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Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 2074–2077

WCES-2011

Feeding your feelings: A self-report measure of emotional eating

Tayfun Do÷ana *, Emine Göçet Tekina, Ahmet KatrancÕR÷lua
a
Sakarya University Faculty of Education, Sakarya, Turkey

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop an instrument to assess the levels of emotional eating in adults. The sample was composed
of 420 participants (289 female/ 131 male). The mean age of the participants was 26. Psychometric properties of the Emotional
Eating Scale (EES) were examined using explanatory factor analysis, criterion-related validity and internal consistency methods.
The factor analysis revealed a unidimensional one-factor 14-item scale. The criterion-related validity of this new scale was
examined by comparing scores with the Zung Depression Scale, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Oxford Happiness
Questionnaire-Short Form and the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory. The results were statistically significant. Cronbach’s Į
internal consistency of the scale was found to be .94. Results indicated that the EES is a reliable and valid scale to determine the
levels of emotional eating.
© 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Keywords: Emotional eating; scale; validity; reliability

1. Introduction

People use different strategies for coping with stress, anxiety and negative emotions and experiences. Seeking
social support, overworking, alcohol and drug use, relying on religion, fantasy, using defence mechanisms, fleeing
and avoidance, acceptance and cognitive restructuring can be considered in this context. While some of these
strategies provide permanent benefits and effects, others provide only temporary relief and escape from problems.
Emotional eating is defined as a strategy for coping with negative emotions and experiences (stress, loneliness,
boredom, anxiety, etc.) (Faith et al., 1997). In other words, emotional eating is the practice of consuming food to
cope with negative emotions.
There are several differences between emotional hunger and physical hunger: (i) while emotional hunger comes
on suddenly; physical hunger occurs gradually. (ii) Physical hunger can wait but emotional hunger has to be
satisfied immediately. (iii) Emotional eating can cause a feeling of guilt but physical hunger does not. (iv) When it is
emotional eating you are more likely to keep eating. When it is physical hunger you are more likely to stop when
you are full. (v) While physical hunger results from a physiological need, emotional hunger results from some
emotional trigger (Gould, 2007; Roth, 2003). Emotional eating behaviour helps the individual overcome anxiety and
negative feelings. However, it does not play a critical role in solving the problems. On the contrary, it causes the
individual to gain weight, become obese and have general health problems. In addition, it makes diets unsuccessful.
According to a research by Konttinen et al., (2010) positive relations between emotional eating and depression have

* Tayfun Do÷an.
E-mail address: tayfun@tayfundogan.net

1877–0428 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.056
 Tayfun Doǧan et al. / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 2074–2077 2075

been found. When the reasons for emotional eating behaviour are examined Timmerman and Acton (2001) have
suggested that the lack of self-satisfaction needs like a sense of belonging, love and appreciation, which take place
in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, leads to emotional eating. Cleary and Crafti (2007) have stated that self-respect
and self-realization predict emotional eating behaviour. When emotional eating behaviour is considered in terms of
psychoanalysis, it can be explained according to the problems that happen during the oral stage which is one of the
psychosexual development stages and being dependent and obsessed with this stage.
The aim of this study is to develop an instrument in order to assess emotional eating behaviour. The validity and
reliability of the scale has been evaluated. The lack of an instrument to assess emotional eating behaviour in our
country makes this study more important. It is expected that the scale will play a significant role in the studies of
eating disorders and in determining the level of emotional eating of the individuals who have weight problems.
2. Research Method
2.1 Participants
The study group of the research consisted of 420 individuals (289 female/ 131 male). Among the participants
there were 302 single, 111 married and 7 divorced people. Of this total, 14 were primary school graduates, 88 were
high school graduates, 227 were university students and 91 were post graduates. The ages ranged from 17-72. The
average age was 26.26 (sd= 9.60).
2.1. The Development of Emotional Eating Scale (EES)
Related scales have been observed by scanning the existing literature. Furthermore, the instruments of eating
attitudes and eating disorders have been examined. Consequently, a pool of 32 items was constructed. This trial
form of the scale was given to 5 counsellors and necessary changes were done according to their opinions. It was
applied to 10 participants to see whether it was comprehensible or not. After this stage, item analysis and
exploratory factor analysis were conducted in an independent sample of 250 participants. 18 items that either failed
to load substantially on one factor (i.e., factor loading less than .40), or loaded strongly on two or more factors were
extracted from the scale.
2.3 Materials
Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40:) This scale was developed by Garnel and Garfinkel (1979) to evaluate disordered
eating attitudes. The response scale for the EAT is a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 6 (Always). This
scale was adapted into Turkish by SavaúÕr and Erol (1989). Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (ZSDS): The scale is
a 20 item self-reporting inventory assessing symptoms of depression, using a 4-point Likert scale. The Zung
Depression Scale was adapted into Turkish by Gençdo÷an (2001). The correlation coefficient between ZSDS and
the Beck Depression Inventory and between ZSDS and the Symptoms Check List SCL-R-90 was found to be .89
and .81 respectively. The Cronbach's alpha of the scale was .80. The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire – Short form
(Hills and. Argyle, 2002) was developed to assess happiness. It was adapted into Turkish by the researcher (TD).
The internal consistency and test-retest reliability coefficients were .74 and .85 respectively. Factor analysis resulted
in a single factor structure explaining the 29,17 % of the total variation. The Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory:
This is a 20 item scale developed by Spielberger et al. (1970) to assess the persistence of the anxiety in the life of an
individual. It was adapted into Turkish by Öner and Le compte (1983). The Satisfaction with Life Scale: The
Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) is a measure of life satisfaction developed by Ed Diener et al. (1985). It
consists of 5 items of which the values are evaluated on a 7-point scale. The overall life satisfaction score ranged
from 5-35. Higher score represents greater satisfaction with life. It was adapted in Turkish by Köker (1991). The
internal consistency coefficient of the scale was .78 and test-retest reliability coefficient was .71.
3. Results

