal
d. Gravity
20. When viewed from above the North Pole of the Earth, the earth rotates and
makes a complete turn in 24 hours. This causes low pressure to spin
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Clue: the sun rises in the east and
sets in the west.
a. Clockwise
b. Counterclockwise
21. The California Current off the US West ocean current while the Coast is a Gulf
Stream off the US East Coast is a ocean current. This helps lead to dry summers in
California and relatively wet summers in the SE US.
a. Cold, Warm
b. Warm, Cold
22. Which of the following is NOT conducive to lake effect snow?
a. Continental polar air advecting over warm Great Lake waters
b. Strong vertical directional and speed shear with positive LI's
c. Orographic lifting and frictional convergence
d. Large temperature difference between lake and overriding cP air
23. Where is the warm sector located in reference to a developed mid-latitude
cyclone over the United States?
a. To the north
b. To the west
c. To the southeast
d. To the northeast
24. Rising motion due to vorticity and warm air advection are most commonly found
to the of the 500 millibar trough axis over the United States.
a. Left
b. Right North
25. This is the type of fog that forms on nights with light wind, clear skies, low
dewpoint depressions, and moist soils.
(a) Warm air advection fog
b. Upslope fog
c. Thermal fog
d. Radiational fog
26. Which of the following reasons explains why the stratosphere is absolutely
stable.
a. Air temperatures are too cold
b. Air pressure is too low
c. The absorption of radiant energy by ozone
d. The wind speed is too strong
27. Which of the following reasons explains why ice crystals develop much more
rapidly than liquid water drops in the upper and middle levels of thunderstorms?
a. When temperatures drop below freezing, condensation of water vapor onto liquid
water does not take place. The water vapor can, however, build on ice crystals due
to deposition.
b. Electrical currents within thunderstorms allow the building of water vapor on ice
crystals more rapidly than on liquid water drops.
c. It is because the vapor pressure of ice is less than that over water. This produces
a vapor pressure gradient between liquid and frozen water. This causes water vapor
to move from liquid water drops toward ice crystals.
d. It is due to the turbulent motion of air. Condensation rates onto liquid water slow
with increasing windspeed.
28. These clouds have some vertical development and are located in the upper
levels of the atmosphere. The clouds have a lumpy appearance and are made of ice
crystals. When viewed from the surface, each cloud element is about the size of a
thumbnail.
a. Nimbostratus
b. Altostratus
c. Fair weather cumulus
d. Cirrocumulus
29. How can virga cause the atmosphere to become increasingly unstable?
a. It can release large amounts of latent heat
b. It can cool the mid-levels of the atmosphere
c. It can cause a warming of the planetary boundary layer
d. It can cause surface to 500 millibar cold air
advection
30. When the temperature is below freezing from the surface to 500 millibars, what
precipitation type would you expect?
a Snow
b. Sleet
c. Rain
d. Freezing rain
31. The two weather disasters that result in the greatest loss of life are:
a. Floods and Lightning
b. Floods and Hurricanes
c. Hurricanes and Tornadoes
d. Lightning and Droughts
32. Which of the following is true of a "capping inversion"?
a. It can prevent thunderstorms from developing
b. It can enhance thunderstorm activity due to heat and moisture buildup in the
planetary boundary layer
c. It is a rapid temperature decrease with height above the planetary boundary layer
d. Both a and b
e. Both b and c
33. The air behind the forward flank downdraft associated with strong thunderstorms
consists of air _________ while the rear flank downdraft consists
of relatively_________ air.
a. hot and dry; cold and moist
b. cool and moist; warm and dry
c. hot and moist; cold and moist
d. cool and dry; warm and moist
34. Which of the following states has the most frequent and largest hail of the four
choices below? Why?
a. Kansas; many high CAPE days, freezing levels can be relatively low
b. Florida; large number of thunderstorm days
c. Michigan; high latitude, lake effect hail, many summer storms
d. Oregon; orographic lifting, many thunderstorm days, jet stream
35. Minimum tropical storm force wind is_______ miles per hour while the minimum
hurricane force wind _________ is miles per hour.
a. 50; 100
с. 39; 74
b. 25; 50
d. 44; 69
36. This is a synoptic scale boundary that separates maritime tropical (mT) air from
continental tropical (cT) air. Dewpoint changes dramatically from one side of the
boundary to the other. Severe thunderstorms can occur along this boundary,
especially in Spring and early Summer.
a. Gust front
b. Chinook
c. Outflow boundary
d. Dryline
37. In which direction from a winter mid-latitude cyclone is heavy snow most likely to
occur? The heaviest snow falls here due to the best combination of cold air and
uplift. In this part of the cyclone, warm and moist air isentropically wraps up and over
(wrap around precipitation)
cold PBL air.
a. To the southeast
b. To the north
c. To the southwest
d. About a 100 miles south of the low track
38. In MOST cloud to ground lightning strikes, the ground tends to be charged.
a. Positively
b. Negatively
39. Thunder travels at the speed of sound which is nearest to:
a. 10 miles per hour
b. 5 miles per second
c. 1 mile every 5 seconds
d. 3 10^8 meter per second
40. The primary moisture source for severe thunderstorms in the Great Plains
originates from the:
a. Jet stream
b. Mexican plateau and Rocky Mountains
c. Pacific Ocean
d. Gulf of Mexico
41. Many of the world's desert regions are located:
a. Just north and south of the equator
b. West coast regions along the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer
c. At 60° North and 60° South
d. On the east coast of most continents
42. The sun is closest to the Earth in ________________ this is known as
__________ and has a ________ effect on seasons. Assume you are in the
Northern Hemisphere.
a. Summer; Aphelion; large
b. Summer; Perihelion; small
c. Summer; Perihelion; large
d. Winter; Perihelion; small
e. Winter, Aphelion; large
43. Which of the following is a diabatic process as compared to an adiabatic
process?
a. Convection
b. Orographic lifting
c. Radiational heating or cooling
d. Rising air due to PBL convergence
44. If you stand with your back to the wind and rotate to the right 30°, the surface
pressure will be __________ to your left than your right.
a. Lower
b. Higher
45. In which location are hurricanes most likely to develop?
