Chapter-2 Lecture Note

Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures
Chapter-2: Long span structures
2.1. Introduction
What is a long span structures? When is a span a long span?
A long-span structure refers to a type of architectural or structural design that is capable of

spanning large distances without the need for intermediate supports or columns. Quantitatively,
long span structures create unobstructed, column-free spaces greater than 20 meters (60 feet) for
a variety of functions. Qualitatively can be defined as situations beyond standard beam theory.
Examples of place where long structures are needed:
 Where visibility is important: i.e. auditoriums and covered stadiums. Largest covered
stadium = 210𝑚 span
Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 1

 Where flexibility is important: i.e. exhibition halls and certain type of manufacturing
facilities. Largest exhibition hall = 216𝑚 span

 Where large movable objects are housed: i.e. aircraft hangars. Largest hangar = 75 −
80𝑚 span
In such buildings the structural system and space are a major concern!
2.2. Basic theories, principles and concepts of Long- span structure
The design and analysis of long-span structures are guided by several fundamental theories,
principles, and concepts. Long-span structures aim to maximize structural efficiency by
minimizing the amount of material used while achieving the required strength and stability. This
concept involves optimizing the structural system, selecting appropriate materials, and utilizing
efficient construction techniques to achieve the desired span with minimal weight.
Long-span structures must effectively distribute and transfer various loads to ensure structural
integrity. The spanning capability of horizontal elements determines the spacing of their vertical
supports. This fundamental relationship between the span and spacing of structural elements
influences the dimensions and scale of the spaces defined the structural system of a building. The
dimensions and proportions of structural bays, in turn should be related to requirements of the
spaces.

Figure 2.1: Horizontal elements and their vertical supports
As a consequence of the size of the span, technical considerations are placed so high on the list
of architectural priorities that they significantly affect the aesthetic treatment of the building. The
technical problem posed by the long span is that of maintaining a reasonable balance between the
load carried and the self-weight of the structure.
The forms of longest-span structures are therefore those of the most efficient structure types,
namely the form-active types such as the compressive vault and the tensile membrane and the
non- or semi-form-active types into which significant improvements have been incorporated.
Classification of Structural systems for long span structures
Based loading resistance
a) Structural systems subject to bending (have both tensile and compressive forces)
Examples: Girder, Truss (Depth to span ratio – 1:5 to 1:15), Two-way grid, Two-way truss,
Space truss (Depth to span ratio – 1:35 to 1:40)

b) Funicular Structures (pure tension or pure compression)
Pure Compression: Parabolic Arch, Tunnel vault, Domes
Pure Tension: Cable stayed roof

Based on structural activeness
i. Form active systems: - are systems of flexible, non-rigid matter, in which the redirection
of forces is effected by particular form design and characteristic form stabilization.
Represented by arches that carry only direct stress and no bending take place.
Examples: Cable structures, Tent structures, Pneumatic structures, Arch structures
Parallel cable Radial cable biaxial cable
Examples of cable structures

Examples of tent structures
Examples of pneumatic structures

The effect of form on internal force type
Elements in architectural structures are subjected principally either to axial internal force or to
bending-type internal force. They may also be subjected to a combination of these. The
distinction between axial and bending is an important one, so far as efficiency is concerned,
because axial internal force can be resisted more efficiently than bending-type internal force. The
principal reason for this is that the distribution of stress which occurs within the cross-sections of
axially loaded elements is more or less constant, and this uniform level of stress allows all of the
material in the element to be stressed to its limit. A size of cross-section is selected which
ensures that the level of stress is as high as the material concerned can safely withstand and an
efficient use of material therefore results because all of the material present provides full value
for its weight. With bending stress, which varies in intensity in all cross-sections from a
minimum at the neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme fibers, only the material at the extreme
fibers can be stressed to its limit. Most of the material present is under stressed and therefore
inefficiently used. The type of internal force which occurs in an element depends on the
relationship between the direction of its principal axis (its longitudinal axis) and the direction of
the load which is applied to it. If an element is straight, axial internal force occurs if the load is
applied parallel to the longitudinal axis of the element. Bending-type internal force occurs if it is
applied at right angles to the longitudinal axis. If the load is applied obliquely, a combination of
axial and bending stress occurs.
The axial-only and bending-only cases are in fact special cases of the more general combined
case, but they are nevertheless the most commonly found types of loading arrangement in
architectural structures.