3.1 Item Analysis

Item analysis was performed to determine the predictive effectiveness of the items for overall score. The Item-
total correlation value was in the range of .42 - .81. To indicate the distinctiveness of the items, upper and lower %
27 group means were compared. The analysis showed that the differences between the items mean scores were all
significant. This result led to the fact that the distinctiveness level of the scale items was adequate. The results were
presented in the Table 1.
2076 Tayfun Doǧan et al. / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 2074–2077

Table 1: The Item Total Correlation of BAAS and t-test results of the differences between upper and lower % 27 group

Items
Item Total Correlation1 t (Upper and Lower % 27)2

Item1 .65 16.502**

Item 2 .66 15.003**
Item3 .81 16.142**
Item 4 .42 6.279**
Item5 .76 19.700**
Item 6 .77 13.927**
Item7 .52 9.456**
Item8 .79 20.409**
Item9 .78 13.815**
Item10 .75 11.834**
Item11 .79 13.908**
Item 12 .71 11.358**
Item13 .81 13.454**
Item14 .76 15.821**
1n=250, 2n1, n2=43, **p<.000

3.2 Structure Validity

In order to determine the factor structure of the EES, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was employed. Before
employing EFA, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's test were conducted. The overall KMO should
be .60 or higher and Bartlett's test should be significant to proceed with factor analysis (Büyüköztürk, 2004). The
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) statistic obtained for the data was .95 and Bartlett's Sphericity test Ȥ2 value was
2388.938 (p<.000). These results meet the criteria and support the use of factor analysis for this data. On the basis of
factor analysis, principal component analysis and unrotated methods were used and these statistics revealed a one
factor structure that accounted for 58.118% of the total variance (eigenvalues 8.137). The factor loads of the items
ranged from .47 to .85. The factor loads of the items were given in Table-2.
Table 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis and Factor Loadings

Factor
Items
Loadings
Item 1. .70
Item 2. .70
Item 3. .84
Item 4. .47
Item 5. .79
Item 6. .81
Item 7. .58
Item 8. .83
Item 9. .82
Item 10. .80
Item 11. .83
Item 12. .76
Item 13. .85
Item 14. .80
Total Variance % 58.118
Eigenvalues 8.137

3.3 Criterion Related Validity

The criterion-related validity of EES was examined by comparing scores with the Zung Self-Rating Depression
Scale (ZSDS), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire-Short Form (OHQ-
SF), Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) and the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Positive correlations were
found between the EES and EAT (.32, p<.001, n=71), EES and ZSDS (.29, p<.001, n=99) and also between the EES
and the STAI (.33, p<.001, n=99). The correlation between the EES and the OHQ-SF was -.29 (p<.001, n=99). No
significant relationship was found between the EES and SWLS.
 Tayfun Doǧan et al. / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 2074–2077 2077

3.4 Reliability
The reliability of EES was examined by internal consistency coefficient. The Cronbach alpha coefficient was
found .94. This result indicates that the scale has high reliability.
4. Discussion and Conclusion
The goal of the study was to develop a self-reporting instrument to assess the levels of emotional eating in
adults. When literature was reviewed it could be seen that there were several instruments assessing emotional eating
itself (Arnow et al., 1995; Striegel-Moore et al., 1999; Tanofsky-Kraff et al., 2007) and subscales assessing eating
attitudes (Strien et al., 1986; Stunkard and Messick, 1985). In Turkey there are no available instruments to assess
emotional eating behaviour. For this reason, the study was aimed at developing an instrument which would be
suitable for Turkish people.
In the course of the development of the scale, an initial pool of 32 items was constructed. 18 items were
extracted after factor and item analysis. The validity and reliability studies of the scale were performed on 14 items.
Item analysis was performed to determine the predictive effectiveness of the items for overall score. Item-total
correlation value was found as being in the range of .42- .81. In order to determine the distinctiveness of the items,
upper and lower % 27 group means were compared. The analysis showed that the differences between the items’
mean scores were all meaningful. In order to determine the factor structure of the EES, EFA was employed. At the
end of the analysis it revealed that a one factor structure accounted for 58.118% of the total variance. The internal
consistency reliability of the EES calculated by Cronbach's alpha was .94. which indicates the scale has high
reliability.
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