a. In warm tropical waters 10° to 25° North and South of equator
b. Along the equator over continental locations
c. Along the west coast of continents at 35° North or South
d. In either the Mediterranean Sea, off the east coast of South America, or just south
of Australia
46. An " A " climate is characterized as having:
a. Tropical forest climates and hot all seasons
b. A dry climate
c. Warm temperate rainy climates with mild winters
d. Cold forest climates with severe winters
e. Polar climate
47. Climate is a function of
a. Latitude
b. Altitude
c. Continentality
d. Ocean currents
e. All of the above
48. The mid-latitude winds in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres flow generally
from which direction?
a. From the east in both hemispheres
b. From the west in both hemispheres
c. From the west in the Northern Hemisphere and from the east in the Southern
Hemisphere
d. From the east in the Northern Hemisphere and from the west in the Southern
Hemisphere
49. Which of the following is NOT a high latitude climate?
a. Polar
b. Tundra
c. Tropical wet and dry
d. Taiga
50. The word MONSOON as it applies to climatology refers to:
a. Very heavy rain
b. The intensification of the polar jet
c. A seasonal reversal in wind direction and pressure distribution
d. A cyclone or typhoon with winds over 100 miles per hour
51. The 850 to 700 mb layer thickness can increase by which of the following
processes?
a. Strong 500 millibar vorticity advection
b. Evaporational cooling between the 850 and 700 mb layer
c. Strong dry air advection into the layer
d. Strong warm air advection into the layer A
52. When comparing the moisture content in the air between two locations it is best
to use?
a. The dewpoint
b. The wet bulb temperature
c. Relative humidity temperature
d. The dry bulb
53. Suppose a parcel of air at the surface has a temperature of 50 F with a dewpoint
of 30 deg * F As it begins to rain heavily into the parcel, what is the wet-bulb
temperature most likely to be after complete evaporational cooling?
a. 55 deg * F
b. 37 deg * F
c. 43 deg * F
d. 32 deg * F
54. When forecasting large hail, what are the primary thermodynamic ingredients to
look for that produce large hail?
a. Vertical wind shear and surface temperature
b. PBL dewpoint and precipitable water
c. Surface pressure and 500 millibar Lifted Index
d. Elevation, CAPE and freezing level
55. When forecasting large and damaging tornadoes, what are the primary
thermodynamic ingredients to look for?
a. PBL direction wind shear, mid-level moisture, speed shear, CAPE, weak to
moderate cap and PBL moisture
b. Elevation, CAPE, cloud top height, and surface relative humidity
c. Upward vertical velocities, precipitable water, unidirectional shear, and PBL
moisture
d. 500 millibar temperature, surface dewpoint, 700 millibar dewpoint depression, and
lots of sunshine
56. When forecasting snow amounts associated with winter mid-latitude cyclones,
the most complete list of the primary synoptic scaleingredients and forecasting tools
for heavy snow are:
a. 500 millibar vorticity, speed and directional wind shear in the PBL, 700 millibar
temperature, 700 millibar dewpoint depression, and direction low is moving
b. The size of the low, the deepness of the low, 700 millibar dewpoint, 1000 to 500
millibar thickness, soil temperatures, low level wind shear, and surface based CAPE
c. The track of the low, intensity of low, PBL temperatures including 850 millibar
temperature, isentropic lifting, precipitable water, 1000 to 500 millibar thickness, 500
millibar vorticity, and the speed of low
d. Surface pressure, cloud tops, 500 millibar temperatures, jet streaks, surface
temperature, elevation, 700 millibar wind speed, and the temperature gradient
across the cold front
57. Which of the following defines the "low level jet"?
a. Gust front winds associated with severe thunderstorms
b. Strong PBL winds in the Great Plains which rapidly draws warm and moist air from
the Gulf of Mexico
c. It is a polar or subtropical jet stream which is at an unusually low pressure level
d. It is the contrails produced by jet aircraft
58. Why are thunderstorms less common in California than Florida?
a. The directional shear is smaller throughout the year in California
b. Fronts do not move through California except in the Summer. Florida has fronts
year round.
c. Florida has warmer ocean waters surrounding it. This results in higher dewpoints,
instability and thus more thunderstorms.
d. The jet stream is stronger over Florida
59. Which of the following operational forecast panels is used to analyze vorticity
advection?
a. 850 millibar forecast panel forecast panel
b. 500 millibar
c. 700 millibar forecast panel forecast panel
d. 300 millibar
60. What is vorticity?
a. It is the theoretical value of upward vertical velocity
b. It is the temperature gradient across a trough axis
c. It is the air pressure at 700 millibars
d. It is cyclonic or anticyclonic rotation which can be used to assess upper level
divergence
61. Which type of pressure system is found in the southwest US in the summertime?
Associated with this pressure system are hot afternoon temperatures, rising air in the
PBL but very little precipitation and sinking air aloft.
a. Cold core low
b. Warm core low
c. Warm core high
d. Cold core high
62. You are in New York City for New Year's and the time has just changed to the
year 2000. What time is it in Zulu (Z) time?
a. 5Z JAN 01 2000
b. 182 DEC 31 1999
c. 12Z JAN 01 2000
d. OZ JAN 01 2000
63. Of the following choices, which is displayed on 700 millibar forecast charts such
as ETA and the NGM?
a. The jet stream
b. 1000 to 500 millibar thickness
c. Upward vertical velocity
d. Forecasted surface temperatures
64. Which of the following is NOT displayed on the ETA, MRF and NGM surface
pressure chart?
a. Thickness
b. Sea level pressure
c. Relative humidity
d. Forecasted precipitation total
65. Why do surface afternoon summer temperatures tend to be warmer in southern
Arizona than Mississippi when both states are at about the same latitude?
a. Radiational cooling is stronger in Mississippi; this allows morning temperatures to
be cooler in Mississippi
b. Mississippi is at a higher altitude; Less dense air stays cooler
c. The wind tends to be stronger in Mississippi; stronger winds mix cooler high
altitude air to the surface
d. There is more evapotranspiration in Mississippi; evapotranspiration is a cooling
process that absorbs latent heat
66. Which of the following weather analysis tools can be used to determine at a
quick glance whether thunderstorms are most likely to be supercells, multicells, or air
mass thunderstorms?
a. The value of CAPE
b. The 500 and 300 millibar analysis charts
c. The hodograph
d. Meso-ETA forecast panels

Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, weather, and climate.

The Troposphere is the layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth where most weather
phenomena occur.
The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere where satellites are
located.
A Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
A Frontal passage is the boundary between two different air masses.
The Ozone layer is located in the Stratosphere.
The Coriolis effect is primarily caused by the Earth’s rotation.
Condensation is the process by which water vapor turns into liquid water.
A Tornado is a rotating column of air with high wind speeds and a funnel-shaped
cloud.
The Saffir-Simpson Scale is used to measure the intensity of cyclones.
The Dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture and
dew forms.
The primary driver of the water cycle is the Sun. It provides the energy that causes
evaporation, which is a key part of the water cycle.
The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is known as the
Tropopause.
The main greenhouse gas responsible for trapping heat in the Earth’s atmosphere is
Carbon Dioxide (CO2). While other gases like methane also contribute to the
greenhouse effect, CO2 is the most significant due to its abundance and long
lifespan in the atmosphere.
A large-scale weather system characterized by low pressure and counterclockwise
winds in the Northern Hemisphere is known as a Cyclone. These systems are also
known as low-pressure systems and can lead to significant weather events like
storms and hurricanes.
 Chapter 1

The Earth and Its Atmosphere

Composition of the Atmosphere

Permanent Gases
Gas Percent by Vol.
Nitrogen 78.08
Note that nitrogen and
Oxygen 20.95 oxygen are by far the
Argon 0.93 most common gases.
Neon 0.0018 The other gases exist only
in trace amounts.
Helium 0.0005
Hydrogen 0.00006
Xenon 0.000009

Composition of the Atmosphere

Variable Gases Gas/Particles Percent by Vol.
Water vapor 0 to 4
These gases are
Carbon dioxide 0.037
called variable
because their amount Methane 0.00017
can vary depending Nitrous oxide 0.00003
on time and location.
Ozone 0.000004
Particles (dust, soot 0.000001
CFC’s 0.00000002

A number of these gases are important for the greenhouse effect

(next chapter). Ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation.

1
Changes in Atmosphere with Altitude
• Have you ever experienced any of the following?
– Shortness of breath at high altitudes
– Ears popping as you go up and down in airplanes
• These are caused by the air becoming thinner or
less dense as one goes up in altitude.

Density and Pressure

• The air thinning is described by the density
of the air: density = mass/volume.
• The reason your ears pop is the changing
pressure = force/area.
• Higher pressure means higher density and
vice versa.
• The pressure at sea level is
1013.25 millibar (mb) = 29.92 inches Hg.
(Hg is mercury).

What causes pressure?

• Pressure is caused by the weight of the air
above us. Although air is very light, there is
lots of it above us.
• As we go higher there is less air above us,
and the pressure goes down, making the air
less dense also.
• At sea level the air pressure is the same one
would have from a column of mercury
29.92 inches high or a column of water
33.77 feet tall.
demonstration

2
COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere of the earth is a vast expanse of gases enveloping our entire earth. Within
this envelope, we are surviving and all our activities are confined. It is made up of several
gases, water vapour and minute particles suspended in the gaseous substance of air. The
atmosphere extends several hundred km above the earth surface. It is not uniform at every
height we climb above, but it has drastic changes with height. The atmosphere is composed of
several layers. At the transition zones of the layers, the change is very sharp but within a
layer, the changes are slow. In this module, we will discuss about the composition and
structure of the atmosphere. Apart from these, our concern will also be there to through light
on its importance and utility of the atmosphere for us as well as for the entire living
organisms.
MEANING OF COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
The literal meaning of composition is ‘ingredients’ or ‘constituents’ of something. In another
words, it is a manner by which something is made up of. When we apply the same meaning
with atmosphere, it signifies the items or the elements with which our atmosphere is
composed. Our atmosphere is composed of numerous gases and other substances, hence, it is
a mechanical mixture of the gases, water vapour and dust particles. Let us discuss about the
composition of atmosphere.
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
The envelope of atmosphere around the earth, a mechanical mixture of numerous gases
and other substances are very important to all living organisms of the planet. The four major
gases – nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide together constitute 99.99% of the total
volume of dry air. The maximum concentration is of nitrogen with more than 78 percent
while the oxygen is little less than 21 percent (Table 1).
Table 1: Atmospheric Gases
Groups Gases Volume % of dry air
1. Nitrogen 78.084
Major Gases 2. Oxygen 20.9476
3. Argon 0.934
4. *CO2 0.04

2
 5. *Methane 0.002
6. Neon 0.001818
Minor Gases 7. Helium 0.000524
(* are also variable gases) 8. Krypton 0.000114
9. Hydrogen 0.00005
10. Xenon 0.0000087
11. *Ozone 0.00006
Variable Gasses 12. Water vapour Variable amount
(CO2, methane and ozone 13. Dust particles Variable amount
gases are also variable) 14. Aerosols Variableamount

NITROGEN: Nitrogen is the most abundant found in atmosphere constituting 78.084

percent to the total volume of dry gases Figure 1). This is almost chemically inactive and
have nothing to do with any sort of chemical actions in the atmosphere. It does not combine
freely with other elements, hence, it is termed as neutral substance. This gas is found beyond
a height of 100 km, but its concentration is below 50 km height from the sea level. This gas is
significant for the growth and reproduction in plants and animals. Certain bacteria in the soil
are capable of converting a very small amount of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and fix it
to the soils and water bodies to be consumed by animals and plants. This process is called as
Nitrogen fixation. The nitrogen fixed in the earth’s surface is again converted and sent back
to the atmosphere by bacterial action through a chemical reaction called denitrification.
OXYGEN: It is the second largest gas of the atmosphere constituting 20.9476 percent of the
total dry atmospheric gases (Figure 1). It is very essential for the survival of many of the
living organisms of this planet. It is chemically very active gas. It is combined with several
other elements and forms varied compounds. Oxygen is vital for combustion of fuels. When
anything burns, oxygen is consumed and helps in burning that substance. Though oxygen is
found beyond 100 km but it is reasonably in good proportion within 16 km of height. With
increasing height, the amount of oxygen decreases very rapidly. On mountain slope, the
available oxygen for breath is very scanty and the mountaineers are supposed to carry oxygen
for them.

