Atomic structure

Mixtures
Homogenous; a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout the entire solution. Can be
any state, and has the same ratio of components in any and all samples.

Kinetic molecular theory

Melting; solid to liquid
Freezing; liquid to solid
Vaporisation
- Evaporation; liquid to gas
- Boiling; liquid to boiling point
Condensation; gas to liquid
Sublimation; solid to gas
Deposition; gas to solid

Atomic model
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons. -> means that the
physical properties of the atom are slightly different e.g. melting point, boiling point, density, etc.
- Although the protons and electrons of the atom remain the same, the change in neurons means
that the mass number changes

Relative atomic mass is the abundance of an atoms naturally occurring isotopes.

( isoptope 1× % abundance ) +(isotope 2× % abundance)

RAM =
100

HL – Mass spectrometry
V – vaporisation
I - ionisation
A – accelerate
S – separate
D – detect

A mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic masses of elements from their isotopic
composition.

Electromagnetic spectrum

Speed of light (c) = wavelength x frequency (v)

Types of spectrums
Continuous spectrum; spectrum where full range of wavelength is emitted
Absorption spectrum; continuous spectrum with missing sections (black gaps/lines)
Emission/line spectrum; a series of lines against a dark background (unique combination to each
element (known as an elemental barcode)

Gaps/colour on absorption and emission spectrum complete each other (gaps in one are coloured in
other – makes a continuous spectrum if put together).

Atoms emit photons of certain energies with certain frequencies, thus showing up on the emission
spectrum. As each element has different energies and frequencies, they all have unique line spectra.

Planck’s constant = h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s-1

Bohr’s energy level model

When an atom makes a transition from a higher energy state back to a lower energy state, the energy
is emitted in the form of a proton with a certain frequency.

Transition from higher orbits to the first energy level emits frequencies that lie in the ultraviolet
region of the spectrum (not visible). Transitions to the second energy level emits frequencies in the
visible light region (ROYGBIV). Transitions to the third energy level emits frequencies in the infrared
region (not visible).

Electron configuration; written representation of the arrangement of all electrons in the energy
levels/shells of an atom or ion.
Energy level/shell; how far an electron is from the nucleus. The further from the nucleus an electron
is, the easier it is to lose -> why valence shell electrons are always lost first in the formation of ions.
Atomic orbitals; the orbital shape or patter that an electron follows at a particular energy level.

S orbital: spherical shape, can hold 2 electrons

P orbital: dumbbell shape, can hold 6 electrons (2 per suborbital ->
dumbbell)
D orbital: 4 double dumbbell shape, 1 single dumbbell with ring in
middle; can hold 10 electrons (2 per suborbital)
A suborbital is one shape in the orbital (e.g. P orbital is composed of
3 dumbbells, each a suborbital)

Exceptions to electron configuration

Expected:
Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2
Cu: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2

BUT Aufbau principle states that subshells that are half-filled or fully filled have greater stability
THUS one electron drops from 4s orbital to 3d orbital, making the 3d orbital half filled for Cr (4 -> 5)
and fully filled for Cu (9->10)

Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

Cu: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

HL – Ionization energy
First ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from an atom or ion.
(can just find energy required to remove one electron then times by 6.02 x 1023)

Ionisation energy increases across the groups as electrostatic attraction increases, (more protons thus
higher attraction of electrons) meaning that the valence electron is held by a greater force of attraction
-> requires more energy to remove.
Successive ionisation energy is the energy required to remove electrons one after the other. Depends
on number of valence electrons.

Periodicity
Origins of the periodic table
Metals are on the left of the periodic table in the s and central d block.
Metalloids form a diagonal staircase between the metals and non metals
Non metals are on the top right hand side of the p block, next to the metalloids.

Metals
- Conductive; conduct heat and electricity well.
- Lustrous; shiny when polished or freshly cut.
- Malleable; can be hammered into new shapes.
- Ductile; can be stretched into thin wires.
- High density; sinks in water.
- Solid state at room temperature (exception of mercury)
- Electronegativity; low electronegativity, gives up electrons easily to form ions.