Figure (a) Elements which carry purely axial load are subjected to axial stress whose intensity is
constant across all cross-sectional planes. Figure (b) Pure bending-type load (i.e. load which is
normal to the axis of the element) causes bending stress to occur on all cross-sectional planes.
The magnitude of this varies within each cross section from a maximum compressive stress at
one extremity to a maximum tensile stress at the other.
ii. Vector active structural systems: - are systems of short, solid, straight lineal members, in
which the redirection of forces is effected by vector partition, i.e. by multi-directional
splitting of single force simply to tension or compressive elements. Examples: Flat
Trusses, Curved Trusses, Space Trusses
Examples of Flat truss systems

Examples of Curved truss systems
iii. Section active structural systems: - are systems of rigid, solid, linear elements, in which
redirection of forces is effected by mobilization of sectional forces. Examples: Beam
structures, Framed structures, Slab structures
Slab structures
Beam-grid systems
Frame structures

iv. Surface active structural systems: - are systems of flexible or rigid planes able to resist
tension, compression or shear, in which the redirection of forces is effected by
mobilization of sectional forces. Examples: Plate Structures, Folded Structures, Shell
structures
Folded plate structures

Multi-bay structures
structures
structures
Shell structures
structures

One-way Versus Two-way structural systems
One-way long span structures
The majority of long span structures are one-way systems because of simple to arrange, arrayed
in linear manner, easier erect (fewer connections) and easier to trace loading paths. Depth can be
adjusted by varying span of secondary members.

One-way structural systems: Potential spans
Two-way long span structures
 Two-systems are more efficient in use of materials, span farther and carry heavier loads
than a one-way system.
 If you get the shape /form right, it is an efficient system that equally distribute loads (no
wasted material thickness).
 Two-systems are usually more complicated to design, analyze and build because of it has
certain level of redundancy (indeterminacy).
 Most two-way systems have a large number of pieces and connections which adds to
fabrication and erection time.

Two-way structural systems: Potential spans
Long Span Beams
Beams greater than 30𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 in span are said to be long span beams. The use of long span
beams results in a range of benefits, including flexible, column free internal spaces, reduced
foundation costs, and reduced steel erection times. Many long span solutions are also well
adapted to facilitate the integration of services without increasing the overall floor depth.
Galileo square-cube law:
States that “objects cannot just be scaled up and retain their proportions.

When an object is scaled up its area increases by the square of the multiplier while the volume
increases by the cube of the multiplier. Since the ratio between the area and the volume is
changing with size the properties of the object are changing with size.
Because of the square-cube law, long spans must be lighter and thus more efficient in shape
(longitudinal) and cross-section (section modulus). It must be strong enough to carry large loads
and deflection is the controlling design factor.
Types of Long Span Beams
Most common type of long span beams used today are: Plate Girders, and Beams with Web
Openings. The popular construction methodology is composite construction (steel + concrete).

a) Parallel beam approach
The parallel beam approach is effective for spans up to around 14𝑚. Floor grids comprise two
layers of fully continuous beams running in orthogonal directions. Services running in either
direction can be integrated within these two layers, so that services passing in any direction can
be accommodated within the structural floor depth. A further benefit is that, being fully
continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without incurring the expense and
complexity of rigid, full strength connections.

b) Composite Beam with Web openings
Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the beam,
reducing the effective overall depth of floor construction for a given spanning capability or for
aesthetic reasons span 10 𝑡𝑜 16𝑚. The alternative way of forming the web openings is simply to
cut them into the plate used to form the web of a plate girder, or the web of a rolled section.
The openings introduce a number of potential failure modes not found in solid web beams. Large
openings may require stiffening to avoid instability (buckling) of the web posts.
Failure in cellular beam
in
cellular
beamstructures

With stiffened web openings
cellular
beamstructures
c) Tapered Girders
Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 10𝑚 to 20𝑚. They are another
solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor zone.
The depth of the girder increases towards mid-span, where applied moments are greatest, and
thereby facilitating hanging services under the shallower regions near the beam supports. It is
also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low shear, towards mid-span.
These provide more options for service integration.

d) Stub girders
Stub girders are a Vierendeel form of truss. The bottom chord is typically formed from a shallow
open section (H-beam), on which sit short lengths (stubs) of deeper I-sections.
The number of elements/surfaces associated with a stub girder may increase the cost of fire
protection compared with simpler solutions. Spans in excess of 20𝑚 can be economically
achieved. Services and/or secondary beams can pass through the gaps between the beam stubs,
reducing overall construction depth.