3
 Figure 1: Atmospheric Gases and their Proportions

ARGON: In terms of percentage, argon is the third largest gas in the atmosphere constituting
0.934 percent of total dry atmosphere (Figure 1). It is an inert gas and chemically it is
inactive. It is also found in the earth’s crust and sea water. It is used in electric bulb and
fluorescent lights.
CARBON DIOXIDE: It is the fourth abundant gas of the atmosphere. It is densest gas and
found in lower parts. It is found upto a height of about 30 km, it is concentrated in the lower
strata. Its percentage is very low, i.e., 0.04 percent (Figure 1) but it is most vital for the
growth of vegetative life of biosphere. It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but
does not allow to escape the same. And hence, it is called as greenhouse gas. It plays a very
crucial role in increasing the global temperature.
It is also known as variable gas as its amount is dependent upon the combustion, human
activities and vegetative cover of the planet. The carbon dioxide is reaching to the atmosphere
due to several human activities like energy utilization, transport, industry, agriculture, waste
generation etc. (Figure 2). Apart from these human induced sources, some natural sources are
like plant respiration and release to air from stored carbon in the rocks through natural
process of denudation. All these are leading to increase in the atmosphere. This gas is on rise
with the advancement in economic development of the society. Economically developed
countries/ regions are generating big amount of carbon dioxide gases which may be seen
from Figure 3.

4
 Figure 2: Different Sources of Carbon Dioxide

Figure 3: Global Carbon Dioxide Emission by Region: 1990-2012

METHANE: Methane is the also a greenhouse gas which absorbs the radiation and cause more
temperature of the air. Paddy cultivation also generates methane in the air. It is also produced
from the wetlands and waterlogged soils and released in the atmosphere. Fossil fuel is also a
5
source to release of methane in the atmosphere. Its amount in the atmosphere is variable. The
numerous sources of methane can be seen from Figure 4.
Figure 4: Different Sources of Methane

Source: https://icp.giss.nasa.gov/education/methane/intro/methanesources.gif
OZONE: Ozone’s concentration lays in a belt between the heights of 15 to 50 km of
atmosphere. Instead of normal two atoms of oxygen, ozone has three atoms of oxygen formed
together denoted by O3. It is formed when atmospheric oxygen molecules are broken by
ultraviolet solar radiation. It may even be formed at the time of electrical discharge during
thunderstorms. This gas is also termed as variable as its formation and disintegration is
dependent upon numerous activities. Though ozone is very less in quantity (0.00006 percent),
this thin layer is very significant for the survival of living world as it absorbs the dangerous
ultraviolet rays and protects the earth. Neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon are other
minor gases. Some gases are still extremely less in quantity; they are termed as trace gases.
Important among them are ammonia, carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
nitrous oxide and Sulphur hexafluoride etc.
WATER VAPOUR: Water vapour is small in amount but it is one of the most important part
of atmosphere with respect to the distribution of vegetation and life. Water vapour exists all
the time in the atmosphere but with varying degree of amount depending upon the season
(temperature condition) and the supply of water for evaporation and evapotranspiration. Air is
hardly completely dry. In summer, the water holding capacity of the air is large as the
temperature is high while in winter it is low.
Availability of sufficient amount water on the earth surface or water body in an area witness
greater vapour while less availability of avoidance of the same shows low vapour. Examples

6
may be taken as equatorial region rich in water bodies (high vapour) and subtropical hot
desert region with less to no water availability (low vapour). Though, vapour and air both are
in gaseous form, their mixing and movement are quite natural but the same homogeneity it
not seen.
At any particular point of time, the amount of vapour is not more than four present of the
total volume of atmosphere. It is found in the troposphere only and its concentration is in the
lower level. About 90 percent of the total vapour lays below six km. It is estimated that the
about 50 percent is within two km of height. Water vapour plays a vital role in keeping the
earth warm as it has greenhouse characteristics.
DUST PARTICLES: Huge amount of dust particles are available in the lower layer of
atmosphere in a suspended form. These dust particles are solid substances generated from
various sources and being carried by winds. Greater velocity wind has greater amount of dust
particles. It is not only a matter of suspended solid particles, they are transported to great
distances as well. They vary widely in sizes. They may be big sized suspended only when the
drafting ability of the wind is great, but settles swiftly when the carrying capacity of the wind
is reduced. You must have observed yourselves too during gales/ storms.
Huge number of microscopic dust particles are suspended even in completely calm air. Dust
particles are variable and it is more during dry seasons as the soils are loose and easily carried
by winds, but reverse is the case when it is rainy season when they are settled and compacted.
Over the globe, it is less in equatorial and polar areas while more in subtropical hot desert
areas. Minute dust particles are found several km above the surface while the coarse sized are
abundant near the surface. Microscopic particles are nuclei for condensation and precipitation
and they have a great importance in this respect.
AEROSOLS: Aerosols are extremely fine-sized solid particles or liquid droplets which
continue to be in suspended form in gas for very-very long time. They could be seen when
their concentration is more otherwise they are invisible. Aerosols themselves are non-gaseous
microscopic substance released in the atmosphere from various sources – natural and human
created. They could be pollen, minute earthly dust, sea salt, carbon soot from burning fuels,
volcanic dust etc. Human activities also help the aerosols to enter the atmosphere. Their
concentration is more over the industrial and urban areas. Burning of fossil fuels and
generation of smoke also pump the aerosols in the air. Therefore, the source of aerosols are
both natural as well as human generated (Figure 5). They are grouped into two – hygroscopic
(moisture absorbing and retaining) and non-hygroscopic (moisture non-absorbing).
Hygroscopic aerosols form the nuclei for condensation and in this way, they help in
precipitation.
From the above description, it is fairly obvious that our atmosphere is made up of
innumerable minute molecules of several gases about which a discussion has been presented
above. Apart from that several non-gaseous substances are also available in the air which are
part and parcel of the atmosphere. They have their own significance and play very essential
role for the earth to be a live able planet.

