Nervous System - nervous system connects all your body parts and transmits signals from one part to

another
Major Divisions and Parts of the Nervous System
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) - serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system.
a. Brain - is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of information for
the body.
Cerebrum – controls activity and thought
Cerebellum – controls posture, balance, and coordination
Brain Stem - controls automatic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure
b. Spinal Cordz - serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)- connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs.
a. Somatic Nervous System - is associated with the voluntary control of body movements
Spinal Nerves – the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body
Cranial Nerves – the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem
b. Autonomic Nervous System - is associated with the involuntary control of body movements and
Sympathetic - it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress
Parasympathetic - it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode
THE NERVE CELL
- it is the basic unit of the nervous system
- it is also called neurons
- has a cell body containing the nucleus
Neuron - has a cell body containing the nucleus. Projecting out from the cell body are root-like structures.
These are the dendrites and axons.
Dendrites - carry impulses towards the cell body
- a single dendrites can be over one meter long
Axons - carry impulses away from the cell body
- can be grouped together into cable-like bundles called nerve
Nerve Impulse - is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction
- is not a flow of electricity, but an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron
Neurotransmitter - When a nerve impulse comes to the end of an axon, it produces the chemical
Synapse - It is chemical crosses the space between neurons
Nervous System is assisted by 5 sense organs - the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin

Endocrine System - is composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones that affect almost every
cell
FUNCTION OF ENDOCRINE
- Endocrine glands secrete chemicals known as hormones into the bloodstream, which carries them
throughout the body
- The endocrine system sends signals all over the body
 Pituitary - stimulates growth, and controls the functions of other glands

 Thyroid - regulates body metabolism, and causes storage of calcium in bones

 Parathyroid - controls the calcium levels in your body, and normalizes bone growth

 Thymus - enables the body to produce certain antibodies

 Adrenal - prepares the body for action, controls the heart rate and breathing in times of emergency

 Pancreas - regulates blood sugar levels

 Reproductive
Testes (Males) - control maturation and male characteristics
 Ovaries (Females) - influence female traits, and support reproductive function

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Part Function
Testis Produces sperm cells
Scrotum Sac of skin that holds the testis
Penis Deposits sperms into the vagina during mating
Vas deferens (tube) Carries sperm from testes to urethra
Urethra Carries sperm and urine out of the body
Glands Provide liquid in which sperm can swim
a. seminal vesicle - Secretes a fluid that makes up most of the components of the semen
b. prostate gland - Secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that is discharged as part of the semen
c. bulbourethral - Secretes a thick and clear mucus that lubricates and neutralizes the any trace of
gland acidic urine in the urethra
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system has the following functions:
1. Produces female sex cells
2. Receives sperm cells from the male
3. Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment for the new individual
Part Function
Ovary produces egg cells
Oviduct Serve as passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus; site of egg fertilization
Uterus Serve as site of egg implantation; is where the fertilized egg develops
Vagina receives the penis of male during mating
The Role of Hormones in Female and Male Reproductive Systems
FEMALE
- Prepare the uterus so a baby can grow in it
- Control the growth and release of eggs
- Control stretching of uterus
MALE
- Nourish the sperm cells
- Keep the reproductive system properly functioning

DNA & RNA STRUCTURE

Basis of DNA RNA
Comparison
Number of 2 1
strand
Location in the nucleus cytoplasm
cell
Type of sugar deoxyribose ribose
Nitrogenous A–T A–U
bases C- G C-G
DNA Replication - the process in which the DNA is copied
Enzymes - chemicals that speed up chemical reaction
DNA REPLICATION KEY PLAYERS
1. Helicase – the unzipping enzyme
2. DNA Polymerase – the builder
3. Primase – the initializer/primer
4. Ligase – gluer
OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS - are short sequences of DNA nucleotides (which are synthesized discountinously
and later linked together by the enzyme)
SEMICONSERVATIVE REPLICATION - would produce two copies that each continued one of the original
strands and one new strand

Protein Synthesis - the process of making protein

STEPS IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. Transcription - process of copying DNA sequence into RNA.
2. Translation - process of converting information in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Genetic Code - set of rules that specify the codons in DNA or RNA that corresponds to the amino acids in
proteins
Amino Acid - the building blocks of a protein molecule
Codon - each set of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA representing an amino acid or a
start/stop signal Anticodon - the complement of the mRNA; triplet code in the tRNA
mRNA - messenger RNA; brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the
cytoplasm rRNA- ribosomal RNA; hold tightly to the mRNA and use its information to
assemble amino acids
tRNA - transfer RNA; a type of RNA that attach the correct amino acid to the protein chain that is being
synthesized in the ribosome

Mutation - any change in the DNA sequence

Mutagen - is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material,
usually DNA Gene Mutation - is a permanent change in the DNA sequence
that makes up a gene.
Chromosomal Mutation - occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene deletion, duplication or
rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle and meiosis. It maybe caused by parts of chromosomes
breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.