e) Haunched Composite beams
Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide moment continuity. The
stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of the span can be shallower (the
bending moment diagram is 'lifted' and the effective stiffness of the beam substantially
increased), and services passed under it. In buildings where the services are likely to need
frequent replacement (for example in hospitals), hanging the services under the beams can be
advantageous. Spans in excess of 20𝑚 can readily be achieved.
f) Composite trusses
Composite trusses, which use the concrete slab as the upper chord in the final state, can achieve
spans in excess of 20𝑚. This means they have been used when very long spanning capability
was needed. The main disadvantages are that during the construction phase the truss may be

rather flexible (laterally), and that in the final state the costs of fire protection can be high given
the large number of surfaces to protect. Clearly one of the prices to pay for the spanning ability is
that fabrication cost is higher than for a plain beam. Services can be passed through the gaps
between the truss members to reduce overall floor depth.
Materials of compositions
Timber, Laminated Timber
The development in the twentieth century of structural glues for timber has to some extent solved
the problem of stress concentration at joints, but timber which is to be glued must be very

carefully prepared if the joint is to develop its full potential strength and the curing of the glue
must be carried out under controlled conditions of temperature and relative humidity.
Glue-laminated timber can be prefabricated using metal connectors into trusses that span up to
45𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (150 feet). Most economical forms: the pure compression shapes of the multiple-arch
vault, with spans up to 93𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (305 feet), and ribbed domes, with spans up to 107𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
(350 feet). Used as industrial storage buildings for corrosive materials.

Reinforced Concrete (In - situ / Precast)
Modern techniques for long span beam is achieved by using pre-cast concrete.

Benefits of using pre-cast concrete beams
 Quality and Corrosion Resistance

 Immediate Delivery and Erection
 No Curing Time
Metal: Structural steel (Cut on site / Prefabricated)
Bending structures originally developed for bridges, such as plate girders and trusses, are used in
long-span buildings. Plate girders are welded from steel plates to make I beams that are deeper
than the standard rolled shapes and that can span up to 60𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 (200 feet).

Long Span Trusses
A roof truss is a structure that includes one or multiple triangular units that include straight
slender members with their ends connected via nodes. Trusses are frame works in which the
members are subjected to essentially axial forces due to externally applied load. Bending leads to
compression in the top chords (or horizontal members), tension in the bottom chords, and either
tension or compression in the vertical and diagonal members, depending on their orientation.
External loads on the nodes
Tension & Compression members
Categories of Roof truss
i. Pitched Roof Truss
A pitched roof truss has a bottom chord (tie member) with two inclined top chord (rafter)
connected through gusset plates or panels. Extra supports in the form of struts are also added as
per the requirement. These trusses have a greater depth at mid-span.

Pitched roof truss
ii. Parallel Chord truss
A pitched roof truss / Girder has a bottom chord and a top chord that run parallel to each other.
Extra supports in the form of struts are also added as per the requirement.
iii. King post truss
A king post is a central vertical post used in architectural or bridge designs, working in tension to
support a beam below from a truss apex above.

v. Queen post truss
A queen-post bridge has two uprights, placed about one-third of the way from each end of the
truss. They are connected across the top by a beam and use a diagonal brace between the outer
edges.
vi. Pratt truss
In Pratt trusses, the web members are arranged in such a way that under gravity load the longer
diagonal members are under tension and the shorter vertical members experience compression.
These trusses can be used for spans that range between 6 − 10𝑚.
vii. Howe truss
The converse of the Pratt is the Howe truss. This is commonly used in light roofing so that the
longer diagonals experience tension under reversal of stresses due to wind load. These trusses
can be used for spans that range between 6 − 30𝑚.

viii. Fink truss
Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high pitch roof, since the web members in such
truss are sub-divided to obtain shorter members.
ix. Fan truss
Fan trusses are used when the rafter members of the roof trusses have to be sub-divided into odd
number of panels.

x. Scissor truss
Scissor roof truss can particularly be found in cathedrals. The upside here is that the ceiling gets
vaulted and you receive more space in the attic.
xi. Warren girder
Parallel chord trusses uses webs of the same lengths and thus reduce fabrication costs for very
long spans. Modified Warren is used with additional verticals, introduced in order to reduce the
unsupported length of compression chord members.
xii. Lattice girder / N Girder:
It is commonly made using a combination of structural sections connected with diagonal lacing.
This member is more correctly referred to as a laced strut or laced tie.

xiii. North light truss
In the north light truss, skylights or openings are provided to allow north light inside the
structure.
xiv. Vierendeel truss
The Vierendeel truss is a structure where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular
openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending
moments.
xv. K-type truss:
In the case of very deep and very shallow trusses it may become necessary to use K patterns for
web members to achieve appropriate inclination of the web members.
Load Analysis for truss
Assumptions behind truss analysis:
 Truss members are connected at their ends only and they are connected by friction-less
pins.
 So you don't have to consider any secondary bending moment induced do to force of
friction.