7
 OZONE LAYER
Ozone Layer

“The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains high
concentrations of ozone and protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet
radiations of the sun.”

Other Information:
• The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere.
It has the potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations
coming from the sun that can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent,
millions of people would develop skin diseases and may have weakened immune
systems.

Figure 1: The Ozone Layer

• However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.
This has focused their concern on various environmental issues and steps to control
them. The main reasons for the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon
tetrachloride, methyl bromide and hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
 Figure 2: The Hole in the Ozone Layer

Ozone Layer Depletion

“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing
gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human activities.”
 Figure 3: Ozone Layer Depletion

Figure 4: Increasing Size of the Hole in the Ozone Layer

Other Information:

• This happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in
contact with ozone and destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy
100,000 molecules of ozone. It is destroyed more quickly than it is created.

• Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet

light, which then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known
as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).

• The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include

chlorofluorocarbon, carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl
chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting substances that contain bromine are
halons, methyl bromide, and hydro bromofluorocarbons.

• Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is

only when the chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with
ozone.

• Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import
of ozone-depleting substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere
to protect the ozone layer of the earth.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of
factors. The main causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed
below:

a. Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These
are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc. The
molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet
radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
 Figure 5: Refrigerator Figure 6: Air Conditioner

Figure 7: Spray Aerosols

b. Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more
depletion of the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in
a huge loss of the ozone layer by the year 2050.
Figure 8: Smoke from Rocket Launching Causes Ozone Depletion
 c. Nitrogenous Compound

The nitrogenous compounds such as NO 2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for
the depletion of the ozone layer.

Figure 9: Material Containing Nitrous Oxide

d. Natural Causes

The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such
as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the
ozone layer depletion.
 Figure 10: Stratospheric Wind Figure 11: Sunspots

e. Volcanic Eruption

It produces harmful gases which are also responsible for the depletion of the
ozone layer.

Figure 12: Volcanic Eruption Produces Harmful Gases

Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
“Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons,
halons, carbon tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the
depletion of the ozone layer.”
Ozone-Depleting Sources
Substances

Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, air-conditioners, solvents, dry-

(CFCs) cleaning agents, etc.

Halons Fire-extinguishers

Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers, solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire extinguishers, air-conditioners, solvents

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us
see the major effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.
a. Effects on Human Health
Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun
due to the depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues
among humans, such as skin diseases, cancer, sunburn, cataract, quick ageing and
weak immune system.

Figure 13: Sunburn Figure 14: Skin Disease

 b. Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.

Figure 15: Skin Cancer (Dog) Figure 16: Eye Cancer (Cattle)

c. Effects on the Environment

Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis
in plants. The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

Figure 17: “Too Much UV Radiation is Not Good for the Plants”
 d. Effects on Marine Life

Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These
are higher in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms
present in the food chain are also affected.

Figure 18: Plankton

Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programs have been
launched by the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps
should be taken at the individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone
layer.

Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global
level:

a. Avoid Using ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances)

Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in
refrigerators and air conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.
 b. Minimise the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming
as well as ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as
much as possible.

c. Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products

Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that
find a way into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be
substituted with natural products to protect the environment.

d. Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited

The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide
that is adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the
harmful effects of nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is
minimised at the individual level as well.

Significance of Ozone Layer

1. Protection against UV radiation

The ozone layer acts as a shield, absorbing the majority of the Sun's UV-
B and UV-C radiation. These types of radiation are harmful to living
organisms as they can cause skin cancer, cataracts, and weaken the immune
system. The ozone layer helps to prevent these harmful effects and provides a
protective barrier for life on Earth.

2. Preservation of biodiversity

UV radiation can have detrimental effects on ecosystems and biodiversity. It

can damage phytoplankton, which are essential for the marine food chain, and
harm other aquatic organisms. UV radiation can also affect plants, leading to
reduced crop yields and impacting the overall balance of ecosystems. By
absorbing UV radiation, the ozone layer helps to maintain the health and
diversity of ecosystems.
 3. Climate regulation

The ozone layer plays a role in regulating the Earth's climate. Ozone is a
greenhouse gas, meaning it helps to trap heat in the atmosphere. The presence
of ozone in the stratosphere contributes to the stability of the temperature
profile, preventing excessive warming in the lower atmosphere. This
regulation is important for maintaining climate patterns and preventing
extreme weather events.

4. Protection of materials

UV radiation can cause damage to materials and structures, such as plastics,

rubber, fabrics, and paints. The ozone layer helps to minimize the degradation
of these materials by absorbing the majority of the UV radiation before it
reaches the Earth's surface.

5. Preservation of human health

The ozone layer's role in protecting against UV radiation has significant

implications for human health. By reducing exposure to harmful UV radiation,
the ozone layer helps to prevent skin cancer, cataracts, and other UV-related
health issues. It also supports the overall well-being and quality of life for
people around the world.

It is essential to protect and preserve the ozone layer to ensure the continued well-
being of our planet and all its inhabitants. International efforts, such as the Montreal
Protocol, have been instrumental in phasing out the production and use of ozone-
depleting substances, leading to the recovery of the ozone layer in recent years.
References:

BYJU'S. (2019). Ozone Layer Depletion - Cause, Effects, and Solutions. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/biology/ozone-layer-depletion/

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Prepared By:

ARGIE C. OMAG MESAILA P. LLURQUE

THANK YOU!
 Causes of Seasons
A season is a period of the year that is distinguished by special
climate conditions.
Four Seasons:
• Spring Season is one of the four conventional temperate seasons,
following winter and preceding summer. There are various technical
definitions of spring, but local usage of the term varies according to local
climate, cultures and customs. When it is spring in the Northern
Hemisphere, it will be autumn in the Southern Hemisphere and vice
versa. At the spring equinox, days are approximately 12 hours long with
day length increasing as the season progresses.
• Summer Season is the hottest of the four temperate seasons, falling
between spring and autumn. At the summer solstice, the days are
longest and the nights are shortest, with day- length decreasing as the
season progresses after the solstice. The date of the beginning of
summer varies according to climate, tradition and culture. When it is
summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern
Hemisphere, and vice versa.
• Autumn Season, also known as fall in North American English, is one of
the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer
to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March (Southern
Hemisphere), when the arrival of night becomes noticeably earlier while
the arrival of day becomes noticeably later, and the temperature cools
down considerably. One of its main features is the shedding of leaves
from deciduous trees.
• Winter Season is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate
climates, between autumn and spring. Winter is caused by the axis of
the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun.
Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter, and some
use a definition based on weather. When it is winter in the Northern
Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice versa. In
many regions, winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures
 The equator divides the earth into Northern Hemisphere and
Southern Hemisphere. The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere are the
opposite of those in the Southern Hemisphere. The notable latitudes are
shown in the picture below and they are given special names.

• Between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called Tropics.

Countries located in this zone experience a tropical climate.
• Between Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle is the North Temperate
zone. Whereas, between Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle is the
Southern Temperate zone. Countries located in these zones experience
four seasons: Spring, Smmer, Autumn/Fall, and Winter.
• Areas within the Artic Circle and Antarctic Circle are called Frigid
Zones. Countries located in these zones experience cold temperatures
all year round. Based on these we can say that the closer to the pole,
the colder the temperature.
 The seasons of the Earth change every three months. There are
two main causes of seasons:
1. The Earth Rotation on its axis is tilted.

• Seasons are the result of the tilt of the Earth's axis. Earth’s axis is tilted
23.5°.This tilting is why we have seasons like fall, winter, spring, summer.
The number of daylight hours is greater for the hemisphere, or half of
Earth, that is tilted toward the Sun.
• When viewed above the North Pole, the Earth rotates
counterclockwise, from west to east. This is also called a prograde
rotation. Because of this direction of rotation, we see the sun rising every
day in the east and setting in the west.
• The Earth rotates on its axis (imaginary vertical line around which
Earth spins) every 24 hours. One day on Earth is one rotation of the Earth.
One Day on Earth is when our side of the Earth faces the sun. Night on
Earth is when the side of Earth we are on faces away from the sun.
• The Earth’s orbit around the sun is NOT a perfect circle. It is an ellipse.
Seasons are not caused by how close the Earth is to the sun.
• The four-season year is typical only in the mid-latitudes. The mid-
latitudes are places that are neither near the poles nor near the Equator.
The farther north you go, the bigger the differences in the seasons.
• Places near the Equator experience little seasonal variation. They have
about the same amount of daylight and darkness throughout the year.
These places remain warm year-round. Near the Equator, regions
typically have alternating rainy and dry seasons.
• Polar regions experience seasonal variation, although they are
generally colder than other places on Earth. Near the poles, the amount
of daylight changes dramatically between summer and winter.
• During the summer months, the southern hemisphere is tilted towards
the sun, which means that it receives more direct sunlight and longer
days. This results in warmer temperatures. At the same time, the
northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, which results in cooler
temperatures and shorter days, leading to winter weather.
• The sequence of the seasons during the calendar year is cyclical –
winter, spring, summer, and fall occur in this sequence.
• According to the meteorologists, they simply use the first day of the
months that include the equinoxes and solstice. The following shows
how months and seasons are organised.
In the Northern Hemisphere:
 Spring - March, April and May
 Summer - June, July and August
 Autumn/Fall - September, October and November
 Winter - December, January and February
In the Southern Hemisphere:
 Spring - September, October and November
 Summer - December, January and February
 Autumn/Fall - March, April and May
 Winter - June, July and August

2. The Earth Revolution around the Sun.

The revolution of the Earth around the Sun is a remarkable
astronomical phenomenon that gives rise to various celestial events,
including solstices and equinoxes.
Revolutions- means the motion of a body around another body.

Solstices - occur twice a year, marking the points in Earth's orbit where
the Sun reaches its highest or lowest position relative to the celestial
equator.
There are two types of solstices:
1. Summer Solstice: The summer solstice usually takes place around
June 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and December 21st in the
Southern Hemisphere.
2. Winter Solstice: The winter solstice occurs around December 21st in
the Northern Hemisphere and June 21st in the Southern Hemisphere.
Equinoxes - happen twice a year, signifying the moments when the Sun
is directly above the Earth's equator.
There are two types of equinoxes:
1. Vernal Equinox: The vernal equinox takes place around March 21st in
the Northern Hemisphere and September 21st in the Southern
Hemisphere.
2. Autumnal Equinox: The autumnal equinox occurs approximately on
September 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and March 21st in the
Southern Hemisphere.
 The revolution of the Earth around the Sun gives rise to solstices
and equinoxes, which play a crucial role in defining the Earth's seasons
and the length of daylight experienced in different parts of the world.
Solstices mark the extreme points of the Sun's position, leading to the
longest and shortest days of the year, while equinoxes bring about a
balance between day and night. These celestial events hold cultural,
agricultural, and astronomical significance, enriching our understanding
of the Earth's motion in space.
Prepared by:
DAISY MAE C. PATALAN
JUDALLAINE T. LABASTIDA

References:
Changes in seasons. (2017, April 11). Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/SwatiSharma586/changes-in-seasons
4.E.3B.4 Earth’s Seasons. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://sc4science.weebly.com/4e3b4-earths-seasons.html
Earth Rotation and Revolution | Texas Gateway. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/earth-rotation-and-revolution
 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical
energy. Solar energy is the cleanest and most abundant
renewable energy source available, and the U.S. has
some of the richest solar resources in the world. Solar
technologies can harness this energy for a variety of
uses, including generating electricity, providing light or
a comfortable interior environment, and heating water
for domestic, commercial, or industrial use.