KINDS OF CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION

Deletion - a mutation in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is last during DNA replication
Duplication - involves the production of one or more copies of a gene or region of a chromosome
Inversion - is a chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end
Translocation - is a chromosome abnormality caused by rearrangement of parts between non homologous
Human Karyotyping - a karyotype is an image of the full set of chromosomes of an individual that displays
the normal number, size, and shape

HUMAN KARYOTYPE
- Male Chromosomes (XY)
- Female Chromosomes (XX)
Genetic Engineering
- is the modification of an organisms genetic composition by artificial means, often involving the transfer of
species traits, or genes, from one organism into a plant or animal of an entirely different species.
 Cri Du Chat - is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. “Cri du chat” is French,

and the condition is so named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like a cat.
Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, are moderately to severely mentally
retarded, and very short
 Down’s Syndrome - is usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21(trisomy 21). Characteristics

include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate
mental retardation.
 Edward’s Syndrome - which is the second most common trisomy after Down’s syndrome, is a trisomy of

chromosome 18.
Symptoms include mental and motor retardation and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious
health problems. About 99% die in infancy. However, those who live past their first birthday, usually are
quite healthy thereafter. They have a characteristic hand appearance with clenched hands and
overlapping fingers.
 Klinefelter’s Syndrome - Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY). Men with this condition are usually sterile and

tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers. They are often shy and quiet and
have a higher incidence of speech delay.
 Turner’S Syndrome - (X instead of XX or XY). Female sexual characteristics are present but

underdeveloped. They often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone
development and a “caved-in” appearance to the chest

Fossils - are examples of evidence that paleontologists use in studying evolution

- They are traces of organisms that lived in the past and were preserved by natural process or catastrophic events
 - they can be remains of organisms when include bones, shells, teeth and also feces embedded in rocks, peat,
resin and ice
2 TYPES OF FOSSILS
Impression or Imprint - are shallow external molds left by animal or plan tissues with little or no organic materials
present
Compression - is the other side with more organic material
EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT Embryo
- is an early stage of development in organisms HINT
OF EVOLUTION FROM COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Homologous Structures - may perform different functions in the species living in the different environment, or it may
have the same origin but different functions
Analogous Structures - have similar functions but different origin

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK
- was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change overtime
- “THE THEORY OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS”
CHARLES DARWIN
- Darwin suggested that selection also takes place in nature in selective breeding, farmer identifies and selects the
best and desirable trait to propagate
- in “THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION”, environmental factors promote the survival of the fittest and eliminate
the less fit
 Divergent Evolution - is the splitting of an ancestral population into two or more sub-populations that are

geographically isolated from one to another

 Convergence Evolution- is an increase in similarities among species derived from different ancestors as a result of

similar adaptations to similar environment

Radiometric Dating - a method used to determined the age of rocks using the decay of radio active isotopes (Carbon
- 14) prevent in rocks
VALUES OF SPECIES ACCORDING TO CATEGORIES
Direct Economic Value - if their products are sources of food, medicine, clothing, shelter, and energy
Indirect Economic Value - a species has an economic values if there are benefits produced by the organism without
using them Aesthethic Value - a lot of species provides visual are artistic enjoyment like a forested landscape and the
calming beauty of natural park
ECOSYSTEM: BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem- a large community of living organisms in a particular area.
Biodiversity - is a term that describe how varied living things are in a specific area
Organisms - are part of biodiversity and maybe economically and ecologically valuable
THE UPS AND DOWN OF POPULATION GROWTH
Population - is a group of organisms of the same species that live in a certain area
Ecologists - regularly monitor the number of organisms in many population
Birth or Natality Rate - the number of birth in a population
Death or Mortality Rate - the number of organisms that are dying in a population
* if the birth rate is greater than death rate, a population will grow
* if the death rate is greater than birth rate, then the population will decrease
Physiological Bases of behaviour

What is Nervous system?

- The nervous system controls all our bodily activities and behavioural responses

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)

- Consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Composes all the nerve fibers that connect the receptors to the central nervous system
and which further connects the central nervous system to the effectors.