Metalloids
- Share similarities with non metals
- Have some metallic properties
- Conductive

Non metals
- Greater variation in physical properties among non metals
- Insulators; poor or no conductivity (exception of carbon)
- Low melting point, usually liquid or gas at room temperature
- Not malleable; brittle and crumbles into powder
- Not lustrous; dull/little or no shine

Properties of key groups

Alkali metals – group 1
- Malleable and lustrous
 - Highly reactive
- None occur naturally as free elements

Transition metals – groups 3-12

- Relatively hard
- High melting points
- Forms coloured compounds with non metals

Halogens – group 17
- Reactive non metals

Noble gases – group 18

- Odourless and colourless
- Monoatomic gases
- Low chemical reactivity

Trends in the periodic table

1. Atomic radius: the distance between the nucleus of two atoms of the same element
- Decreases across the groups as atomic number increases; increasing atomic number means
increasing protons -> higher electrostatic force of attraction -> electrons are held closer to the
nucleus.
- Increases down the periods as energy shells are added; electrons are further from the nucleus
as the periods increase -> less force of attraction.

2. Ionic radius: the distance between the centre and outer edge of the ion
- Decreases from groups 1 – 14 for positive ions due to increase in nuclear charge with atomic
number across the groups of each period. Increase attraction between nucleus and electrons
pulls the outer energy level closer to the nucleus.
- Decreases from groups 14 – 17 for negative ions as nuclear charge increases across the
groups, pulling electrons closer to the nucleus (explained above).
- Increases down the periods as electron shells are added.
- Positive ions are smaller than parent atoms as formation of positive ion is due to loss of
outermost shell and vice versa with negative ions; addition of electrons into outer energy level
increases repulsion amongst electrons in the outer shell -> repulsion means electrons move
further apart -> increases the radius of the outermost energy level.

3. Electronegativity: the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond

- Increases across the groups as atomic number increases but shell occupied by electrons stays
the same -> higher force of attraction
- Decreases down the periods as outer shell becomes further from the nucleus as more electrons
are added (addition of outer shell each period)

4. Ionization energy: the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from a mole of
atoms in gaseous state
- Increases across the groups, as atomic number increases (more protons = stronger positive
charge) electrostatic force of attraction increases, more energy is required to remove the
electrons.
- Decreases down the periods as electrons become further away from the nucleus -> not held by
as strong of a bond = easier to remove.

5. Electron affinity: the energy released when one mole of electrons are added to one mole of atoms
in gaseous state
Group 17 (halogens) – strongest affinity; one vacancy in valence shell
Group 1 (alkali metals) – lower affinity; one valence electron -> easier to lose an electron than gain
one.
Group 18 (noble gases) – no affinity as it’s not possible to gain an electron.

Group 1 metals vs group 17 halogens

Metallic character decreases across the groups and increases down the periods
When metals and nonmetals react, ionic compounds are typically formed

Group 1 metals
Physical properties
- Soft and malleable
- Low density
- Lustrous
- Low melting point
Chemical properties
- Changes colour of flames when heated
- Forms salts when reacting with non-metals due to low ionisation energy

1. Alkali metal + water -> metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

2. Metal + oxygen -> metal oxide

Mg + O2 -> MgO
Ca + O2 -> CaO
Ba + O2 -> BaO2

3. Metal oxide + water -> base

Na2O + H2O -> 2NaOH
MgO + H2O -> Mg(OH)2

Group 17 halogens
Physical properties
- Brittle and crumbles
- Not lustrous
- High density
- Low boiling point
Chemical properties
- Very electronegative
- Need one more electron for full valence shell
- Attracts valence electrons; good oxidising agent
- Strong reaction with group 1 metals

*refer to notes about properties of metals and non-metals In previous section ‘periodicity.’