Solar Technologies
There are three main ways to harness solar energy: photovoltaics, solar heating &
cooling, and concentrating solar power. Photovoltaics generate electricity directly from
sunlight via an electronic process and can be used to power anything from small
electronics such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial
businesses. Solar heating & cooling (SHC) and concentrating solar power (CSP)
applications both use the heat generated by the sun to provide space or water heating in
the case of SHC systems, or to run traditional electricity-generating turbines in the case
of CSP power plants.

How solar is used

Solar energy is a very flexible energy technology: it can be built as distributed
generation (located at or near the point of use) or as a central-station, utility-scale solar
power plant (similar to traditional power plants). Both of these methods can also store the
energy they produce for distribution after the sun sets, using cutting edge solar + storage
technologies. Solar exists within a complex and interrelated electricity system in the U.S.,
working alongside other technologies like wind power to transition the U.S. to a clean
energy economy.
All of these applications depend on supportive policy frameworks at the local, state
and federal level to ensure consumers and businesses have fair access to clean energy
technologies like solar.
Using solar energy instead of traditional electricity offers several important
advantages:
1. Renewable Resource: Solar energy is renewable and inexhaustible, unlike
fossil fuels which are finite resources. This means we can rely on solar energy
for as long as the sun exists.
 2. Environmentally Friendly: Solar energy production generates minimal
greenhouse gases and pollutants, reducing our carbon footprint and helping to
combat climate change.

3. Energy Independence: By harnessing solar power, individuals, businesses,

and communities can reduce dependence on centralized utility companies and
volatile energy markets, promoting energy independence.

4. Cost Savings: While the initial investment in solar panels and equipment can
be significant, over time solar energy can lead to substantial cost savings on
electricity bills, especially as the technology becomes more efficient and
affordable.

5. Job Creation: The solar industry creates jobs in manufacturing, installation,

maintenance, and research, contributing to economic growth and employment
opportunities.

6. Grid Stability: Distributed solar power systems can enhance grid stability by
decentralizing energy production and reducing strain on centralized power
plants and transmission lines.

7. Remote Access: Solar energy can be harnessed in remote or off-grid areas

where traditional electricity infrastructure is unavailable or prohibitively
expensive to install.
Overall, transitioning to solar energy offers numerous benefits, ranging from
environmental sustainability to economic advantages and energy security.

The solar market today

There are more than 179 gigawatts (GW) of solar installed in the U.S., enough to
power 32.5 million homes. Over the last decade, the solar market in the United States
has grown at an average rate of 22% each year. There are more than 4.8 million individual
solar installations in the U.S., ranging from small home rooftop systems to large utility-
scale systems that add hundreds of megawatts of clean electricity to the power grid.

Philippines Solar Energy Market Analysis

The Philippines solar energy market is estimated to install 1700 Megawatt by the
end of this year and is projected to reach 5229.62 Megawatt in the next five years,
registering a CAGR of over 25.2% during the forecast period.
 Over the medium period, factors such as rapid economic development and a
growing population are expected to drive the market during the forecast period. The
growing demand for solar energy-based power generation and declining photovoltaic
system prices are expected to drive the market during the forecast period.
On the other hand, the country’s inefficient electricity grid infrastructure is expected
to hinder the market’s growth in the coming years.
Nevertheless, it is estimated that replacing/integrating diesel generators with
renewable energy, like solar, can save the country over USD 200 million per year. Small
islands in the Philippines are powered by generator-based mini-grids fueled by imported
diesel and bunker (freighter) oil. These islands suffer from blackouts and unplanned
power outages due to grid instability, inadequate generation capacity, and lack of
subsidized fuel. Therefore, off-grid electrification through renewable energy sources, such
as solar, is expected to create a significant opportunity in the future.

References:
About solar energy | SEIA. (n.d.). SEIA. https://www.seia.org/initiatives/about-
solar-energy
. Philippines Solar Energy market Insights. (n.d.).
https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/philippines-solar-energy-market
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's
temperature by trapping heat. The major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and water vapor. These gases absorb and re-emit infrared radiation,
contributing to the natural greenhouse effect that keeps the Earth's surface warm (IPCC, 2021).

Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. It occurs when the sun's energy
reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of which is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and
re-radiated by greenhouse gases.

• Concentration of CO2 works like a glass panel of greenhouse allowing short wave incoming solar
radiation to come in but preventing the long wave heat to re-radiated out.
The Major Greenhouse Gases

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

2. Halogen gases (Chlorofluorocarbons)
3. Nitrogen oxide (N2O)
4. Methane (CH4)

Sources of Greenhouse Gases

1. Thermal power stations based on fossil fuels, mainly coal and mineral oil emitting huge amount of
CO2.
2. Numerous factories and industrial chimney wastes
3. Automobiles
4. Deforestation
5. Burning or fossil fuels

WHAT ARE THE RESULTS OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT?

The unbalanced greenhouse effect refers to the scenario where the concentration of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere becomes disproportionately high, leading to adverse effects such as global warming,
climate change, and environmental degradation.

1. Rising global temperatures

The unbalanced greenhouse effect, driven by excessive emissions of greenhouse gases, notably carbon
dioxide, leads to a significant increase in global temperatures. This warming disrupts weather patterns,
melts polar ice caps and glaciers, and causes shifts in ecosystems. Such temperature rises are evident in
multiple climate records, including rising surface temperatures, increasing ocean temperatures, and
diminishing ice cover (IPCC, 2021).
2. Melting polar ice caps
The accelerated melting of polar ice caps and glaciers is a direct consequence of the unbalanced
greenhouse effect. As atmospheric temperatures rise, these frozen reservoirs of freshwater experience
rapid melting, contributing to rising sea levels and altering oceanic circulation patterns. The loss of polar
ice not only affects ecosystems and habitats but also poses significant risks to coastal communities and
infrastructure worldwide (Rignot et al., 2019).