 Truss is loaded only at joints.

 Weight of truss members can be neglected, compared to load acting on the truss.
Nature of Load in Truss Members
Force developed in a truss member is always axial. It can be either tensile, or compressive. If a
member is under tensile load, this will be the direction of internal force developed.
So you can notice that, under tensile load, internal force developed in the member is directed
away from the joint. Similarly in case of compressive force, the internal force developed in the
member is directed towards the joint.

Portal Frames
Portal frames are commonly used to create wide-span enclosures, where a clear space is required
uninterrupted by intermediary columns. They were originally used because of their structural
efficiency, meaning that large spaces could be enclosed with little use of materials and for a low
cost. They tend to be lightweight and can be fabricated off site, then bolted to a substructure. The
portal frames themselves may be left exposed to the internal space, and if carefully designed can
be very beautiful.
Materials used for portal frame is steel or steel reinforced precast concrete although can also
constructed using laminated timber such as glulam.

Types of Portal frames
Duo-pitch portal frame


Curved portal frame
Where the portal frame includes a pitch, the wider the span of the frame, the higher the apex. To
reduce the overall height, a curved rafter might be adopted, or a mansard form. A curved, or
mansard form increases the pitch of the roof towards the eaves, where the runoff is likely to be at
its greatest.


Portal with crane
Multi-span portal frame

Portal frame with external mezzanine (a low story between two others, typically between the
ground and first floors)

Mono pitch portal frame

Tied portal frame

Propped portal frames
Portal Frame Connections
The major connections in a portal frame are the eaves and apex connections, which are both
moment-resisting. Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns and
horizontal or pitched rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections.
Members of portal frames are jointed by means of welding and bolting so the joints of the frame
could transfer moments also in addition to the axial load.

The legs or stanchions of the portal frame need connecting at the bottom to a foundation.

Load analysis of Portal Frames
Cranes impose both horizontal and vertical loads on the structure, part of loading is due to
dynamic effects. The vertical load will be composed of a load due to weight of the crane bridge.
The horizontal load due to crane surge and reaction from the wheel.
Wind uplift may be important in terms of rafter stability, but provided that adequate restraint can
be provided to stabilize the bottom flange of the rafter near the apex.
When a portal frame is close to the boundary, there are several requirements aimed at stopping
fire spread by keeping the boundary intact:
• The use of fire resistant cladding
• Application of fire protection of the steel up to the underside of the haunch

Rafters are subject to high bending moments in the plane of the frame, that vary from a
maximum ‘hogging’ moment at the junction with the column to a minimum sagging moment
close to the apex. They are also subject to overall compression from the frame action. They are
not subject to any minor axis moments.

Bending moment diagram under symmetric
loadingstructures
Bending moment diagram under asymmetric
loadingloadingstructures

In summary

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Department of Civil Engineering Long-Span & Special Structures

Chapter-2: Long span structures

What is a long span structures? When is a span a long span?

A long-span structure refers to a type of architectural or structural design that is capable of

Examples of place where long structures are needed:

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 1

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 2

2.2. Basic theories, principles and concepts of Long- span structure

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 3

Figure 2.1: Horizontal elements and their vertical supports

Classification of Structural systems for long span structures

Based loading resistance

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 4

b) Funicular Structures (pure tension or pure compression)

Pure Compression: Parabolic Arch, Tunnel vault, Domes

Pure Tension: Cable stayed roof

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 5

Based on structural activeness

Examples: Cable structures, Tent structures, Pneumatic structures, Arch structures

Parallel cable Radial cable biaxial cable

Examples of cable structures

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 6

Examples of tent structures

Examples of pneumatic structures

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 7

The effect of form on internal force type

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 8

Examples of Flat truss systems

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 9

Examples of Curved truss systems

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 10

Folded plate structures

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 11

One-way Versus Two-way structural systems

One-way long span structures

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 12

One-way structural systems: Potential spans

Two-way long span structures

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 13

Two-way structural systems: Potential spans

Long Span Beams

Galileo square-cube law:

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 14

Types of Long Span Beams

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 15

a) Parallel beam approach

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 16

b) Composite Beam with Web openings

Failure in cellular beam

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 17

With stiffened web openings

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 18

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 19

e) Haunched Composite beams

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 20

Timber, Laminated Timber

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 21

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 22

Reinforced Concrete (In - situ / Precast)

Chapter 2: Long span structures Page 23

Benefits of using pre-cast concrete beams

 Quality and Corrosion Resistance