Trends in metal and nonmetal oxides

Acid base characteristics across period 3; basic -> amphoteric (aluminium oxide) -> acidic
Amphoteric – can act as an acid or base

Oxidation state/number – the total number of electrons that have been removed from (positive
oxidation state) or added to (negative oxidation state) an element for it to reach its present state.

Ocean acidification is occurring as a result of carbon dioxide dissolving in the ocean; can be protected
by reducing sulphurous, nitrogenous, and carbon oxides.
 1. Reduction of SO2 emissions
- Crush coal and wash to remove metal oxides.
- Hydrodesulfurization; removing sulphur from oil products by reacting it with hydrogen gas.

2. Reduction of NOx emissions

- 75% of air that passes through a car’s engine is N2.

3. Reduction of COx emissions

- Cars / transportation is one of the biggest contributors to excess CO 2 emissions.
- When CO2 dissolves it is naturally absorbed by the ocean -> excess amounts lead to ocean
acidification
- Can be reduced by switching to hybrid and electric cars, producing little to no carbon oxides.

Transition metals
Alkali metals vs transition metals
Alkali metals Transition metals
Soft and malleable Hard and strong
Low melting point High melting point
Low density High density
Reactive with O2 and H2O Less reactive
All form +1 charge ions All form ions of 2+ charge by many may also
form other charges

Trend in atomic radius of transition metals across a period

Atomic radius typically decreases across the periods due to
increasing positive charge of nucleus. However, addition of
electrons being added to the 3d energy level increases shielding
effect on outer 4s electrons.
-> Because 4s is the outer shell but is filled first, electrons are
added to 3d after 4s is filled. This means that the atomic radius
doesn’t necessarily decrease as the energy from electrons in 3d
are preventing the electrostatic attraction to affect the 4s
electrons as much
SUMMARY: atomic radius in transition metals initially
decrease across the period but starts to increase after additional
electrons are added to 3d as they shield 4s electrons from being pulled by the nucleus.

Explained with successive ionization energy

Ionisation energy increases across a period due to decreased atomic radius (higher force of attraction
on valence electrons being ionised). However, trend in transition metals means that ionisation energy
initially increases, and then decreases due to electron shielding from the addition of electrons to the 3d
energy level.

Transition metal ion compounds

a complex ion is the combination of a transition metal cation with a ligand molecule or ion.
Ligand: any atom, ion, or molecule, which can donate a pair of electrons to a metal ion. They are
classified by their coordination number (the number of coordinate bonds they make).
- A coordinate bond is a covalent bond (two shared electrons) in which both electrons come
from the same atom.
- Coordination number is basically the number of ligand molecules attached to the transition
metal cation. E.g. in Fe(CN)6 3- the coordination number is 6
 Bidentate ligands: ligand that contains two atoms that donate pairs of electrons to form coordinate
bonds.
Polydentate ligands: ligand that contains more than two atoms which donate pairs of electrons to
form coordinate bonds.
Coordination bonds are formed when ligands donate a pair of electrons to transition metal cations,
forming a complex ion.

Colour of complex ions

Most transition metal compounds are coloured as they absorb energy corresponding to certain parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

Crystal field splitting / theory

Focuses on the interaction between a metal ion with its surrounding ligands. These interactions cause
the ligands to split the 3d orbitals into two energy levels, allowing for electron transitions.

When ligands approach the metal ion, the repulsion between the negatively charged ligands and the
electrons in the 3d orbitals causes the d orbitals to split into different energy levels.
 The colour of a transition metal complex is due to the absorption of light by electrons
transitioning between the split d orbitals. The absorbed light corresponds to specific
wavelengths, which corresponds to a colour on the electromagnetic spectrum.

Ligand displacement
Spectrochemical series (organisation of ligands by field strength)
The exchange of one ligand with another that doesn’t cause a change in oxidation state at the
transition metal centre.