3. Changes in precipitation patterns

Alterations in atmospheric circulation patterns, driven by the unbalanced greenhouse effect, result in
profound changes in precipitation distribution across the globe. Regions experience shifts in rainfall
patterns, with some areas facing increased drought frequency and intensity, while others contend with
more frequent and intense rainfall events. These changes have far-reaching consequences for
agriculture, water resources, and the frequency of natural disasters such as floods and droughts
(Hartmann et al., 2013).
4. Loss of biodiversity
Climate change, exacerbated by the unbalanced greenhouse effect, poses a significant threat to global
biodiversity. Rapid shifts in temperature and precipitation disrupt ecosystems, causing habitat loss,
fragmentation, and alteration. Species are forced to adapt, migrate, or face extinction as their
environments change beyond their tolerance thresholds. This loss of biodiversity not only affects
ecosystems' resilience but also undermines essential ecosystem services upon which human societies
depend (Bellard et al., 2012).

5. Ocean acidification
The absorption of excess carbon dioxide by the oceans leads to ocean acidification, a process
exacerbated by the unbalanced greenhouse effect. Elevated CO2 levels lower seawater pH, threatening
marine life, particularly organisms that rely on calcium carbonate for shell formation and structural
integrity. Coral reefs, shellfish, and other marine organisms face increased mortality, reduced growth
rates, and impaired reproductive success, ultimately disrupting marine ecosystems and fisheries
(Gattuso et al., 2015).
6. Extreme weather events
Increased in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events worldwide. Heatwaves, hurricanes,
heavy rainfall events, and droughts become more frequent and intense due to changes in atmospheric
circulation patterns and increased atmospheric moisture content. These events pose significant risks to
human lives, infrastructure, agriculture, and economies, underscoring the urgent need for adaptation
and mitigation measures (Seneviratne et al., 2012).

7. Food and water insecurity

Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns affect agricultural productivity, leading to crop
failures, reduced yields, and compromised food supplies. Water resources become increasingly scarce
and erratic, impacting irrigation, drinking water availability, and sanitation. Vulnerable populations,
particularly in developing countries, face heightened risks of malnutrition, hunger, and waterborne
diseases (Wheeler & von Braun, 2013).

8. Health risks
The unbalanced greenhouse effect poses significant health risks to human populations worldwide. Rising
temperatures increase the frequency and severity of heatwaves, leading to heat-related illnesses and
deaths. Changes in precipitation patterns and temperature facilitate the spread of vector-borne diseases
such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus. Additionally, air pollution contributes to respiratory
illnesses and cardiovascular problems, further burdening healthcare systems (Watts et al., 2018).
WHERE DO GREENHOUSE GASES COME FROM?

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the burning of fossil fuels for
electricity and transportation, as well as land use patterns and agriculture, and industrial processes drive
nearly all human-caused, or anthropogenic, greenhouse gas emissions.

Electricity and heat production. The IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report states that the burning of coal, oil,
and gas to produce electricity and heat accounts for one-quarter of worldwide human-driven emissions,
making it the largest single source.

Agriculture and land use. About another quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions stem from
agriculture and other land uses, like deforestation, says the IPCC.

Industry. According to the IPCC, about one-fifth of global human-driven emissions come from the
industrial sector, which includes the manufacturing of goods and raw materials (like cement and steel),
food processing, and construction.

Transportation. The burning of petroleum-based fuels, namely gasoline and diesel, to power the world’s
transportation systems accounts for 14 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, as noted in the
IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report.

Buildings. Operating buildings generates 6.4 percent of global greenhouse gases, says the IPCC. In the
United States, homes and businesses account for about 13 percent of warming emissions, says the EPA.
HOW DO WE REDUCE GREENHOUSE GASES?

Use less electricity. Taking steps to use less electricity, especially when it comes from burning coal or
gas, can take a big bite out of greenhouse gas emissions.

Generate electricity without emissions. Renewable energy sources include solar energy, geothermal
energy, wind turbines, ocean wave and tidal energy, waste and biomass energy, and hydropower.

Shrink the footprint of food. Eating a diet that is mostly or entirely plant-based (such as vegetables,
bread, rice, and beans) lowers emissions.

Travel without making greenhouse gas. We can reduce emissions by shifting to alternative technologies
that either don’t need gasoline (like bicycles and electric cars) or don’t need as much (like hybrid cars).

Reduce household waste. Conscious choices, including avoiding unnecessary purchases, buying
secondhand, eliminating reliance on single-use containers, switching to reusable bags, bottles, and
beverage cups, reducing paper subscriptions and mail in favor of digital options, recycling, and
composting, can all help reduce household waste.

Reduce emissions from industry. Using materials that aren’t made from fossil fuels and don’t release
greenhouse gases is a good start. For example, bioplastics made from plants are an alternative to
plastics that come from fossil fuels. Companies can also use renewable energy sources to power
factories and ship the products that they create in fuel-saving cargo ships.

Take carbon dioxide out of the air. The places where carbon dioxide is pulled out of the air are called
carbon sinks. For example, planting trees, bamboo, and other plants increases the number of carbon
sinks. Conserving forests, grasslands, peatlands, and wetlands, where carbon is held in plants and soils,
protects existing carbon sinks.
References:
Bellard, C., et al. (2012). "Impacts of Climate Change on the Future of Biodiversity." Ecology Letters,
15(4), 365-377.

Gattuso, J.-P., et al. (2015). "Contrasting Futures for Ocean and Society from Different Anthropogenic
CO2 Emissions Scenarios." Science, 349(6243), aac4722.

Hartmann, D. L., et al. (2013). "Observations: Atmosphere and Surface." In Climate Change 2013: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

IPCC (2021). IPCC Sixth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge
University Press.

National Resources Defense Council (n.d.). Greenhouse Effect 101. Retrieved from
[https://www.nrdc.org/stories/greenhouse-effect-
101#gases](https://www.nrdc.org/stories/greenhouse-effect-101#gases)

Rignot, E., et al. (2019). "Ice Shelf Melting Around Antarctica." Science, 341(6143), 266-270.

Seneviratne, S. I., et al. (2012). "Changes in Climate Extremes and Their Impacts on the Natural Physical
Environment." In Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change
Adaptation.

Watts, N., et al. (2018). "The 2018 Report of the Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change:
Shaping the Health of Nations for Centuries to Come." The Lancet, 392(10163), 2479-2514.

Wheeler, T., & von Braun, J. (2013). "Climate Change Impacts on Global Food Security." Science,
341(6145), 508-513.