THE NEURON
The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

1. Cell body or Cyton

- The central portion with a nucleus, cytoplasm and a cell membrane.
2. Dendrites
- Short branching processes, whose function is to receive nerve impluses and carry them
toward the cell body.
3. Axon
- An elongated strand with one or several formations at the far end called end brush.
Grouped according to their functions:
1. Sensory or Afferent Neurons
- Carry messages or nerve impulses from the sense organ toward the brain/CNS.
2. Motor or Efferent Neurons
- Carry messages or nerve impluses away from the brain that goes to the effectors like
the muscles and glands.
3. Inter-Neurons, Connector Neurons or Association Neurons
- Carry messages or nerve impluses within the brain/CNS
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEURONS
1. Irritability
- The ability of neurons to react to external stimulation.
2. Conductivity
- Ability of neurons to transmit nerve impulse to the end of the nerve fibers.
Nerve Impulse
Stimulus
Refers to anything that excite or initiates an activity.

Resting Potential
- There are more negative ions inside the neuron, while it has more positive ions outside.
Action Potential
- The sending of the nerve impulse of a neuron down the axon from the end of one
neuron to the next neuron.
Synapses
- Spaces between the axon and the neuron.

Laws Governing the Neuron

1. All or Nothing Law
- States that it is either that neuron reacts or not at all.
2. Law of Dynamic Polarity
- States that nerve impulses travel only in one direction from neuron to neuron.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE BRAIN
- The brain floats on a bath of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and it is protected by the skull.
Three major divisions:
1. The Forebrain
- Consists of the cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
a. Cerebrum
 The most complex and largest part of the brain. It is considered as the “seat of
consciousness.”
b. Thalamus
 Found right top of the midbrain.
c. Hypothalamus
 Considered as the “seat of emotion.”

2 Significant Structures found in the central portions of the Cerebral Hemisphere:

1. Reticular Activating System (RAS)
 Controls our level of sleep and arousal through the reticular formation that
embedded within its central core.
2. Limbic System
- Made up of complex structures located around the thalamus just beneath the
cerebrum.
 Hippocampus (SEAHORSE)
- Responsible in changing short-term memories into long term memories.
 Amygdala (ALMOND)
- Believed to cause aggressive behaviour among the animals.
2. Midbrain
- Serves as the bridge between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
- Responsible in linking the sensory and motor pathways between the upper and lower
parts of the nervous system.
3. Hindbrain
- Compose of pons, medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum.
- It is connected to the spinal cord.
 Pons
- located in front of the cerebellum and it is made up mostly of the nerve fibers running
from one part of the brain to the others.
 Medulla Oblongata
- is quite small, about an inch long just above the spinal cord.
 Cerebellum or little brain
- has two hemispheres. It is connected to the back of the brain stem.

THE SPINAL CORD

- A long-term and stem-like structure running down the vertebral column.
- It is composed of nerves that lead to and from the brain.
2 Main Functions of the Spinal Cord
 To provide connector mechanisms for reflex reactions.
 To transmit messages to and from the brain.
 2 Kinds of Reflexes
 Monosynaptic Reflex (simple reflex)
- Takes place due direct connection between a sensory neuron and motor neuron, without
intervening interneurons.
 Polysynaptic Reflex (complex reflex)
- This kind of reflex involves many synapses in a several countless interneurons.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

- The second major division of the nervous system.
- It is subdivide into two: Somatic division and Autonomic or Visceral division
A. Somatic System
- Responsible for the voluntary skeletal movements like sensing and movements of
the arm and legs and the whole body.
 Spinal Nerves
- Has 31 pairs
 Cranial Nerves
- Has 12 pairs
B. Autonomic or Visceral
- Responsible for all involuntary movements within the body that keep us alive.
 Sympathetic system
- It activates and speeds up life activities.
 Parasympathetic system
- It slows down the life activities.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- Another biological system governing man’s behavior.
- The endocrine system or ductless gland is involved with the process of maintaining the
biochemical equilibrium in the body or homeostasis.

The Endocrine Glands

1. Pituitary Gland
- A.k.a. “the master gland,” because it secretes a number of hormones that affect the
activities of almost all the endocrine glands.
2. Pineal Gland
- A.k.a. “gland of childhood” is located in the head adjacent to the pituitary gland.
3. Thyroid Gland
- The butterfly-shape gland located at the base and interior part of the throat.
4. Parathyroid Glands
- Pea-shape gland located at the posterior (back) of the thyroid gland.
5. Thymus Gland
- Called the “gland of babyhood” keeps an individual “childish”.
6. Adrenal Gland
- Located at the upper end or tip of each kidney.
7. Islets of Langerhans
- These are small bodies made up of clusters of special cells scattered all over the
pancreas.
8. Gonads/Sex Glands
A. Testes (male)
B. Ovaries (Female)